Browse Topic: Tires

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ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT POTENTIAL OF A WINDING CHANGEOVER IN AN ELECTRIC MACHINE2025-01-0518To be published on 11/25/2025
The winding configuration of an electric machine has a decisive influence on the properties of a traction drive. When designing the electric drive, the optimum compromise must be found between maximum torque, maximum power and high efficiency over a wide operating range. A decisive factor in this design conflict is the choice of the winding configuration. The concept of winding switching offers a way of solving the design conflict and improving the characteristics of the drive through the additional degree of freedom of the variable winding configuration. Switching the number of parallel winding branches in a serial and parallel configuration is a promising approach to overcome the challenge of a high spread between maximum power and high efficiency in customer related driving scenarios of an electric vehicle. The aim of this study is to identify factors influencing the efficiency improvement potential of the winding switching topology under consideration compared to a reference drive
Oestreicher, Raphael, Koenen, Christian, Kulzer, André Casal
Design Optimization of Rolling Resistance Product Development Using Linear Regression2025-28-0314To be published on 11/06/2025
Simulation, physical testing, and a combination of both is an indispensable tool for developing reliable product designs in the automotive industry. Engineers rely on this integrated approach to thoroughly explore design possibilities and fine-tune products for varying configurations. Drawing insights from existing designs, engineers can effectively tackle important design challenges, such as reducing rolling resistance. This study introduces a pragmatic solution, leveraging simulation and real-world test data, and demonstrates the effectiveness of employing Linear Regression (LR) techniques for improving rolling resistance in vehicles. Integrating LR algorithms into the design process enables swift and cost-effective optimization of parameters, offering a quicker pathway for product development.
ALTHI, Tirupathi Rao, Manuel, Naveen, K, Manu
Adaptive Terrain Morphing Chassis for Off-Highway Vehicles: Enhancing Fuel Efficiency Through Dynamic Structural Adaptation2025-28-0342To be published on 11/06/2025
Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) frequently encounter difficult terrains such as swamps, deserts, and rocky landscapes, which can lead to increased fuel usage due to elevated rolling resistance and irregular surfaces. This paper suggests an adaptive terrain morphing chassis that actively modifies its structure to enhance fuel efficiency and vehicle performance. Employing soft robotics concepts and hydraulic morphing materials, the chassis can vary its height, width, and track shape in accordance with real-time terrain evaluations. These modifications assist in lowering rolling resistance, boosting traction, and improving stability. For instance, the chassis may expand in marshy regions for better weight distribution or reduce in height in rocky environments for enhanced stability. Key features consist of: Real-time terrain evaluation using sensors to modify chassis configurations. Hydraulic actuators and adaptive polymers that change the vehicle’s structure for peak performance. Fuel
Vashisht, Shruti
Evaluation of Optimal Tire Pressure for Three-Wheeled Vehicles Performance and Safety2025-28-0272To be published on 11/06/2025
Tire pressure plays a critical role in determining the overall performance and efficiency of a vehicle, influencing factors such as handling, braking, and fuel consumption. Proper tire pressure ensures optimal interaction between the tire and the road surface, thereby improving safety and performance. When tire pressure is too low, the contact patch increases, resulting in higher rolling resistance, which in turn leads to a decrease in fuel efficiency. Low pressure also causes excessive wear on the tires and can reduce vehicle stability. On the other hand, excessively high tire pressure causes a reduction in the contact patch, leading to a harsher ride, reduced traction, and a higher risk of skidding. This imbalance not only affects the ride quality but also compromises safety, particularly in adverse weather conditions. This paper aims to develop a governing equation that computes the optimal tire pressure for a speculative three-wheeled vehicle, considering factors such as load
S, Shakeel, V M, Brathikan, K, Krisnan, M, shruthi
Integrating Self Hydraulic Jacks Under the Chassis for off-Road vehicles, and Utility Task Vehicles2025-28-0264To be published on 11/06/2025
Imagine a futuristic vehicle chassis, sleek, low-slung, and aerodynamic, constructed from advanced materials like high-strength alloys or carbon fiber composites. Underneath this captivating structure, a sophisticated system of self-hydraulic jacks is seamlessly integrated. These jacks, situated adjacent to the four shock absorber mounts, are designed to lift the chassis at the tire areas, ensuring efficient underbody maintenance and quick, safe emergency lifts. The design incorporates an intuitive control system with strategically placed buttons for driver convenience. Whether positioned alongside the steering wheel, integrated near the infotainment display, or mounted within the driver-side door, these controls blend technology and practicality. Integrating Self Hydraulic Jacks Under the Chassis:- • Adjacent to each shock absorber mounting point, a self-hydraulic jack is integrated into the chassis design. Designed to be unobtrusive when not in use, these jacks are built into
Gogula, Venkateswarlu
Optimizing Forklift Performance Through Multibody Simulation: Analyzing the Role of Tires and Counterweight in Derated Capacity2025-28-0254To be published on 11/06/2025
The derated capacity of forklifts plays a crucial role in determining their safety, efficiency, and overall performance, particularly when modifications are introduced to meet stringent industrial standards. The term "derated capacity" refers to the reduction in a forklift's rated load-carrying capacity caused by various factors, including load center shifts, lifting height, attachment usage, tire types, and counterweight adjustments. This reduction occurs as a safety measure to account for potential instabilities or mechanical limitations when operating under less-than-ideal conditions. Accurate understanding and calculation of derated capacity are vital to ensure safe and efficient forklift operation. This research provides a detailed examination of forklift variants, specifically evaluated under the IS 4357:2004 standards, to understand the intricate relationship between tire types and counterweight adjustments on the derated capacity. Through the use of advanced Multibody
Shende, Kalyani, Shingavi, Shreyas, Hingade, Nikhil
Traction voltage level in two-wheeler: considerations on e-motor performance2025-32-0093To be published on 11/03/2025
