Browse Topic: Wheels

Items (2,672)

Comfort Study of Air Suspension System Based on MPC Control

2026-99-0136

7/31/2026

Air springs are increasingly replacing traditional shock absorbers in vehicle suspension systems due to their superior mechanical properties, including adjustable stiffness, nonlinear characteristics, and excellent damping performance. To further explore the potential of air suspension in improving ride comfort, this paper focuses on air suspension. We first conducted mechanical characteristic experiments on air springs to obtain their stiffness and damping characteristics under different inflation pressures and excitation frequencies. These tests provide essential mechanical parameters for subsequent modeling and simulation. Based on the experimental data, a simplified 1/4 air suspension simulation model is constructed, taking into account the nonlinear stiffness and damping properties of the air springs. To simulate real-world driving conditions, a random road surface model is introduced as the excitation input. Simulation analysis is conducted to compare the air suspension system with the traditional passive suspension system. The results indicate that, compared to the passive suspension system, the air suspension system integrated with Model Predictive Control(MPC) significantly reduces key performance indicators, including suspension deflection, wheel dynamic load, and sprung mass vertical acceleration. This indicates that the suspension with model predictive control can effectively suppress vehicle vibrations, thereby enhancing ride comfort and driving stability. The results of this study provide an important basis for the optimal design of air suspension systems and have practical application value for improving the suspension performance of the vehicle.

Yin, Zhi

Research on the Topology Design of Electric Vehicle Corner Module Suspension Based on POC Theory

2026-99-0151

7/31/2026

The corner module is an innovative design that combines drive, steering, suspension, and other vehicle structures into a single wheel unit. This achieves a high level of integration for chassis functions. A chassis built on this module can perform more complex movements. Suspension is a key part that decides how the vehicle moves. However, current suspension design approaches lack a systematic methodology for configuration synthesis and analytical verification for the multi-degree-of-freedom (multi-DOF) requirements of the corner module. This study introduces a new method for designing the corner module suspension based on the Position and Orientation Characteristic theory (POC theory). First, the type of suspension DOF is derived from chassis functional requirements by treating the required corner module motion as the target suspension DOF. Then, we decide the number of chains, links, and joints in the mechanism and perform configuration synthesis of suspension mechanism. Next, we combine the selected kinematic pairs and select suspension mechanisms that meet the requirements of suspension DOF. There are two steps of calculation in this process. In this study, the goal is to design a suspension with three links, two loops, and two degrees of freedom. Seven suspension mechanisms with specific loops and components were obtained using the proposed process. Finally, the paper presents the process of mechanism verification. Using the steering link and ground excitation as inputs, theoretical calculations and simulation analysis were conducted to verify that the mechanisms obtained meets the suspension design objectives. This proves that the POC theory-based method for creating multi-DOF suspension is effective.

Kong, Wenkai, Zhu, Wenfeng, Zeng, Zhixuan

Design and Verification of Underactuated Coupled-Commutation Omnidirectional Mobile Integrated Camping Robot Chassis

2026-99-0820

7/30/2026

To solve the poor mobility of traditional camping vehicle chassis in complex terrains and confined spaces, this paper proposes an underactuated omnidirectional mobile chassis for outdoor camping vehicles. The chassis adopts a coupled commutation mechanism (double-crank elastic special-shaped connecting rods cross sliders), allowing each wheel to realize two motion modes (omnidirectional translation, in-situ rotation) with just one drive motor, reducing system complexity and cost. A control system based on the RoboMaster Development Board C Type integrates PID angle-loop control and motor speed-current dual closed-loop control for motion stability. Kinematic models for these two modes are established to derive the wheel parameter-chassis motion relationship. MATLAB R2023b-ADAMS 2024 co-simulations show the chassis maintains attitude stability under S-shaped curve, circular curve, and in-situ rotation; Qualisys 3D motion capture experiments confirm its stable attitude in omnidirectional movement.

Ren, Yulong, Lu, Zhiguo, Yang, Dongsheng, Wu, Di, Zhang, Tianyu, Qian, Zhenxin

Simulation Analysis and Optimization Design of Rim Clamping Mechanism

2026-99-0533

7/10/2026

According to the working characteristics of the tire changer, the movement characteristics of its rim clamping mechanism are analyzed, and the complex movement structure is abstracted and simplified into four identical six-bar mechanism subunits. One of the subunits is taken as the research object, and the mathematical model of kinematic analysis is established. Using MATLAB software to simulate and analyze the motion law of each component, the mechanical characteristics of the component are analyzed. The optimization of the design parameters of the “six-bar mechanism subunit” is realized, the rim clamping mechanism becomes more stable, and the clamping force follows the diameter of the rim more closely.

Zhao, Fengqin, Zhou, Liyao, Wang, Mantong, Huo, Fengwei

Impact Test Simulation for Aluminum Casted Wheel Including Tire Properties

2026-01-5039

6/10/2026

Alloy wheels are essential safety components in two-wheeled vehicles. This study details the finite element analysis (FEA) used to simulate and evaluate the wheel and tire performance under the double mass impact load specified by the AIS-073 (Part-1) standard. The impact is carried out by dropping a striking mass along with a main mass onto the alloy wheel–tire assembly, as per the standard. The alloy wheel is modeled using a three-dimensional finite element model with elastic-plastic material behavior, and the tire is modeled with its internal elements (e.g., carcass, belt, etc.). The prediction of wheel impact failure is based on the total plastic work of the ductile fracture mechanism. The validity of results is confirmed by comparing the predicted permanent lateral rim deformation against the measured lateral deformation from a corresponding physical test.

Minz, Jai Shankar, Singh, Sanjay Kumar, Nirala, Deepak Kumar

Directional Stiffness Decoupling in Meta-Wheels via Three-Dimensional Discrete Curved Spokes

15-19-01-0005

4/22/2026

Meta-wheels—non-pneumatic wheels whose performance is governed by structural geometry rather than internal pressure—offer new opportunities for directional stiffness control. Yet achieving independent tuning of longitudinal, lateral, and vertical stiffness within a single wheel architecture has remained challenging due to the inherent coupling in conventional radial and planar curved spokes. In this study, we introduce a three-dimensional (3D) discrete curved-spoke design that provides explicit geometric control through two independent parameters: the in-plane curvature angle (α) and the out-of-plane inclination angle (β). Using spoke-level and full-wheel finite-element (FE) simulations, supported by a simplified cantilever-beam analytical model, we show that these two geometric parameters govern stiffness in fundamentally different ways. The curvature angle α serves primarily as a geometric softener, reducing stiffness in all directions while maintaining a high top-loading ratio (TLR) (>92%). In contrast, the inclination angle β enables true directional stiffness decoupling: increasing β substantially raises longitudinal stiffness and decreases lateral stiffness, while leaving vertical stiffness nearly unchanged (≈1.4% variation). Compared with conventional two-dimensional (2D) spoke designs, the proposed 3D architecture achieves stiffness characteristics approaching those of pneumatic tires, particularly higher longitudinal stiffness and lower lateral stiffness, without sacrificing vertical load-bearing capacity. Moreover, the combined simulation–analysis framework provides an efficient early-stage screening tool by mapping desired stiffness ratios directly to geometric parameters, narrowing the feasible design space before full-wheel FE verification. Overall, this work demonstrates that 3D discrete curved spokes present a practical and interpretable route toward stiffness-decoupled, directionally programmable meta-wheels for next-generation mobility platforms.

Han, Heeseung, Liu, Zhipeng, Ju, Jaehyung

Lightweight Wheel Design Through Shape Optimization with Structural Constraints

2026-01-0504

4/7/2026

The wheel rim is an annular, thin-walled structure featuring complex geometry and is subjected to multiple load cases, including radial, rotary, and impact scenarios. Achieving an optimal balance between mass reduction and structural performance remains a significant challenge in modern vehicle wheel design. Aero-efficient vehicles demand lightweight backbone wheels capable of accommodating aerodynamic covers without compromising handling, steering precision, or overall performance. In this study, shape optimization is applied to an 8-spoke truck wheel with the goal of minimizing mass while enhancing lateral stiffness and ensuring that stress constraints are satisfied under all critical load cases. A three-dimensional finite element model is developed and evaluated under realistic radial, rotary, and impact loading conditions representative of industry validation tests. The optimization process fine-tuned the spoke geometry using symmetric shape domains and carefully defined perturbation vectors, while preserving styling intent, bolt pattern, and brake packaging constraints. Lateral stiffness was evaluated using a frequency-based formulation derived from modal and frequency response analyses, while grid stress responses served as robust optimization constraints. The resulting optimized wheel achieved a mass reduction of approximately 5 percent, a lateral stiffness increase of approximately 30 percent, and a 6 percent rise in the first drum-mode frequency.

Yoo, Dong Yeon, Adduri, Phani, Chakravarty, Rajan

Development of a Tire Blowout Experimental Platform for Dynamics and Control Validation

2026-01-0202

4/7/2026

Tires are critical to vehicle dynamics, transmitting traction, braking, and cornering forces to the road. A tire blowout, the sudden and rapid loss of inflation pressure due to puncture or structural failure, can cause severe instability, rollover, or collisions. Understanding vehicle response during blowout events is essential for developing robust safety systems and control strategies. Earlier developed simulation models are used to study and understand vehicle behavior during blowouts, but there is a lack of on-road testing platforms to validate these models experimentally. In this paper, an experimental platform integrating a tire blowout device and an instrumentation system has been developed to address this gap. The blowout device consists of multiple solenoid valves mounted on the wheel surface and powered by a 12V power supply. All valves can be triggered at the same time using an RF remote, producing rapid and synchronized deflation. As an extension of this implementation, an Arduino-based actuation system is being developed for individual valve actuation and custom deflation profiles. The instrumentation system includes GNSS, IMU, and CAN-based data acquisition for vehicle dynamic variables. Furthermore, outriggers will be installed on the vehicle to ensure safety during testing. Unlike prior devices that use single valves with external pneumatic hoses and laboratory-only operation, the proposed platform is compact, lightweight, and field-deployable due to its integration of multi-valve actuation, custom deflation control, outrigger-based safety measures, and instrumentation. The developed platform enables safe, repeatable, and full-scale on-road blowout testing within required timeframes, providing a novel framework that bridges simulation and real-world validation.

Kanthala, Maha Vishnu Vardhan Reddy, Krishnakumar, Ashwin, Lin, Wen-Chiao, Chen, Yan

Advanced Wheel Attachment Loosening Identification through Algorithmic Gear Error Analysis and Probabilistic Assessment

2026-01-0590

4/7/2026

At present, tire failures directly affect road safety, and the number of incidents caused by them is gradually increasing. Examining wheel attachment loosening on time is vital for vehicle safety. Tire-related incidents not only put people in peril but also have a detrimental effect on the economy. Therefore, the goal of this research is to develop a new and effective method for identifying wheel attachment loosening. A novel gear error reduction approach, distinct from traditional methods, combines advanced computing and probabilistic analysis. This paper involves three key components: extracting looseness eigenvalues, calculating ring gear errors, and computing the tire loosen probabilities. Gear errors derived from the Kalman filter and adjusted for speed, eigenvalues were calculated, and a tire loosening probability analysis was performed. Real-car trials across speeds and roads confirm its accuracy and reliability. This technology can improve automotive safety and maintenance, reducing accidents, claims, and pollution. It also fits autonomous and smart cars, where tire monitoring is key.

Liu, Jianjian, Zhang, Zhijie, Wang, Zhenfeng, Ma, Guangtao, Shi, Meijuan, Liu, Jing, Zhao, Binggen, Lu, Yukun

Time-Step Analysis of Sliding Mesh Rotation Modeling

15-19-01-0004

3/13/2026

The current work analyzes the effect of time-step size on the predictive capability and computational cost of the Sliding Mesh (SM) method for modeling flows around the rotating wheels of a mass-production luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV). Two unsteady turbulence models [Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) and Delayed Detached Eddy Simulations (DDES)] were tested using time-step sizes ranging from the current recommended time-step size of 1 degree of rotation per time-step (1 D/TS) up to 50 degrees of rotation per time-step (50 D/TS). The flow field predictions compare favorably to the 1 D/TS case for a time-step size as large as 5 D/TS. Using this time-step size leads to a reduction in computational cost of approximately 80% for both unsteady methods. At a time-step of 5 D/TS, the computational cost of the SM method is comparable to the more commonly used Moving Reference Frame (MRF) method. However, drag and flow field predictions by the SM method at this larger time-step compare far more favorably to the 1 D/TS SM case than the standard MRF method. Thus, increasing the time-step size is an effective way to implement the more accurate SM rotation model without increasing the cost over the MRF.

Struk, Michael, Aultman, Matthew, Disotell, Kevin, Duan, Lian, Bianco, Antonello, Metka, Matthew, Khasdeo, Nitin

Corrosion Test Master Establishment

J2636_202602 (Current)

2/10/2026

This SAE lab recommended practice may be applied to corrosion test methods such as salt spray, filiform, Corrosion creep back, etc. This procedure is intended to permit corrosion testing to be assessed between Laboratories for correlation purposes.

Wheel Standards Committee

Vibration Dynamics of a Half-Car Model Considering Tire–Road Separation

02-19-04-0021

2/9/2026

The vibrating half-car model is used to represent the dynamic behavior of a truck’s dependent suspension system, capturing four degrees of freedom. This research investigates time and frequency responses of vibration behavior of half-car model with possible tire–road separation. This investigation is significant because all previously reported analyses based on the tire-road attachment were incorrect, particularly regarding the tire-road separation phenomenon. The differential equations are extended to enhance the accuracy of the model, incorporating tire–road separation conditions for both wheels. A numerical approach is applied to simulate the vertical and roll dynamics of the system under the separation assumption. The simulation results are validated through experiments conducted using ADAMS View software. Integrating the tire–road separation into the model results in dynamic responses that closely reflect real-world behavior. These findings provide valuable guidance for designing more effective suspension systems and for developing control strategies aimed at reducing rollover risk and enhancing lateral stability.

Nguyen, Quy Dang, Jazar, Reza

Wheels - Passenger Car and Light Truck Performance Requirements and Test Procedures

J328_202601 (Current)

1/30/2026

This SAE Recommended Practice provides minimum performance requirements and uniform procedures for fatigue testing of wheels intended for normal highway use and temporary use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles. For heavy truck wheels and wheels intended to be used as duals, refer to SAE J267. For wheels used on trailers drawn by passenger cars, light trucks, or multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J1204. These minimum performance requirements apply only to wheels made of materials included in Tables 1 to 4. The minimum cycles noted in Tables 1 through 4 are to be used on individual test and a sample of tests conducted, with Weibull Statistics using two parameter, median ranks, 50% confidence level, and 90% reliability, typically noted as B10C50.

Wheel Standards Committee

Wheel Nut Seat Strength

J2315_202601 (Current)

1/27/2026

The purpose of this test is to evaluate the axial strength of the nut seat of wheels intended for use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles. In addition, a minimum contact area is recommended to ensure enough strength for the rotational force in tightening a nut against the nut seat. While this test ensures the minimum strength of the nut seat, the wheel must also have a degree of flexibility. This flexibility, as well as bolt tension, are important to maintain wheel retention.