The electric power of most electric two-wheelers on the market ranges between 2 and 12 kW. For this power range, the traction voltage level is mostly between 48V and 96V. There appears to be no strong correlation between electric power and traction voltage, suggesting that the current voltage choice is rather arbitrary. This paper briefly describes the e-motor model used in this study and introduces variations of four design parameters: DC voltage, maximum phase current, e-motor active length, and the number of turns in the e-motor winding. The consequences of these variations on peak performance, continuous performance, and efficiency maps are presented. Specific cases of parameter combinations are also studied. Two e-motors designed for 48V and 96V systems will be compared, showing that size, cost, and performance (power and losses) are equivalent. Additionally, the paper discusses how increasing the maximum phase current rating of the inverter can improve e-motor power in a 48V
Albert, Laurent
Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions2025-32-0033To be published on 11/03/2025
This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the
Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya
Simulation-Based System-Level Design Optimization for Formula SAE Vehicles2025-01-0380To be published on 10/07/2025
System-level design decisions in Formula SAE (FSAE) vehicles drive all downstream subsystem designs, yet these decisions are often based on historical precedent or anecdotal evidence rather than rigorous analysis. This work presents a simulation-driven methodology to support data-informed decisions early in the design process, specifically examining how overall vehicle parameters—such as engine power, vehicle mass, aerodynamic drag and lift, wheelbase, and track width—influence performance in a representative FSAE endurance scenario. Two types of lap-time simulation tools were used in this study: OpenLAP, a point-mass simulator, and ChassisSim, a transient 3D vehicle dynamics simulator that incorporates suspension geometry, yaw response, weight transfer, and steering effects. Initial simulations with OpenLAP were used to rapidly identify trends and guide early design decisions, while ChassisSim was used for detailed sensitivity analyses and to validate system-level trade-offs in a more
Hernandez, Andy Jose, Bachman, John Christopher
From Temperature to Wear: A Quantitative Analysis of Tire Influence on Vehicle Cornering Using Handling Key Performance Indicators2025-01-5060To be published on 09/16/2025
Vehicle behavior is strongly influenced by tire performance, as tires serve as the primary interface between the vehicle and the road surface. Since identical vehicles equipped with different tire sets—or even the same tires operating under varying thermal and wear conditions—can exhibit significantly different handling characteristics, this study aims to quantify their impact on both steady-state and transient cornering responses through a dedicated evaluation methodology. To demonstrate the generalization of the proposed approach, three completely different validated vehicle digital twins—a passenger car, a sports car, and a formula car—are analyzed in a virtual environment, employing Vi-Car Real Time for vehicle and scenario representations, and RIDEsuite for tire modeling, considering thermal and wear effects. The simulations were designed using a structured design of experiments approach, resulting in 15 predefined combinations of tire temperature and wear states. Results show
Romagnuolo, Fabio, Aratri, Roberto, De Pinto, Stefano, Farroni, Flavio, Bellis, Sergio Andrea de, Bottiglione, Francesco, Mantriota, Giacomo, Sakhnevych, Aleksandr
Challenges in Quantifying Tire Wear Particle Emissions on an Outer Drum Test Bed2025-01-035209/15/2025
Tire wear is a significant source of microplastics and airborne particulate matter, contributing to environmental pollution and posing health risks. This study aims to develop a reliable method for quantifying tire wear and TWP on an outer drum test bed while achieving realistic wear rates. A degumming method using talcum powder was applied to prevent tire adhesion, which significantly increased wear rates but introduced complications in particle measurements. To address this, a flow-optimized enclosure was implemented to minimize background emissions. Particle emissions were quantified using APCs, PM samplers, and an ELPI+. The results underscore the challenge of distinguishing between TWP and talcum powder contributions. To estimate the percentage of airborne particle mass, a novel method was employed that calculates the RGB values of images of PM filters. This method estimates the blackening of the filter to determine the amount of TWP present. Size distribution analysis revealed
Schubert, Ludwig, Arias Torres, María Alejandra, Bigl, Stephan, Steiner, Gerald, Huber, Michael, Lex, Cornelia
Design of a High-Speed Pure Synchro-Reluctant Machine with Asymmetrical Poles for Automotive Applications2025-24-012909/07/2025
In this article, the authors present the various choices made to design a magnet free and directly recyclable pure synchro-reluctant (Pure-SynRel) machine with asymmetrical poles operating at a maximum speed of ~21,000 rpm dedicated to automotive. This project focused on identifying design levers and optimizing the magnetic circuit to address three well-known challenges of this topology that limit its application as an automotive traction machine. These challenges include: maximizing the power factor to reduce inverter rating and cost, minimizing sources of NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness) and torque ripples, and ultimately maximizing efficiency to bridge the performance gap with magnet-based technologies (PMaSynRel). The sizing of stator components—such as the choice of winding (concentric or distributed, full or fractional pitch, round or hairpin wire)—and rotor components (e.g., the number of pole pairs, shape, and number of barriers) are explained. Additionally, the
Applagnat-Tartet, Antoine, Milosavljevic, Misa, Delpit, Pierre
DLR Tire and Road Wear Particle Emission Testing Methodology–Collection System Influence and Repeatability Assessments2025-24-009209/07/2025
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) have emerged as air quality hazardous matters and significant sources of airborne microplastic pollution, contributing to environmental and human health concerns. Regulatory initiatives, such as the Euro 7 standards, emphasize the urgent need for standardized methodologies to quantify TRWP emissions accurately. Despite advancements in measuring tire abrasion rates, critical gaps persist in the characterization of airborne TRWP, particularly regarding the influence of collection system design and influencing parameters on measurement accuracy and repeatability. This study addresses these challenges by designing a controlled methodological framework that aims to minimize the influencing effects and ensure comparability in TRWP emission quantification results. At the German Aerospace Center (DLR) dynamometer testbench in Stuttgart, Germany, a methodical framework was established to ensure the repeatability and comparability of TRWP measurements
Celenlioglu, Melis Seren, Epple, Fabius, Reijrink, Nina, Löber, Manuel, Reiland, Sven, Vecchi, Roberta, Philipps, Franz
Validation and TCO Development of Tire Sealant Gel Based on Recycled Tire Rubber2025-36-032908/01/2025
Brazil produces approximately 40 million tires annually and discards over 450,000 tons within the same period. Improper disposal turns tires into an environmental liability; each unit can take about 600 years to decompose in nature. This can cause environmental damage and contribute to disease proliferation by creating mosquito breeding grounds, including vectors for Dengue, Zika virus, Chikungunya, and Yellow Fever. To mitigate these damages, Block Selantes was founded in 2018. The company utilizes discarded tires to produce automotive sealants that prevent punctures and tire wear. It is the only company globally to use recycled tires as a sustainable raw material for sealants, a process protected by an industrial patent, resulting in a unique product fully compatible with tire rubber. Additionally, using the sealant in automotive applications significantly enhances vehicle operation safety, reduces costs, and improves logistical efficiency. The use of recycled raw materials also