Wheel Standards Committee

LILI (Long-term Ice-field Levitating Investigator): A Mars Aerial and Ground Explorer for Glaciers and Polar Ice Fields

SM-2026-VLADA-5217

1/27/2026

The recent discovery of glacier remains in Noctis Labyrinthus, the "Maze of the Night" near Mars' equator sheds new light on the history of water on Mars, the evolution of the planet’s climate and geology, and the possibility of life. It also opens the possibility for massive amounts of clean glacier ice to be accessed by astronauts at low latitudes on Mars, alleviating the need to operate in more frigid higher latitudes. Further reconnaissance of the site requires a robotic vehicle capable of traversing rough, salt-crusted glacier surfaces and leaping across crevasse fields. To address this need, we propose a conceptual hybrid aerial/ground vehicle, LILI (Long-term Ice-field Levitating Investigator). LILI combines episodic rotary-wing flight with ground mobility as a propeller-driven sled through an arrangement of skis/runners, wheels, and tilting proprotors. A high-level look at the Noctis Labyrinthus "relict glacier" site is presented, along with a notional LILI mission traverse concept designed to ensure critical scientific measurements are captured. The NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft (NDARC) software is utilized to ensure that mission requirements and sizing constraints are met. Furthermore, future work considers guidance, navigation, and control requirements to satisfy mission objectives, and an initial construction for a simplified LILI small-scale prototype.

Schatzman, Natasha, Young, Larry, Dominguez, Michelle, Lee, Pascal, Nagami, Keiko, Caudle, David, Pichay, Isabelle

Design Optimization of Jounce Bumper Support Ring Based on RWUP Loading

2026-26-0514

1/16/2026

Designing and manufacturing a support ring (POM ring -Polyoxymethylene ring) for a MacPherson strut suspension system brings unique set of challenges due to the high-performance and durability demands for Indian road application. Support ring along with the jounce bumper used in the shock absorber is designed to absorb the strong shock coming from the road inputs when suspension travel reached to the maximum limit. thereby absorbing the impact energy and preventing it from transferring it to the body. A bump stopper for a suspension of a vehicle is made of poly urethane (PU) material and is surrounded by a support ring or POM ring made up of Polyoxymethylene material. The bump stopper deflects into bellow shape during the absorption of impact energy. In the present paper, the authors have demonstrated the key challenges experienced in successfully designing the support ring post initial failure experienced in the validation phase which was unprecedented. The authors detail the failure analysis and the subsequent design improvement in the present work.

Koritala, Ashok Kumar, Malekar, Amit, Kulkarni, Purushottam, S, Sivashankar, Mishra, Harshit, Ganesh, Mohan Selvakumar, Patnala, Avinash, J, Ramkumar, Nayak, Bhargav, M, Sudhan

Study of Style Wheel Rim Failure Due to Rim and Disc Assembly Interference

2026-26-0541

1/16/2026

This study focuses on the investigation of wheel rim failures near weld zone during repeated cornering induced by interference between the rim and disc during the wheel manufacturing assembly process. Strain gauges were employed to capture real-time stress and strain distributions at critical zones during interference fitting. The experimental results revealed that improper interference levels lead to significant stress concentrations, often surpassing the material's elastic limit, initiating micro-crack formation and promoting fatigue failure. Detailed strain analysis indicated that both radial and axial stresses contribute to long-term structural degradation. The study highlights the critical role of dimensional tolerances, surface finishes, and assembly forces in minimizing stress-induced failures. Recommendations are provided for optimizing design and assembly practices to enhance the durability and reliability of automotive wheels.

P, Praveen, DEsigan, Lakshmipathy, K, Chandramohan, C, Santhosh

Determining Optimal Suspension & Body in White Mountings to maximize Off-Road Capability of Passenger Vehicles

2026-26-0098

1/16/2026

The automotive market trend is shifting more and more to SUVs and crossovers. This, therefore, means increasing consumer demand for off-road abilities in passenger vehicles. While dedicated off-road platforms provide a path to performance robustness, getting the same level of functionality out of a passenger vehicle with minimal architectural changes proves to be a great feat for engineers. One highly critical performance determinant in the domain of off-road ability is wheel articulation, it requires independent movement capacity of the wheels to keep contact and stability over uneven terrain. Traditional articulations found in passenger car suspensions—created for comfort, packaging, and on-road dynamics—are limited by suspension geometry, damper alignment as well as compliance setup. Damper side loads- were not considered a significant factor in suspension systems that are operating within their original intended design envelope for on-road use. However, when the vehicle is taken off-road, extreme conditions lead to lateral forces during an unseated exaggerated wheel travel, these can result in seal degradation as well as rod bending increasing friction (stiction) leading ultimately to damper failure. Seal durability and general component integrity are not the only issues increased side loading will decrease articulation reduce traction and degrade ride quality during severe terrain inputs. Articulation- is essentially a measure of flexibility in the suspension which directly controls off-road performance characteristics. With limited articulation there is wheel lift traction loss and increased chassis contact. A major limitation to achieving full articulation is damper side load-the perpendicular force to the damper shaft created from angular misalignment in suspension travel. This also increases the compressive stress on the damper rod. Therefore, an optimization of the rod diameter, length, and material is required. The Ramp Travel Index (RTI) is a means of expressing articulation by using the measure of ramp height that can be attained by a vehicle climbing with one wheel while maintaining contact with others. A high RTI indicates good off-road capability. There exists an interrelationship between suspension geometry, damper side load characteristics, and axle alignment in determining off-road performance; this paper proposes an optimization guideline to overall improve wheel articulation specifically for passenger vehicles through these parameters: wheel travel, suspension hard points, and damper mounting orientations.

Siddiqui, Arshad, Iqbal, Shoaib, Dwivedi, Sushil

Enhanced Methodologies for Predicting Automotive Wheel Bearing Life and Damage Using RLDA

2026-26-0482

1/16/2026

The durability of wheel bearings is assessed in terms of raceway life and flange life. Raceway life focuses on the performance and damage tolerance of rolling elements, while flange life evaluates the structural integrity of wheel flanges under operational stresses. Traditionally, durability predictions relied on conventional design methods and analytic formulas for raceway spalling, as well as static load assumptions for flange fatigue analysis. Recently, integrating design of experiments (DOE) with traditional approaches has enhanced these methods, enabling systematic evaluation of design variables and loading conditions. This paper introduces a methodology for analyzing raceway life and damage in automotive wheel bearings using RLDA (Road Load Data Acquisition) data. The process involves acquiring raw deterministic load data, filtering it to preserve high-peaked signals, and transforming the filtered data into block cycles derived from load time histories. Each block cycle contains load values and their frequency of application, providing a structured representation of dynamic loading scenarios. Raceway life evaluation emphasizes the cumulative effects of dynamic loads over time through techniques like load-cycle transformation. By incorporating road load data and equivalent load computations, damage mechanisms can be predicted. Simulating real-world conditions allows for numerical estimation of raceway life, offering insights into bearing longevity and reliability. A formula for calculating the equivalent load (P) is employed, using an exponent (e) to weigh and aggregate load values raised to its power, then normalizing by the total number of cycles. This approach simplifies complex load cases for faster, efficient evaluation. The methodology provides a systematic framework for assessing dynamic load impacts on raceways, aiding in life prediction and durability improvement.

Narendra, Vishwanath, Mane, Yogiraj, Paua, Ketan, Singh, Ram Krishnan, Vellandi, Vikraman

Wheel Corner Module Energy Losses and Potential Improvements

2026-26-0096

1/16/2026

With the inevitable shift of automotive industry towards E-mobility and mandatory fuel efficiency targets, there is a need to evaluate the energy losses in the vehicle & identify potential areas of improvement. Energy losses are calculated for different components in the corner module system of a passenger car. Contribution of losses (resistances) from respective component are depicted using simple analytical models. Potential energy saving improvements were identified and analyzed basis emerging technologies in respective areas.

Raghatate, Kumar Shreyas, Vedartham, Raghavendra, Khanger, Rakesh, Bisht, Arun

Durability Validation of Full Vehicle Structures Using Strain Correlation and RLDA-Based Simulations

2026-26-0523

1/16/2026

Durability validation of full vehicle structures is crucial to ensure long-term performance and structural integrity under real-world loading conditions. Physical test strain and finite element (FE) strain correlation is vital for accurate fatigue damage predictions. During torture track testing of the prototype vehicle, wheel center loads were measured using wheel force transducers (WFTs). In same prototype strain time histories were recorded at critical structural locations using strain gauges. Preliminary FE analysis was carried out to find out critical stress locations, which provided the basis for placement of strain gauges. Measured loads at wheel centers were then used in Multi Body Dynamics (MBD) simulations to calculate the loads at all suspension mount points on BIW. Using the loads at hard points transient analyses were performed to find out structural stress response. Strain outputs from the FE model were compared with physical measurements. Insights gained from these comparisons were used to update the model to achieve better correlation with test data. The findings of this paper establish a robust methodology for improving vehicle durability assessments by enhancing confidence in fatigue life predictions and structural performance. By integrating physical testing and FE simulations, this approach ensures accurate strain correlation and effective validation of long-term performance. It also provides a scalable framework for validating structural changes, supporting lightweight material integration, and enabling Value Analysis/Value Engineering (VAVE) initiatives to optimize cost-effectiveness and performance. This methodology strengthens simulation-driven durability development, offering valuable insights for future vehicle programs.

Jaju, Mayur, Dokhale, Sandeep, Gadre, Nilesh, Patil, Sanjay

Design of a McPherson Strut Based Split Link Front Suspension for a Higher Rear to Front Weight Ratio SUV with Least Turning Circle Diameter

2026-26-0092

1/16/2026

Generally, in an electric sports utility vehicle with rear mounted powertrain the mass distribution is greater in the rear compared to front. This higher rear to front weight distribution results in oversteer behavior during high-speed cornering deteriorating vehicle handling & risking passenger safety. To compensate this inherent oversteer nature of such vehicles & produce understeer behavior, the steering rack is placed frontwards of the front wheel center for toe-out behavior due to lateral compliance during cornering. This compensation measure results in lower Ackermann percentage resulting in higher turning circle diameter deteriorating vehicle maneuverability. This paper proposes a design to obtain ideal understeer gradient with minimal turning circle diameter through utilization of split link technology with a McPherson Strut based suspension framework & frontwards placed steering rack. This suspension is utilized in our Mahindra Inglo platform. This paper elaborates on how through split links, variable knuckle length arm can be achieved which helps in achieving greater outer to inner wheel steering turn angle rate effectively improving Ackermann percentage & minimizing turning circle diameter. Apart from that the design mentioned herein allows greater manipulation of longitudinal & lateral compliance due to partial decoupling of both by split links. This overall improves longitudinal compliance resulting in better plushness during bumps improving ride without compromising handling characteristics of the vehicle. The suspension design is also optimized for wheel travel of 185mm, higher than benchmarks to provide enough wheel traction as well as comfort on hilly terrains & city roads of India.

Nadkarni, Ameya Ravindra, Mhatre, Nitij, Patnala, Avinash, NAYAK, Bhargav

Experimental Evaluation of High Energy Impact Test of Wheel Rim

2026-26-0504

1/16/2026

High energy impact testing using free fall mass is a crucial method for evaluating the structural integrity, and safety performance of automotive components subjected to sudden impact forces. This study focuses on assessing critical parts such as wheel rims, suspension knuckles, commonly exposed to unintentional impacts during vehicle operation, maintenance, or collisions. The test involves dropping a standardized mass from predetermined heights onto the component to simulate real-world impact scenarios. Key performance indicators include deformation, crack propagation, fracture resistance, and energy absorption capacity. Wheel rims and knuckles are evaluated for their ability to maintain structural integrity under localized impact without compromising vehicle handling or safety. Seats and related interior structures are tested to ensure occupant protection during crash-like events. Other components, such as brackets, mounts, or housings, are included based on functional criticality and exposure risk. Results from the free fall impact tests inform design optimizations, material selection (e.g., aluminium alloys, composites, high-strength steels), and manufacturing processes to improve product reliability and compliance with automotive safety requirements. This approach supports the development of robust vehicle systems capable of withstanding harsh real-world conditions, ultimately enhancing vehicle safety, performance, and customer satisfaction.

Roham, Prasad, Bagade, Mohan, Sinnarkar, Nitin, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram

Wheel Side Load Calculation using the Strain Measurement on Swingarm and Duty Cycle Development

2026-26-0583

1/16/2026

Typically duty cycle development for any component carried out in the absence of direct acting load will be based on the measured strain from the RLDA and comparing it with the rig level testing. The biggest drawback from such an approach is the fact that the selected loads can be drastically different from the actual experienced peak load from the actual RLDA. This happens because the strain gauges will have sensitivity toward all three directional loads and sometimes due to complex structure design uni directional sensitive locations are difficult to find out or strain gauge. This will lead to over predicting the loads in some cases and the selected load may end up yielding the component in a single cycle itself. This paper discusses the method employed to calculate the loads at the input load location using the strain gauges which are cross sensitive and using that input loads to select the loads for the testing of the component. Also it talks about the constraints it faces while trying to achieve the same and assumptions/considerations based on practical constraints to achieve the optimal results. Since it involves back calculating the input loads, this will help for the direct comparison based on loads and helps to improve the testing effectiveness to avoid anomalies in the results. Also this can be deployed for the various components and helps in improving the testing and simulation accuracy for improving the results in predicting the fatigue life and life expectancy of the components/vehicles.

Anandh, Sudheep, Prasad, Sathish, R S, Mahenthran

Road Noise Improvement of a Passenger Vehicle through End-to-End CAE-Simulation Using Transfer Path Analysis (TPA) Approach

2026-26-0431

1/16/2026

Refined NVH performance of a vehicle is a mark of premium quality. Achieving the desired NVH performance in different vehicle operating conditions is always a Herculean task and early stage “CAE design recommendations” play crucial role in overall vehicle design development. This becomes tougher when the program is very much cost, weight and timeline sensitive. This paper explores simulation approach for addressing a major noise issue for a vehicle running at a constant speed on a rough road. While working on any issue, the first and the most critical step is to identify the exact root cause of the issue. Hence, we propose a detailed full vehicle level “contribution analysis (CA) + transfer path analysis (TPA)” methodology (everything done through the simulation) and then go for the design recommendations to improve the performance. We used road excitation power spectral density (PSD) as the input at all the four wheels (spindle locations) calculated through MBD software. The first step i.e. contribution analysis, pointed out the dominant spindle location (out of 4 wheel-spindles) and the direction of the excitation. The second step i.e. TPA, gave the exact attachment point on the BIW with direction through which forces will be passed on to the vehicle cabin. The operational deflection shape (ODS) based on above root cause identification highlighted the weak design zone. With proposed design modifications the critical noise was reduced significantly to meet target performance level. In summary, given correct inputs, CA + TPA approach at full vehicle (FV) level in CAE simulations is very effective approach to track down any issue. This methodology can be extended to all the different CAE load cases (vehicle operating scenarios).