Cardoso, Diego Jardim, Barros, Dimitri Augusto, Ciapparini, Joel Vicente, Rausch, Bruno, Ben, Bernardo Saciloto, de Gonzaga Paul, Dácio, Fascina, Luiz Henrique
Development and Evaluation of a Combined Driveline Oscillation and Traction Controller Using Model Predictive Control and Reinforcement Learning: A Comparative Case Study2025-01-029107/02/2025
In electric vehicles, the control of driveline oscillations and tire traction is critical for guaranteeing driver comfort and safety. Yet, achieving sufficient driveline control performance remains challenging in the presence of rapidly varying road conditions. Two promising avenues for further improving driveline control are adaptive model predictive control (MPC) and model-based reinforcement learning (RL). We derive such controllers from the same non-linear vehicle model and validate them through pre-defined test scenarios. The MPC approach employs input and output trajectory tracking with soft constraints to ensure feasible control actions even in the presence of constraint violations and is further supported by a Kalman filter for robust state estimation and prediction. In contrast, the RL controller leverages the model-based DreamerV3 algorithm to learn control policies autonomously, adapting to different road conditions without relying on external information. The results
Uhl, Ramón Tamino, Schüle, Isabel, Ludmann, Laurin, Geist, A. René
A Dynamic Hydroplaning Study: A Fluid–Structure Interaction Model for Road Vehicle Tire Analysis15-18-03-001506/24/2025
Hydroplaning contributes to approximately 20% of traffic accidents during adverse weather conditions, with factors such as velocity, water film thickness, tire inflation, and vehicle weight playing significant roles. This study aims to simulate the hydroplaning phenomenon using a fluid–structure interaction model based on the coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) capabilities of ABAQUS. Results reveal that vehicle linear velocity is a key determinant of hydroplaning risk, with a positive correlation observed. The findings suggest maintaining speeds under 50 km/h to mitigate hydroplaning risk, contingent on well-maintained, properly inflated tires. Multiple linear regression analysis further demonstrates correlations among velocity, tire inflation, quarter vehicle load, and water film thickness in predicting the reaction force between the tire and roadway. The proposed scheme provides a predictive mechanism for hydroplaning risk under varying conditions, offering valuable insights into
Aboelsaoud, Mostafa, Taha, Ahmed Abdelsalam, Abo Elazm, Mohamed, Elgamal, Hassan Anwar
Automobile Wheel Alignment and Wheel Balancing, Second EditionR-59106/12/2025
With over thirty years of hands-on experience in designing, developing, and patenting products in the wheel alignment industry, the author brings invaluable expertise to the second edition of this essential guide. Perfectly suited for mechanics, technicians, engineers, and even vehicle owners, this book goes beyond the basics to offer a comprehensive understanding of wheel alignment and its critical role in vehicle performance. The importance of proper wheel alignment and balancing cannot be overstated—incorrect alignment leads to premature tire wear and reduced safety. This updated edition provides in-depth coverage on wheel alignment techniques for light vehicles, commercial trucks, and trailers, with clear illustrations to help readers recognize and address various types of tire wear. The book explores everything from the mechanics of alignment to the impact of air pressure and tire rotation on longevity. With the growing need for vehicle maintenance, this guide empowers
R., Mananathan
Development of an Intelligent Instrumented Tire for Real-Time Hydroplaning Risk Estimation10-09-03-002705/21/2025
This study introduces an innovative intelligent tire system capable of estimating the risk of total hydroplaning based on water pressure measurements within the tread grooves. Dynamic hydroplaning represents an important safety concern influenced by water depth, tread design, and vehicle longitudinal speed. Existing intelligent tire systems primarily assess hydroplaning risk using the water wedge effect, which occurs predominantly in deep water conditions. However, in shallow water, which is far more prevalent in real-world scenarios, the water wedge effect is absent at higher longitudinal speeds, which could make existing systems unable to reliably assess the total hydroplaning risk. Groove flow represents a key factor in hydroplaning dynamics, and it is governed by two mechanisms: water interception rate and water wedge pressure. In both the shallow water and deep water cases, the groove water flow will increase as a result of increasing the longitudinal speed of the vehicle for a
Vilsan, Alexandru, Sandu, Corina, Anghelache, Gabriel, Warfford, Jeffrey
Identification of Suspension Kingpin Alignment Parameters Based on Screw Axis Theorem and Differential Calculation Model2025-01-503405/06/2025
This paper presents an analytical approach for identifying suspension kingpin alignment parameters based on screw axis theorem and differential calculation model. The suspension kingpin caster and inclination alignment parameters can produce additional tire force, which affects vehicle handling dynamics. In wheel steering process, the multi-link suspension control arms lead to movement of the imaginary kingpin, which can cause change in suspension kingpin alignment parameters. According to the structure mechanism of commercial vehicle multi-link independent suspension, the kinematics characteristics of imaginary kingpin were analyzed based on the screw axis theorem. The angular velocity and translation velocity vectors were calculated. In order to avoid the influence of bushing deformation, the unique differential identification model was established to evaluate the suspension kingpin alignment parameters, and the identification results were compared with the ADAMS/Car data. The
Ding, Jinquan, Hou, Junjian, Zhao, Dengfeng, Guo, Yaohua
Simulation of In-Vehicle Tire Noise Performance from Single-Tire Test Stand2025-01-006105/05/2025
A test and signal processing strategy was developed to allow a tire manufacturer to predict vehicle-level interior response based on component-level testing of a single tire. The approach leveraged time-domain Source-Path-Contribution (SPC) techniques to build an experimental model of an existing single tire tested on a dynamometer and substitute into a simulator vehicle to predict vehicle-level performance. The component-level single tire was characterized by its acoustic source strength and structural forces estimated by means of virtual point transformation and a matrix inversion approach. These source strengths and forces were then inserted into a simulator vehicle model to predict the acoustic signature, in time-domain, at the passenger’s ears. This approach was validated by comparing the vehicle-level prediction to vehicle-level measured response. The experimental model building procedure can then be adopted as a standard procedure to aid in vehicle development programs.