Mahajani, Mihir, Nascimento, Fabio, Adinarayana Reddy, Kodidela, Matyal, Mahantesh, Tenagi, Irappa, Sardar, Chenna

Static Rollover Stability Analysis of Heavy Tipper Vehicle

2026-26-0090

1/16/2026

Heavy tipper vehicles are primarily utilized for transporting ores and construction materials. These vehicles often operate in challenging locations, such as mining sites, riverbeds, and stone quarries, where the roads are unpaved and characterized by highly uneven elevations in both the longitudinal and lateral directions of vehicle travel. During the unloading process, the tipper bodies are raised to significant heights, which increases the vehicle's centre of gravity, particularly if the payload material does not discharge quickly. Such conditions can lead to tipper rollover accidents, causing severe damage to life and substantial vehicle breakdowns. To analyse this issue, a study is conducted on the vehicle design parameters affecting the rollover stability of a 35-ton GVW tipper using multi-body simulations in ADAMS software. The tilt table test was simulated to determine the table angle at which wheel lift occurs. Initially, simulations are performed with the rigid body model, and the results are validated using the calculation method specified in the ECE R 111 regulation. Subsequently, additional factors, such as lash in the suspension and body joints, as well as the flexibility of the vehicle structure, are incorporated into the simulation model to analyse variations in rollover threshold angle during the tilt table test.

Vichare, Chaitanya Ashok, Patil, Sudhir, Gupta, Amit

Wheel and Wheel Trim Weathering Testing for Paint Coatings

J2633_202601 (Current)

1/9/2026

This SAE lab test procedure should be used when performing the following specialized weathering tests for wheels; Florida Exposure, QUV, Xenon and Carbon Weatherometer. In addition to these procedures, some additional post-weathering tests may be specified. Please refer to customer specifications for these requirements.

Wheel Standards Committee

Kinematics-Based Differential In-Situ Steering Control for Distributed-Drive Electric Vehicles

2025-01-7333

12/31/2025

In-situ steering can significantly improve the vehicle's maneuverability in narrow spaces, especially suitable for extreme scenarios such as off-road driving and professional operations. For distributed drive electric vehicles, kinematics-based left and right wheel differential control and dynamics-based vehicle yaw control can achieve in-situ steering, however, the two methods have different effects on in-situ steering performance. This paper proposes a kinematics-based distributed drive electric vehicle differential in-situ steering control method, which first establishes the functional relationship between the drive pedal and the expected yaw rate, so that the driver can adjust the steering speed. The initial reference wheel speed is calculated from the expected yaw rate, and the reference wheel speed is adjusted by feedback from the actual and expected yaw rate errors to improve the tracking accuracy. On this basis, the sliding mode control algorithm is used to calculate the required wheel torque, and finally the differential movement is realized by applying reverse drive torque to the wheels on both sides. The simulation results show that on the road surface of 0.85, the lateral offset is increased by 15.7% but the longitudinal offset is reduced by 64% compared with the PID control, and the lateral offset is reduced by 98.6% and the longitudinal offset is reduced by 97.5% compared with the yaw rate PID control, the steering radius can be less than 0.1m, which greatly improves the stability and accuracy of in-situ steering.

Chen, Jingxu, Li, Yang, Zhang, Yi, Zhao, Hongwang, Qiao, Miaomiao, Wang, Beibei, Wu, Dongmei

A Unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive Framework for Sensorless Control of Brake-By-Wire Systems

2025-01-7328

12/31/2025

Conventional control of Brake-by-Wire (BBW) systems, including electro-hydraulic brake(EHB) and electro-mechanical brake(EMB), relys on pressure sensors, the errors of which usually resulted inaccurate braking force tracking bringing a lot of safety hazards, e.g., wheel locking and slipping. To address challenges of accurate braking force control under the circumstance of the system nonliearities (such as friction) and uncertainties (such as stiffness characteristics) for a sensorless BBW system, this paper proposes a unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive (LLP) control framework to enable fast and precise brake control. The work has been conducted with three new contributions in the three cascaded stages within the control framework: in the coarse compensation stage, a load-adaptive LuGre friction model is proposed to handle modellable nonlinearities; in the fine compensation stage, an Adaptive Extended Disturbance Observer (AEDO) is developed to estimate and compensate for parameter uncertainties and external disturbances; and in the fine control stage, a cascaded nonlinear controller is designed to suppress unmodeled dynamics and residual disturbances. Through real-vehicle experiments, the proposed LLP method has been validated under both pulse and gradual braking conditions for BBW systems (include EHB and EMB systems). Under pulse braking conditions, the proposed method yields maximum response errors of 1.2bar for the EHB system and 6.3% for the EMB system. Under gradual braking conditions, the steady-state errors are 0.7bar for EHB and 1.74% for EMB. These results empirically confirm the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed method.

Zhou, Quan, Lv, Zongyu, Han, Wei, Li, Congcong, Zhao, Xinyu, Xiong, Lu, Shu, Qiang

Coordinated Control of DYC/ABS for Cornering Braking Based on Driver Intention

2025-01-7340

12/31/2025

This paper proposes a DYC/ABS coordinated control strategy for cornering and braking based on driver intention. A hierarchical control structure is established, where the upper-level controller uses a vehicle dynamics model to calculate the additional yaw moment required by the DYC controller to track the desired yaw rate and sideslip angle, as well as the driver’s intended braking intensity. Taking multiple constraints into account, a quadratic programming algorithm is employed to optimize the distribution of braking forces among the four wheels. The lower-level ABS controller is designed with multiple thresholds and corresponding control phases to precisely regulate the hydraulic pressure of individual wheel cylinders. In emergency braking scenarios where ABS intervention may conflict with the upper-layer braking force allocation, a rule-based, stepwise diagonal pressure reduction compensation strategy is proposed. This strategy fully considers the influence of longitudinal and lateral forces of each wheel on the vehicle's yaw moment. By selectively reducing brake pressure, it generates an additional yaw moment to compensate for the negative impact of ABS on vehicle steerability, while ensuring a smooth pressure transition. The proposed strategy is validated on a Driver-in-the-Loop (DIL) simulation platform built using NI PXI, DSPACE, and external driver inputs such as the steering wheel and brake pedal. Under various driver braking intentions and cornering scenarios with high and low road adhesion, the strategy shows significant improvements in fulfilling driver braking demands and enhancing vehicle yaw stability compared to the non-optimized strategy.

Zou, Yan, Ma, Yao, Kong, Yan, Pei, Xiaofei

Wheel Speed Control for Corner Module ABS with Full Brake-By-Wire System

2025-01-7322

12/31/2025

The electro-mechanical brake (EMB), with its continuous torque control characteristic, can enhance the performance of anti-lock braking control in intelligent chassis system. Therefore, in this study, a corner module anti-lock braking system (ABS) using EMB is proposed for intelligent chassis driven by in-wheel motors (IWMs). The corner module design can directly utilize the high-bandwidth speed signal of the IWM. This transforms traditional ABS wheel slip rate control into low-latency, high-bandwidth wheel speed tracking control under strong transient conditions. As a result, the control loop is simplified and signal transmission delay is reduced, which allows EMB to fully exploit its performance advantages. Additionally, this study proposes an Improved Higher-order Sliding Mode Control strategy with Super-Twisting Algorithm (IHSMC-STA) for wheel speed tracking control. The proposed strategy enhances the traditional first-order sliding mode exponential reaching law and integrates the Super-Twisting Algorithm to achieve high-precision and robust ABS control. Finally, experimental validation is conducted through both single-wheel ABS test bench and real vehicle testing. The results demonstrate that the proposed corner module ABS system achieves faster response and enhanced stability in anti-lock braking control under various road surface conditions, thereby confirming the effectiveness of the developed approach.

Chang, Cheng, Chu, Liang, Zhao, Di

Impact of Tire-Ground Contact Width on Pavement Roughness Evaluation

2025-99-0256

12/23/2025

The International Roughness Index (IRI) is a key indicator for evaluating the performance of road surfaces. However, traditional measurement methods only focus on the evaluation data of a single longitudinal section and do not consider the lateral difference between the actual contact area between the tire and the road surface, which may lead to inaccurate evaluation results. In recent years, with the advancement of 3D laser scanning and digital photogrammetry technology, full-section data acquisition has brought new possibilities for roughness evaluation. However, how to find a balance between data fineness and computing efficiency has become a core problem that needs to be solved. Based on the principle of interaction between vehicles and road surfaces, this paper proposes to include only the pavement height data within the tire width range into IRI analysis, and establishes an evaluation framework based on standard tire-ground contact width. This method not only retains the key information of horizontal unevenness, but also increases the computing speed by reducing the amount of data. In the experiment, a vehicle-mounted three-dimensional measurement system was used to measure the height of the actual roads, and the variation patterns of IRI values under different contact widths were analyzed. The study found that the tire-ground contact width will affect the IRI calculation results, but the degree of impact varies according to the wheel position. The IRI value of the left wheel area is not sensitive to the change in contact width, while the IRI value will fluctuate significantly due to the lateral slope of the road surface or structural asymmetry in the right wheel area. We recommend that 200 mm be used as the recommended value for the tire-ground contact width, which can not only ensure the evaluation accuracy, but also improve detection efficiency.

An, Huazhen, Wang, Rui, Han, Xiaokun, Luo, Yingchao

Train Wheel Tread Defects Detection Algorithm Based on SEN-YOLO

2025-99-0458

12/10/2025

Railway is a key component driving innovation and sustainability in transportation systems. Aiming at solving the problems of metal reflection, oil contamination and complex background interference in railway wheel tread defect detection, this paper will focus on the railway wheel tread defect detection method, SEN-YOLO, based on the YOLOv5s and the comparison between different generations of YOLO detection. To better adapt the model to actual detection scenarios, multi-stage dynamic data augmentation strategy combining illumination robustness optimization and motion blur simulation is designed to construct a railway wheel dataset that closely mirrors real-world conditions. In terms of model architecture, the YOLOv5s-based approach integrates the Squeeze-and-Excitation Networks (SENets) module to enhance the capture of minor defect features and employs an adaptive feature fusion strategy to mitigate background noise. To further improve detection accuracy and generalization, the YOLOv5s network structure is optimized. A multi-scale feature fusion algorithm in the backbone network improves processing of different scale defect features; Additionally, the feature enhancement module is depoyed in the neck network boosts feature expression and the ability to distinguish; Furthermore, an adaptive loss function in the head network balances detection effects. Trained on the open-source railway wheel tread defect dataset from Roboflow and tested, SEN-YOLO achieves 84.1% mAP on the custom dataset and a detection speed of 35 FPS on an RTX3070 GPU, a 12% improvement over the baseline YOLOv5s model. Comparative experiments with other mainstream object detection algorithms show that SEN-YOLO performs well with high detection accuracy and stability, meeting the practical needs of railway wheel tread defect detection.

You, Lijie, Mo, Yayelin, Tu, Jingjie, Zhou, Hang

Research on Vibration Tension Control of High-Speed Tracked Vehicle Systems

2025-99-0424

12/10/2025

Addressing the vibration issues during the operation of high-speed tracked vehicles, a dynamic tension control method based on an electro-hydraulic servo system is investigated, along with a comparative study of two tension control strategies. Based on the force analysis of the idler wheel and curved arm, a theoretical model for tension near the idler wheel is established. The accuracy of this theoretical numerical model is verified by comparing it with the results of multibody system dynamics simulations conducted in RecurDyn. A co-simulation platform for electro-hydraulic servo control is built using the software interfaces of RecurDyn, Simulink, and AMESim to tune the PID control parameters and achieve dynamic tension control of the track. Simulation results indicate that the root mean square value of the track plate displacement is reduced by 18% when using the PID control strategy, and by 33.3% when employing the fuzzy PID control strategy. Furthermore, the track tension approaches the ideal value. The data suggests that the hydraulic tension control strategies studied in this paper can effectively reduce the vertical displacement of the track plate, thereby lowering the risk of track damage and enhancing the smoothness and reliability of the driving process.

Huang, Zhangxian, Deng, Jiahui

Wheels/Rims - Truck and Bus - Performance Requirements and Test Procedures for Radial and Cornering Fatigue

J267_202511 (Current)

11/19/2025

This SAE Recommended Practice provides minimum performance target and uniform laboratory procedures for fatigue testing of wheels and demountable rims intended for normal highway use on trucks, buses, truck-trailers, and multipurpose vehicles. Users may establish design criteria exceeding the minimum performance target for added confidence in a design. The cycle target noted in Tables 1 and 2 are based on Weibull statistics using two parameter, median ranks, 50% confidence level and 90% reliability, and beta equal to two, typically noted as B10C50. For other wheels intended for normal highway use and temporary use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J328. For wheels used on trailers drawn by passenger cars, light trucks, or multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J1204. For bolt together military wheels, refer to SAE J1992. This document does not cover other special application wheels and rims.

Truck and Bus Wheel Committee

Research on Off-Road Performance Optimization Strategy for Agricultural Smart Vehicles Based on Traction Control System

2025-99-0118

11/11/2025

(TC)The paper presents a designed and evaluated optimal traction control (TC) strategy for unmanned agriculture vehicle, where onboard sensors acquire various real-time information about wheel speed, load sharing, and terrain characteristics to achieve the precise control of the powertrain by establishing an optimal control command; moreover, the developed AMT-adaptive SMC combines the AMT adaptive control algorithm and the SMC to implement the dynamic gear shifting, torque output, and driving mode switching to obtain an optimal power distribution according to different speed demand and harvest load. Based on the establishment of models of the autonomous agriculture vehicle and corresponding tire model, a MATLAB/Simulink method based on dynamic simulation is adopted to simulate the unmanned agricultural vehicle traversing different terrains conditions. The results from comparison show that the energy saving reaches 19.0%, rising from 2. 1 kWh/km to 1. 7 kWh/km, an increase in gradeability from 22°to 30°and improvement of soil navigation tracking accuracy about 66. 7%, that is, from ±15 cm to ±5 cm.

Feng, Zhenghao, Lu, Yunfan, Gao, Duan, An, Yi, Zhou, Chuanbo

Characterization of the Brake Linings Coefficient of Friction by Means of Instrumented Suspensions Equipped on a Hybrid Race Vehicle

10-10-01-0004

11/8/2025

The knowledge of the brake linings coefficient of friction (BLCF) is crucial for the control of the braking moment in modern vehicles equipped with electric powertrains. In the case of race vehicles equipped with carbon–carbon brakes, the coefficient of friction exhibits great variations as a function of the main influencing factors, namely the pressure, the temperature, and the sliding speed at the pad–disc interface. In this work, a Le Mans Hypercar instrumented with more than 150 sensors was adopted to perform the characterization of the BLCF from racetrack acquisitions. The front and rear left suspensions of the vehicle were instrumented with strain gauge channels and position transducers to acquire the reaction loads at the upright and the orientation of the arms. Then, the geometric matrix method was implemented for calculating the moments at the upright from which the braking torque was derived without the need to know any of the wheel inertia, nor the driveshaft torque. Data from multiple acquisitions across different racetracks, operating temperatures, and ambient conditions were used to characterize the BLCF of the front and rear carbon brakes equipped on the vehicle. After implementing pre-processing steps aimed at improving data homogeneity, two friction maps were characterized for the front and rear systems, respectively. The friction maps were validated against new experimental data showing an average 3% error reduction over assuming a constant BLCF. Accordingly, the characterized friction maps can be integrated in the brake-by-wire system of the vehicle for accurate caliper pressure control through real-time estimation of the BLCF from commonly available sensor signals, such as caliper pressure, wheel speed, and disc temperature. In this context, the effectiveness of the friction maps was demonstrated by comparing the predicted brake moments with the torques measured by the instrumented suspensions, highlighting the advantages over assuming a constant BLCF.