Nashio, Hiroshi, Kajiwara, Kohei, Rinaldi, Giovanni, Sakamoto, Yumiko
Experimental Investigation on Genetic Algorithm Optimized Proportional Integral Derivative Based Active Suspension System2025-01-001405/05/2025
In this work, Genetic Algorithm (GA) optimized Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller is employed in the active suspension. The PID gain values are optimally tuned based on the objective function by the Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE) criteria of various suspension measures like vehicle body displacement, suspension and tire deflections. The proposed GAPID controller is experimentally validated through the 3-DOF quarter-car (QC) test rig model. The fabricated model with passive suspension system (PASS) and active suspension system (ACSS) with an electrical actuator is presented. The schematic representation of the fabricated test set-up with and without ACSS is also illustrated. Further, simulation and experimental response of the fabricated model with and without ACSS are compared. It is identified that the proposed GAPID controller attenuates the sprung mass acceleration by about 41.64 % and 29.13 % compared with PASS for the theoretical as well as experimental cases
A, Arivazhagan, Kandavel, Arunachalam
Investigation and Application of Tire Model to Optimize Road Noise2025-01-011105/05/2025
Tires have a significant impact on vehicle road noise. The noise in 80~160Hz is easily felt when driving on rough roads and has a great relationship with the tire structural design. How to improve the problem through tire simulation has become an important issue. Therefore, this paper puts forward the concept of virtual tire tuning to optimize the noise. An appropriate tire model is crucial for road noise performance, and the CDtire (Comfort and Durability Tire) model was used in the article. After conducting experimental validation to get an accurate tire model, adjust the parameters and structure of the tire model to generate alternative model scenarios. The transfer function of the tire center was analyzed and set as the evaluation condition for tire NVH (Noise, vibration, and harshness) performance. This enabled a comparison among various model scenarios to identify the best-performing tire scenario in focused frequency whose transfer function needed to be lowest. Manufacture the
Zhang, Ben, Yu Sr, Jing, Chen, Qimiao, Liu, Xianchen, Gu, Perry
A Comprehensive Review of Vehicle and Road Condition Estimation Techniques10-09-02-001404/30/2025
This article reviews the key physical parameters that need to be estimated and identified during vehicle operation, focusing on two key areas: vehicle state estimation and road condition identification. In the vehicle state estimation section, parameters such as longitudinal vehicle speed, sideslip angle, and roll angle are discussed, which are critical for accurately monitoring road conditions and implementing advanced vehicle control systems. On the other hand, the road condition identification section focuses on methods for estimating the tire–road friction coefficient (TRFC), road roughness, and road gradient. The article first reviews a variety of methods for estimating TRFC, ranging from direct sensor measurements to complex models based on vehicle dynamics. Regarding road roughness estimation, the article analyzes traditional methods and emerging data-driven approaches, focusing on their impact on vehicle performance and passenger comfort. In the section on road gradient
Chen, Zixuan, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Necessity of Body Torsional Rigidity of Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism2024-32-001304/18/2025
In traditional four-wheeled automobiles, the imbalance between the roll moment, which is the product of the centrifugal force during a turn acting on the center of gravity and the height of the center of gravity, and roll stiffness, which is the product of the left-right difference in tire vertical load and the tread width and commonly used among automotive suspension engineers, of the front and rear sections necessitates body torsional rigidity. However, there is a lack of specific cases and guidelines for constructing the body structure of three-wheeled PMVs (Personal Mobility Vehicles) with a tilting mechanism from the perspective of vehicle dynamics characteristics. In this paper, the basic considerations related to the dynamics of such three-wheeled PMVs are investigated. We use the term “torsional rigidity” to refer to the stiffness as the torsional deformation of the body itself, and the term “roll stiffness” to refer to the moment that counteracts the roll moment during a turn
Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya
Traction Voltage Level in Two-Wheelers: Considerations on Safety and Performance2024-32-006204/18/2025
Most electric 2-wheelers on the market today seek to replace combustion engine vehicles from 50cc to 150cc which equates to an electric motor power between 2 and 12 kW. The traction voltage level of these vehicles is mostly between 44V and 96V. However, the actual choice of voltage on a specific vehicle seems to be arbitrary and higher voltage does not necessarily correlate with higher motor power. This paper seeks to highlight considerations and tradeoffs which feed the choice of traction voltage levels. Important criteria are electrical safety standards and their impact on vehicle electrical architecture, the performance and availability of key electronics parts such as capacitors, MOSFETs, and gate drivers, while also highlighting functional safety aspects. This paper shows by a comprehensive analysis of the motor drive that for the vehicle class mentioned above the traction voltage level can be kept below 60V without any performance impact, while also ensuring electrical and
Schmitt, Stefan
T.R.I.C.K. 2.0: Enhanced Vehicle Dynamics Analysis and Estimation Harnessing Advanced Vehicle Sensors10-09-03-002504/09/2025
Automotive signal processing is dealt with in several contributions that propose various techniques to make the most out of the available data, typically for enhancing safety, comfort, or performance. Specifically, the accurate estimation of tire–road interaction forces is of high interest in the automotive world. A few years ago the T.R.I.C.K. tool was developed, featuring a vehicle model processing experimental data, collected through various vehicle sensors, to compute several relevant virtual telemetry channels, including interaction forces and slip indices. Following years of further development in collaboration with motorsport companies, this article presents T.R.I.C.K. 2.0, a thoroughly renewed version of the tool. Besides a number of important improvements of the original tool, including, e.g., the effect of the limited slip differential, T.R.I.C.K. 2.0 features the ability to exploit advanced sensors typically used in motorsport, including laser sensors, potentiometers, and