Cortivo, Davide, Vendramin, Mattia, Dindo, Luigi

“Reduction in Product Development Time by Field-To-Lab Simulation”

2025-28-0282

11/6/2025

Puddling is a crucial process in rice cultivation, involving the preparation of the soil in a flooded field to create a soft, muddy seedbed. There are two classifications for puddling: full cage and half cage. Full cage puddling involves replacing the rear wheels of the tractor with steel paddle wheels, which are used to till the rice paddies directly without any additional implement. In the half cage puddling, the rear wheels remain on the tractor, and a smaller cage or paddle wheel is attached to the outside. Considering the field size, the operator often releases the clutch very quickly after a speed or direction change. This generates torque spikes, which are harmful to Transmission Gears and Clutches. This can lead to gear teeth bending fatigue failure due to repeated higher bending stresses. In this paper, a study related to how to reduce overall product development time by simulating bending fatigue failure of gear in lab environment is presented. A systematic approach is used to understand the field application, data acquisition, Data analysis, new test stand development and replication of failure mode in lab environment. This approach resulted in significant time savings. Multiple design iterations with minimal variation can be executed. This eliminates dependency on field, environmental conditions, and different variabilities. Finally, it supports timely decision-making based on the outcomes.

Pathan, Irfan Hamidulla, Bardia, Prashant

Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions

2025-32-0033

11/3/2025

This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the mechanical equilibrium conditions under these circumstances. It identifies the limits of braking deceleration and turning lateral acceleration based on tipping conditions and examines the changes in tire vertical loads during braking and turning, which influence the upper limits of tire force generation. Future dynamic analyses will rely on evaluations using dynamic simulation models. These analyses will take into account not only dynamic factors such as vehicle inertia but also the significant influence of actively controlled tilting behavior, as previously demonstrated by studies using dynamic simulation tools. In this study, the validity of the mechanical equilibrium analysis is confirmed through simplified dynamic simulations. Based on this validation, the study identifies key points to focus on in future detailed dynamic behavior analyses.

Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya

Higher-Strength, Higher-Toughness Die Cast Wheel Material using Recycled Aluminum

2025-32-0007

11/3/2025

In an attempt to reduce CO2 release from alloy wheel production, we have developed an aluminum alloy for casting that satisfies necessary property requirements using recycled aluminum, but without heat treatment. The wheel is a critical safety feature of any vehicle, and it should have toughness and strength .In many wheels, virgin aluminum containing small amounts of impurities is used to maintain toughness, and heat treatment (T6), which is post-casting quick heating and quenching, is applied to provide strength. At the start of this project, we focused on two wheel-manufacturing processes, production of virgin aluminum and heat treatment, from which a large amount of CO2 is released. By switching to recycled aluminum, CO2 was reduced to one-ninth the original amount. The issue with recycled material is that impurities grow in the metal structures as intermetallic compounds and this reduces toughness. To deal with this issue, we have chosen high-pressure die casting (HPDC), in which the hot material after the casting is quenched to allow dispersion of intermetallic compounds in the form of fine particles. As for the chemical composition, we determined the amounts of additives (Mn) that facilitated fine particles of Fe, which is a common impurity that lowers toughness. Combining with the quenching effect, the amounts of additives (Si and Mg) were determined to obtain the target strength without heat treatment. With this process, we achieved a wheel using recycled aluminum and ordinary casting equipment without heat treatment that is the same weight as one made of virgin aluminum. The elimination of heat treatment helps to enhance wheel production efficiency by 15% and reduce CO2 release by 80%.

Suzuki, Noritaka

On Optimal Tire Usage in the Path-Tracking Control of Four-Wheel Independent Steering Four-Wheel Independent Drive Electric Vehicles

12-09-02-0014

10/22/2025

Four-wheel independent steering four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles have an independent steering motor and an independent driving motor for each wheel, for a total of eight motors. About 28 works in this emerging field have shown path-tracking control algorithms for these vehicles, 18 of them explicitly or implicitly aspire for a condition known as optimal tire usage. This article first defines this optimality condition and explains its significance. Second, this article identifies three indicators of tire usage that aid in assessing the existing algorithms. Third, this article performs block diagram examination of four of the 18 works, revealing significant commonalities across the 28 works and identifying areas for improvement in three of the four algorithms. Lastly, this article suggests motor control systems to fill these gaps. Furthermore, it employs these motor control systems in one of the four algorithms, and illustrates path-tracking and achievement of the optimality condition in simulation. This shows that the motor control systems are sufficient (in simulation) to meet the optimality condition in one work. They are likely sufficient for all path-tracking algorithms employing appropriate control allocation to achieve the optimality condition.

Kumar, Dileep, Potluri, Ramprasad

Simulation Study of Wheel Bearing Friction Losses at Vehicle Level

2025-01-0399

10/7/2025

With the ongoing electrification of vehicles, components contributing a minor share of overall drivetrain losses are coming into focus. Analyzing these losses is crucial for enhancing the energy efficiency of modern vehicles and meeting the increasing demands for sustainability and extended driving range. These components include wheel bearings, whose friction losses are influenced by parameters such as temperature, mechanical loads, and mounting situation. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the resulting friction losses and their dependence on the mentioned influencing parameters at an early stage of development, both through test bench measurements and with the help of simulation models. To achieve these objectives, this submission presents a methodology that combines test bench measurements with a measurement-based simulation of the friction losses of wheel bearings occurring in the vehicle as a complete system under varying driving cycles and parameters. For this purpose, an existing complete vehicle simulation model is extended by a loss and thermal model of wheel bearings. The integrated loss model of the bearings is based on a measurement data-based loss map that takes the influencing parameters into account. The thermal behavior of the bearings is implemented in the model by using thermodynamic equations and is validated with test bench measurement data. Finally, the losses determined by using the simulation model are compared as a function of the driving cycles and the effects of influencing parameters such as environment temperature, vehicle speed and wheel load in order to quantify the impact of the boundary conditions on the friction losses. With the help of the simulation model, it is possible to quantify the influence of wheel bearing losses on overall drivetrain efficiency for various parameters in a cost- and time efficient manner. The presented methodology can also be applied to other bearings in the vehicle with slight modifications.

Hartmann, Lukas, Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman, Notz, Fabian

Optimization of Steering Geometry in Four-Wheel Steering Vehicles to Minimize Bump Steer and Exploit Kinematic Steering Using a Multibody Approach

2025-01-5063

9/24/2025

This paper presents a methodology for optimizing the steering system of a multi-purpose agricultural vehicle (MPAV) equipped with four-wheel steering (4WS) and a symmetrically configured double-wishbone suspension on both axles. The MPAVs are often prone to bump steer issues due to their narrow track width and the need for long suspension travel. The objective is to define and dimension the steering geometry while maintaining the existing suspension kinematics and preserving the hard points of the wheel hubs. In the scientific literature, this issue is typically addressed by adjusting the hard points of both the steering mechanism and the suspension kinematics. The proposed optimization framework begins with a sensitivity analysis of key design parameters: the position and length of the steering actuator. Based on this analysis, the problem is formulated as an optimization task with two different objective functions, whose solutions are then compared. The functions aim to minimize bump steer and replicate the kinematic steering geometry for both front wheel steering (FWS) and all-wheel steering (AWS) configurations. The steering system is modeled using a multibody (MB) approach, and a genetic algorithm is employed for optimization. Finally, the optimized solutions are evaluated and compared using a full-scale MB vehicle model.

Belloni, Mattia, Vignati, Michele, Sabbioni, Edoardo

Actuator-to-Vehicle Joint Estimation of Clamping Force for Sensorless Control of the Electro-Mechanical Brake System

2025-01-0338

9/15/2025

The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) is a promising brake actuating system for electrified vehicle. To enhance the system function safety while saving space from redundancy sensors, this paper studied sensorless climbing force control for the EMB where a new climbing force estimator is proposed by fusing the information from vehicle dynamics and EMB states. The work was done with three contributions: 1) The priori clamping force characteristics were implemented to build the estimator with two parallel models, one of which was derived from the actuator rigid-body dynamics while the other was derived from vehicle longitudinal dynamics model; 2) a proportional-integral (PI) observer utilizing wheel speed residual signals was developed to correct the initial estimates iteratively; 3) a fuzzy control controller was proposed to optimize the key parameters of the PI observer. Comparative study was conducted on a co-simulation platform and the results showed that the actuator-to-vehicle joint estimation method can reduce more than 28% root mean square error (RMSE) compared with the conventional actuator model-based estimation method by utilizing PI observer. After the optimization of key parameters, the optimal ratio can reach 32%. Robustness analysis demonstrated that the climbing force estimations accuracy across the studied distinct braking scenarios were consistency.

Xing, Yipu, Zhou, Quan, Cheng, Yulin, Li, Congcong, Han, Wei, Zhuo, Guirong, Xiong, Lu

Design Considerations for Wheel Bearing Outer Ring for Electric Vehicles

2025-01-0367

9/15/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) require improved drag performance from wheel bearings to achieve a longer range. EVs are heavier and have higher torque output compared to internal combustion-powered vehicles. Due to the increased weight and torque of EVs, there will be higher loads at the bearing-to-knuckle joint. These increased loads may necessitate higher clamp loads to maintain joint integrity. However, higher clamp loads can lead to distortion or reduced roundness of the wheel bearing outer ring. Such distortion permanently increases drag and reduces bearing life. Therefore, after vehicle corner assembly with higher clamp loads, it is critical to minimize outer ring distortion during the initial assembly and throughout the bearing's lifespan. This paper will cover the design considerations for the wheel bearing outer ring to minimize distortion, utilizing Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) analysis for various designs. A Design of Experiments (DOE) will be conducted to understand the effects of M12 versus M14 mounting bolts, assembly stiffness, outer ring mounting area, knuckle bolt pitch circle diameter (PCD), concavity, and bearing outer ring flange thickness. A second DOE will investigate the non-linear effects of the strongest factors identified in the initial study.

Mandhadi, Chaitanya Reddy, Callaghan, Kevin, Sutherlin, Robert, Lee, Seungpyo, Lee, Yeonsik, Bovee, Benjamin

Dynamic Analysis of Automotive Wheel Bearings

2025-01-0366

9/15/2025

Bearings are essential mechanical components that support external loads and facilitate rotational motion. With the increasing demand for high-performance applications in industries such as semiconductors, aerospace, and robotics, the need for accurate and robust performance evaluation has intensified. Traditionally, bearing performance has been assessed using static or quasi-static theoretical approaches. However, these methods are limited in their ability to capture time-dependent behaviors, which are critical in real-world applications. In this study, a rigid body dynamics analysis was proposed to evaluate the time-dependent behavior of bearings. The methodology was first applied to a deep groove ball bearing, and the results were compared with those obtained from bearing theory to validate the approach. Subsequently, the method was extended to an automotive wheel bearing, and the time-dependent contact angles and ball loads were analyzed under axial and radial loading conditions. The results demonstrate that the proposed approach provides reliable predictions and enables performance evaluation beyond the capabilities of conventional static theory.

Lee, Seungpyo

Dimensional Compatibility for Commercial Vehicles Fitment of Complete Wheels in Drum Brake Applications - Truck and Bus

J1865_202508 (Current)

8/22/2025

This SAE Recommended Practice defines a clearance line for establishing dimensional compatibility between drum brakes and wheels with 19.5-inch, 22.5-inch, and 24.5-inch diameter rims. Wheels designed for use with drum brakes may not be suitable for disc brake applications. The lines provided establish the maximum envelope for brakes, including all clearances, and minimum envelope for complete wheels to allow for interchangeability. This document addresses the dimensional characteristics only and makes no reference to the performance, operational dynamic deflections, or heat dissipation of the system. Valve clearances have not been included in the fitment lines. Bent valves may be required to clear brake drums. Disc brake applications may require additional running clearances beyond those provided by the minimum contour lines. Mounting systems as noted are referenced in SAE J694.

Truck and Bus Wheel Committee

Developing Military Light Utility Vehicle Performance Based on Air Semi-Active Suspension System Using Recurrent Neural Network–Based Controller

10-09-04-0030

6/19/2025

This research presents a semi-active suspension system that combines an air spring and a magneto-rheological (MR) fluid damper to produce both active force and variable damping rates based on the road conditions. The suspension system used for the military light utility vehicle (MLUV) has seven degrees of freedom. A nonlinear model predictive control system generates the desired active force for the air spring control signal, while the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) estimates the target tracking of the intended damping force. The recurrent neural network is designed to develop a controller for an identification system. To achieve the optimal voltage for the MR damper without log time, it is used to simultaneously determine the active control force of the air spring by modifying the necessary damping force tracking. The MLUV suspension system is integrated with the traction control system to improve overall vehicle stability. A fuzzy traction controller adjusts the throttle angle based on the driver’s throttle input and the slip ratio of the driving wheels. Constant speed, passing maneuvers, increasing acceleration, and forceful braking are the four scenarios the driver uses to assess the traction control capability. Investigations are conducted to examine the interaction between the suspension and traction systems and how this interaction influences the integrated model that represents the vehicle’s behavior and performance. The effectiveness of the suspension is assessed under bump and random road excitations, based on the presentation of vehicle performance criteria in both the time and frequency domains. The results of the simulation show that in terms of ride comfort and vehicle stability, the air–MR suspension system performs significantly better than the passive suspension system. A fuzzy traction controller can smooth out the torque applied to the vehicle’s wheels by adjusting the engine’s speed and torque.

Shehata Gad, Ahmed

Automobile Wheel Alignment and Wheel Balancing, Second Edition

R-5916/12/2025

With over thirty years of hands-on experience in designing, developing, and patenting products in the wheel alignment industry, the author brings invaluable expertise to the second edition of this essential guide. Perfectly suited for mechanics, technicians, engineers, and even vehicle owners, this book goes beyond the basics to offer a comprehensive understanding of wheel alignment and its critical role in vehicle performance. The importance of proper wheel alignment and balancing cannot be overstated—incorrect alignment leads to premature tire wear and reduced safety. This updated edition provides in-depth coverage on wheel alignment techniques for light vehicles, commercial trucks, and trailers, with clear illustrations to help readers recognize and address various types of tire wear. The book explores everything from the mechanics of alignment to the impact of air pressure and tire rotation on longevity. With the growing need for vehicle maintenance, this guide empowers professionals to deliver top-tier service, ensuring long-lasting tire life and optimal vehicle performance. Whether you're a technician aiming to refine your skills or an engineer looking to deepen your knowledge, this book offers valuable insights into the world of wheel alignment. It’s a must-read for anyone involved in vehicle maintenance, ensuring better performance, reduced costs, and enhanced safety on the road.

R., Mananathan

A Review of Proposed Enhancements to the Broken Wheel Vertiport Marking & Symbology

F-0081-2025-0157

5/20/2025

Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft present a series of challenges to traditional aviation infrastructure that was designed for conventional rotorcraft. Questions have arisen within the vertical flight community as to the validity and applicability of applying current heliport markings and symbology to vertiports. Several of these questions were addressed in a previous paper from VFS Forum 80: "A Comparison of Proposed Concepts for Vertiport Markings and Symbology" (Ref. 6). In contrast, this paper extends that work and presents the results of additional research to enhance the visibility of the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) “Broken Wheel” symbology. These notional enhancements to the "Broken Wheel" symbology were evaluated over the course of an experimental study using helicopter-rated pilots in the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center’s S76-D and Loft Dynamics H125 and R22 rotorcraft flight simulators.

Johnson, Charles, Thompson, Lacey, Morfitt, Grant

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