Napolitano Dell’Annunziata, Guido, Farroni, Flavio, Timpone, Francesco, Lenzo, Basilio
Enhancing Tire Predictive Maintenance with Next-Generation TPMS Sensors2025-01-875904/01/2025
This paper presents findings on the use of data from next-generation Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS), for estimating key tire states such as leak rates, load, and location, which are crucial for tire-predictive maintenance applications. Next-generation TPMS sensors provide a cost-effective and energy-efficient solution suitable for large-scale deployments. Unlike traditional TPMS, which primarily monitor tire pressure, the next-generation TPMS used in this study includes an additional capability to measure the tire's centerline footprint length (FPL). This feature offers significant added value by providing comprehensive insights into tire wear, load, and auto-location. These enhanced functionalities enable more effective tire management and predictive maintenance. This study collected vehicle and tire data from a passenger car hatchback equipped with next-generation TPMS sensors mounted on the inner liner of the tire. The data was analyzed to propose vehicle-tire physics
Sharma, Sparsh, Son, Roman
Estimation of Tire Longitudinal Force under Combined Slip Condition Using an Intelligent Tire System2025-01-827504/01/2025
Under extreme driving conditions, such as emergency braking, rapid acceleration, and high-speed cornering, the tire, as the vehicle’s only direct connection to the road, plays a critical role in influencing dynamic performance and driving stability. Accurately predicting and tire longitudinal force under such combined slip conditions is key to improving vehicle control precision and ensuring driving safety. This study proposes a tire longitudinal force estimation strategy based on an intelligent tire system. The core of this system consists of three integrated PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride) sensors embedded in the tire, which, due to their exceptional sensitivity, can precisely capture dynamic deformation information of the tire under varying conditions. This provides real-time, detailed data to better understand the complex interaction forces between the tire and the road. To study and validate the longitudinal force estimation model, the research team employed a high-precision indoor
Zhang, Zipeng, Xu, Nan, Tang, Zepeng, Chen, Hong
Artificial Intelligence Technique Applied to Semi-Active Vibration Control in Vehicle Suspension System2025-01-827004/01/2025
This study investigates the influence of magnetorheological (MR) dampers in semi-active suspension systems (SASSs) on ride comfort, vehicle stability, and overall performance. Semi-active suspension systems achieve greater flexibility and efficacy by combining MR dampers with the advantages of active and passive suspension systems. The study aims to measure the benefits of MR dampers in improving ride comfort, vehicle stability, and overall system performance. The dynamic system model meets all required performance criteria. This study demonstrates that the proposed artificial intelligence approach, including a fuzzy neural networks proportional-integral-derivative (FNN-PID) controller, significantly enhances key performance criteria when tested under various road profiles. The control performance requirements in engineering systems are evaluated in the frequency and time domains. A quarter-car model with two degrees of freedom (2 DOF) was simulated using MATLAB/Simulink to assess the
M.Faragallah, Mohamed, Metered, Hassan, Abdelghany, M.A., Essam, Mahmoud A.
Potential of Tire Prediction Modeling in Virtual Prototyping: A Review2025-01-828004/01/2025
Virtual prototyping enables tires to be involved in automotive research and development (R&D) at an early stage, eliminating the trial-and-error process of physical tire samples and effectively reducing time and costs. Semi-empirical/empirical tire models are commonly used to evaluate vehicle-tire virtual mating. To parameterize these models, finite element (FE) simulations are necessary, involving combinations of sideslip, camber, and longitudinal slip under various loads. This paper identifies that when multiple inputs are combined, the FE simulation conditions become complex and numerous, presenting a significant challenge in virtual prototyping applications. Through an extensive analysis of more than ten tire prediction modeling methods and models in detail, this paper demonstrates the significant potential of tire prediction modeling in addressing this challenge. We begin with an overview of the current state of research in tire virtual prototyping, reviewing its application
Yin, Hengfeng, Suo, Yanru, Lu, Dang, Xia, Danhua, Min, Haitao
A Wide Belt Correction Strategy for Belt-Whip and Wheel Ventilation Drag2025-01-877004/01/2025
The increased importance of aerodynamics to help with overall vehicle efficiency necessitates a desire to improve the accuracy of the measuring methods. To help with that goal, this paper will provide a method for correcting belt-whip and wheel ventilation drag on single and 3-belt wind tunnels. This is primarily done through a method of analyzing rolling-road only speed sweeps but also physically implementing a barrier. When understanding the aerodynamic forces applied to a vehicle in a wind tunnel, the goal is to isolate only those forces that it would see in the real-world. This primarily means removing the weight of the vehicle from the vertical force and the rolling resistance of the tires and bearings from the longitudinal force. This is traditionally done by subtracting the no-wind forces from the wind at testing velocity forces. The first issue with the traditional method is that a boundary layer builds up on the belt(s), which can then influence a force onto the vehicle’s
Borton, Zackery
Dynamic Testing and Analysis of Autocycle Vehicles for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-868704/01/2025
The Autocycle is a style of vehicle that most often utilizes a reverse-tricycle design with two front wheels and a single rear wheel. Modern autocycles in the United States are often utilized in a recreational role. This work presents physical measurements of two modern autocycles for use in accident reconstruction and pursues a deeper understanding of the unique attributes and handling associated with these vehicles. Vehicles were used to measure physical properties and subjected to cornering tests presented herein, and the data is compared to that for a conventional automobile. Observations on tire scuff marks are made from cornering tests unique to these vehicles. Strengths and challenges with this type of vehicle design are presented for various use cases as compared to conventional automobiles. Data and knowledge from this study are published to aid accident reconstruction efforts.
Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Warner, Mark
Intelligent Active Rear Wheel Steering with Safety Boundary Assist2025-01-875204/01/2025
Along with the innovation of vehicle technology, the active steering system has an excellent effect on the prevention of uncontrolled steering events due to its significant advantage in optimising handling stability. Meanwhile, the safety boundary is an important judgement basis for the stable operation of the vehicle, and based on the safety boundary, the controller can help the driver to keep the vehicle in the stable region of the state space. In this paper, an active rear wheel steering model prediction controller is proposed based on the safety boundary to control the rear wheel steering angle to assist the front wheel steering, and constrain the actual cross-swing angular angular velocity and centre-of-mass lateral deflection angle of the vehicle within the safety boundary of the state space, so as to ensure the stable operation of the vehicle, and the main research contents are as follows: 1. Aiming at the problem that the linear two-degree-of-freedom model of the vehicle can't
Li, Ziyu, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zhang, Yuzhou
A Sensitivity Study of Frequency Response Method for Setting Bearing Preload Due to Uncontrollable Parameters2025-01-852004/01/2025
A new method for bearing preload measurement has shown potential for both high accuracy and fast cycle time using the frequency response characteristics of the power transmission system. One open problem is the design of the production controller, which relies on a detailed sensitivity study of the system frequency response to changes in the bearing and system design parameters. Recently, an analytical model was developed for multi-row tapered roller bearings that includes all appropriate bearing and power transmission system design parameters. During the assembly process, some of the parameters related to the roller positions cannot be controlled. These parameters include the actual position of the first roller compared to the vertical axis, the relative position of the rollers between the bearing rows, and others. This work presents a sensitivity analysis of the effects of those uncontrollable parameters on the analytical model. The sensitivity study determines the percentage change
Gruzwalski, David, Mynderse, James
Modeling and Simulation Analysis of an Electric Vehicle in Normal and Hot Ambient Conditions: Energy Consumption and Driving Range2025-01-815104/01/2025
With better performance and usage of clean and renewable energy, electric vehicles have ushered in more and more consumers’ favor nowadays. However, insufficient driving range especially in hot and cold ambient conditions still greatly restricts the extensive application of electric vehicles. This paper presents a methodology of establishing multi-discipline coupled full vehicle model in AMESim to investigate the energy consumption and driving range of an electric vehicle in normal and hot ambient conditions. Full vehicle energy consumption test was carried out in the climate chamber to check the accuracy of simulation results. Firstly, basic framework of the full vehicle model established in AMESim was introduced. Next, modeling details of sub-systems including vehicle dynamic system, electrical system, coolant circuit system, air-conditioning system and control strategy were illustrated. Then, full vehicle energy consumption tests were carried out in 23°C and 38°C ambient conditions
Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie
Tire Wear Life Prediction Using Machine Learning Technique2025-01-875704/01/2025
As global warming and environmental problems are becoming more serious, tires are required to achieve a high level of performance trade-offs, such as low rolling resistance, wet braking performance, driving stability, and ride comfort, while minimizing wear, noise, and weight. However, predicting tire wear life, which is influenced by both vehicle and tire characteristics, is technically challenging so practical prediction method has long been awaited. Therefore, we propose an experimental-based tire wear life prediction method using measured tire characteristics and the wear volume formula of polymer materials. This method achieves practical accuracy for use in the early stages of vehicle development without the need for time-consuming and costly real vehicle tests. However, the need for improved quietness and compliance with dust regulations due to vehicle electrification requires more accuracy, leading to an increase in cases requiring judgment through real vehicle tests. To address
Ando, Takashi
Design of A Differential Braking Controller Based on Road Reaction Force Estimation to Respond to Steering System Failure in Autonomous Driving Situations2025-01-879704/01/2025
As the electrification of chassis systems accelerates, the demand for fail-safety strategies is increasing. In the past, the steering system was mechanically connected, so the driver could respond directly to some extent. However, the Steer-by-Wire (SbW) system is composed of the column and rack bar as electrical signals, so the importance of response strategies for steering system failure is gradually increasing. When a steering system failure occurs, a differential braking control using the difference in braking force between the left and right wheels was studied. Recently, some studies have been conducted to model the wheel reaction force generated during a differential braking. Since actual tires and road surfaces are nonlinear and cause large model errors, model-based control methods have limited performance. Also, in previous studies assumed that the driver normally operates the steering wheel in a failure situation. However, if limited to a situation such as autonomous driving
Kim, Sukwon, Kim, Young Gwang, Kim, SungDo, Moon, Sung Jin
Energy Savings and Range Extension from Aerodynamic Improvements of Emerging Zero-Emission Heavy Vehicle Concepts2025-01-878704/01/2025
An energy-use analysis is presented to examine the potential energy-savings and range-extension benefits of aerodynamic improvements to tractors and trailers used in commercial transportation. The impetus for the study was the observation of aerodynamically-redesigned/optimized tractor shapes of emerging zero-emission commercial vehicles that have the potential for significant drag reduction over conventional aerodynamic tractors. Using wind-tunnel test results, a series of aerodynamic performance models were developed representing a range of tractor and trailer combinations. From modern day-cab and sleeper-cab tractors to aerodynamically-optimized zero-emission cab concepts, paired with standard dry-van trailers or low-drag trailer concepts, the study examines the energy use, and potential savings thereof, from implementing various fleet configurations for different operational duty cycles. An energy-use analysis was implemented to estimate the energy-rate contributions associated
McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh
Aerodynamic Effect on Vehicle Handling2025-01-875404/01/2025
Vehicle handling is significantly influenced by aerodynamic forces, which alter the normal load distribution across all four wheels, affecting vehicle stability. These forces, including lift, drag, and side forces, cause complex weight transfers and vary non-linearly with vehicle apparent velocity and orientation relative to wind direction. In this study, we simulate the vehicle traveling on a circular path with constant steering input, calculate the normal load on each tire using a weight transfer formula, calculate the effect of lift force on the vehicle on the front and rear, and calculate the vehicle dynamic relation at steady state because the frequency of change due to aerodynamic load is significantly less than that of the yaw rate response. The wind velocity vector is constant while the vehicle drives in a circle, so the apparent wind velocity relative to the car is cyclical. Our approach focuses on the interaction between two fundamental non-linearity’s: the nonlinear
Patil, Harshvardhan, Williams, Daniel
On the Critical Importance of Physical Modelling for the Analysis of Coast-Down Data2025-01-877404/01/2025
Novel experimental and analytical methods were developed with the objective of improving the reliability and repeatability of coast-down test results. The methods were applied to coast-down tests of a SUV and a tractor-trailer combination, for which aerodynamic wind-tunnel data were available for comparison. The rationale was to minimize the number of unknowns in the equation of motion by measuring rolling and mechanical resistances and wheel-axle moments of inertia, which was achieved using novel experimental techniques and conventional rotating-drum tests. This led to new modelling functions for the rolling and mechanical resistances in the equation of motion, which was solved by regression analysis. The resulting aerodynamic drag coefficient was closer to its wind-tunnel counterpart, and the predicted low-speed road load was closer to direct measurements, than the results obtained using conventional methods. It is anticipated that applying the novel techniques to characterize the
Tanguay, Bernard, de Souza, Fenella
Modeling and Prediction of Truck Tire Temperature Using Advanced Computational Techniques2025-01-875804/01/2025
This paper investigates the development of a Finite Element model of a Mixed Service Drive truck tire sized 315/80R22.5 equipped with thermal simulating properties. The physical experiments were performed at a high-speed track in Hällered, Sweden for the truck combination travelling at a constant speed of 80 km/h. For this investigation, the Gross Combination Weight is approximately 42 metric tons. In the Finite Element Analysis environment, ESI Virtual Performance Solutions, the truck tire is designed with hyperelastic Ogden solid rubber definitions. The Ogden material definition is used in this application as it is more suitable to perform thermal and wear analysis within the Finite Element environment. The Finite Element truck tire model is simulated to increase in two different temperature rates. The truck tire model simulates the thermal build-up over time for select tires on a High-Capacity transport truck combination, particularly a driven tire on the tractor. Finite element
Ly, Alfonse, Collings, William, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, El-Gindy, Moustafa, Johansson, Inge, Oijer, Fredrik
Propulsion System Design of Cadillac Lyriq Electric Vehicle2025-01-856604/01/2025
The propulsion system design of GM-Cadillac’s first electric vehicle Lyriq uses an optimized drive unit comprising interior permanent magnet (IPM) motors and silicon traction inverters. The main objective behind the drive unit design was to minimize energy losses and cost while maximizing hardware consolidation, range, performance, power density, and scalability. Two IPM motors with different length and number of stator turns are designed, while their rotor design and stator-conductor profile are kept the same. A high-speed rotor is designed to achieve higher power density. AC winding effect at higher speeds is mitigated by using a bar-conductor with much smaller cross section. The rotor surface has a special notch design to minimize acoustic noise, without use of rotor or stator skew. Also, the traction inverters in the Lyriq EV are engineered with a significant emphasis on being scalable and adaptable for various vehicle architectures while considering a broad range of requirements.
Momen, Faizul, Jensen, William, He, Song, Chowdhury, Mazharul, Zahid, Ahsan, Forsyth, Alexander, Alam, Khorshed, Anwar, Mohammad, Kim, Young
A Sensitivity Study of Frequency Response Method for Setting Bearing Preload to Manufacturing and Design Variation2025-01-851804/01/2025
Roller bearings are used in many rotating power transmission systems in the automotive industry. During the assembly process of the power transmission system, some types of roller bearings (e.g., tapered roller bearings) require a compressive preload force. Those bearings' rolling resistance and lifespan strongly depend on the preload set during the installation process. Therefore, accurate preload setting can improve bearing efficiency, increase bearing lifespan, and reduce maintenance costs over the life of the vehicle. A new method for bearing preload measurement has shown potential for high accuracy and fast cycle time using the frequency response characteristics of the power transmission system. One open problem is the design of the production controller, which relies on a detailed sensitivity study of the system frequency response to changes in the bearing and system design parameters. Recently, an analytical model was developed for multi-row tapered roller bearings that includes
Gruzwalski, David, Mynderse, James
Tire–Road Friction Estimation and Classification Based on a CNN using Tire Acoustical Signals for Autonomous Driving Vehicles2025-01-876104/01/2025
Advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs) and driving automation system technologies have significantly increased the demand for research on vehicle-state recognition. However, despite its critical importance in ensuring accurate vehicle-state recognition, research on road-surface classification remains underdeveloped. Accurate road-surface classification and recognition would enable control systems to enhance decision-making robustness by cross-validating data from various sensors. Therefore, road-surface classification is an essential component of autonomous driving technologies. This paper proposes the use of tire–pavement interaction noise (TPIN) as a data source for road-surface classification. Traditional approaches predominantly rely on accelerometers and visual sensors. However, accelerometer signals have inherent limitations because they capture only surface profile properties and are often distorted by the resonant characteristics of the vehicle structure. Similarly, image
Yoon, Youngsam, Kim, Hyungjoo, Lee, Sang Kwon, Lee, Jaekil, Hwang, Sunguk, Ku, Sehwan
Concept of On-Board Diagnostics System of Vehicle Electric Drive2025-01-809504/01/2025
The problem of monitoring the parametric failures of a traction electric drive unit consisting of an inverter, a traction machine and a gearbox when interacting with a battery management system has been solved. The strategy for solving the problem is considered for an electric drive with three-phase synchronous and induction machines. The drive power elements perform electromechanical energy conversion with additional losses. The losses are caused by deviations of the element parameters from the nominal values during operation. Monitoring gradual failures by additional losses is adopted as a key concept of on-board diagnostics. Deviation monitoring places increased demands on the information support and accuracy of mathematical models of power elements. We take into account that the first harmonics of currents and voltages of a three-phase circuit are the dominant energy source, higher harmonics of PWM appear as harmonic losses, and mechanical losses in the rotor and gearbox can be
Smolin, Victor, Gladyshev, Sergey, Topolskaya, Irina
Modal Analysis Approach for Analysis and Design of Vehicle Transient Behavior2025-01-879404/01/2025
In order to manage the serious global environmental problems, the automobile industry is rapidly shifting to electric vehicles (EVs) which have a heavier weight and a more rearward weight distribution. To secure the handling and stability of such vehicles, understanding of the fundamental principles of vehicle dynamics is inevitable for designing their performance. Although vehicle dynamics primarily concerns planar motion, the accompanying roll motion also influences this planar motion as well as the driver's subjective evaluation. This roll motion has long been discussed through various parameter studies, and so on. However, there is very few research that treats vehicle sprung mass behavior as “vibration modes”, and this perspective has long been an unexplored area of vehicle dynamics. In this report, we propose a method to analytically extract the vibration modes of the sprung mass by applying modal analysis techniques to the governing equations of vehicle handling and stability
Kusaka, Kaoru, Yuhara, Takahiro
Stability-Based Coordinated Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Trajectory Tracking and Handling Stability2025-01-830704/01/2025
To address the issue of poor yaw stability in distributed drive electric vehicles under extreme trajectory tracking conditions, this paper proposes a novel control approach that coordinates upper-layer trajectory tracking and stability control with lower-layer active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC). Firstly, a stability domain boundary is defined in the β−β̇phase plane, and the instability factor is derived based on boundary line characteristics. This factor is used as a weight in the objective function to establish a model predictive control (MPC) for trajectory tracking and handling stability, thereby adjusting the control target weights for both objectives. Secondly, fuzzy logic is used to change the boundary of the phase plane transition field according to the vehicle state to dynamically adjust the intervention timing of the stability control, while AFS and DYC control are used to modify the front wheel steering angle and yaw moment control in the MPC
Dou, Jingyang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
WITHDRAWAL NOTICE2025-01-8278.0104/01/2025
Experimental Methodology for Tire Ride Analysis Based on Outdoor Cleat Testing10-09-03-002303/12/2025
Handling and ride comfort optimization are key vehicle design challenges. To analyze vehicle performance and investigate the dynamics of the vehicle and its subcomponents, we rely heavily on robust experimental data. The current article proposes an outdoor cleat test methodology to characterize tire dynamics. Compared to indoor procedures, it provides an effective tire operating environment, including the suspensions and the vehicle chassis motion influence. In addition, it overcomes the main limitation of existing outdoor procedures, the need for dedicated cleat test tracks, by using a set of removable cleats of different sizes. A passenger vehicle was equipped with sensors including an inertial measurement unit, a noncontact vehicle speed sensor, and a wheel force transducer, providing a setup suitable to perform both a handling test routine and the designed cleat procedure, aimed at ride testing and analysis. Thus, the outdoor cleat test data were compared with indoor test
Gravante, Gerardo, Napolitano Dell’Annunziata, Guido, Barbaro, Mario, Farroni, Flavio
Research on Automatic Emergency Braking Pedestrian System Considering Road Adhesion Coefficient10-09-03-002203/08/2025
To further optimize the automatic emergency braking for pedestrian (AEB-P) control algorithm, this study proposes an AEB-P hierarchical control strategy considering road adhesion coefficient. First, the extended Kalman filter is used to estimate the road adhesion coefficient, and the recursive least square method is used to predict the pedestrian trajectory. Then, a safety distance model considering the influence factor of road adhesion coefficient is proposed to adapt to different road conditions. Finally, the desired deceleration is converted into the desired pressure and desired current to the requirements of the electric power-assisted braking system. The strategy is verified through the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) platform; the simulation results show that the control algorithm proposed in this article can effectively avoid collision in typical scenarios, the safe distance of parking is between 0.61 m and 2.34 m, and the stop speed is in the range of 1.85 km/h–27.64 km/h.
Wang, Zijun, Wang, Liang, Ma, Liang, Sun, Yong, Li, Chenghao, Yang, Xinglong
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