Browse Topic: Wheels

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Bicycle Pitch-over Reconstruction Analysis2025-01-8684To be published on 04/01/2025
During a pitch-over event, the forward momentum of the combined bicycle and rider is suddenly impeded at the front tire and front axle causing the rider and bicycle to rotate about the bicycle front structures and also possibly propelling the rider forward. A pitch-over event can result in significant injuries to the rider. This paper presents the examination of the pitch-over of a bicycle by approaching the event using two different methods over what has been published previously. One method uses Newton’s 2nd Law directly and the other method uses the principle of impulse and momentum, the integrated form of Newton’s 2nd Law. The two methods provide useful equations, contributing to current literature on the topic of reconstructing and analyzing bicycle pitch-over incidents. The analysis is supplemented with Madymo simulation models to evaluate the kinematics and kinetics of the bicycle and rider interacting with front wheel obstructions of different heights. The effect of variables
Brach, R. Matthew, Kelley, Mireille, Van Poppel, Jon
Technical Paper
Multi-source error analysis for loading disk of suspension kinematics & compliance test bench2025-01-8291To be published on 04/01/2025
The suspension Kinematics & compliance (K&C) characteristics test bench can simulate the excitation of the road to the wheels under various typical working conditions in a quasi-static manner on the bench, enabling the measurement of the K&C characteristics of the suspension system without knowing the specific suspension structure form, parameters, etc., assisting in the entire design process of the vehicle. In this paper, aiming at various geometric source errors existing in the processing and assembly process of the K&C characteristic test bench, an evaluation method based on the homogeneous transformation matrix is proposed to establish the position error of the center of the end loading disk in the series motion chain. Firstly, the mapping relationship between the position error of the end loading disk in the series mechanism kinematic chain and the assembly error is established by using the homogeneous transformation matrix. Then, the change matrix of the coordinate system from
Sun, Haihua, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Mechanical Analysis of a Non-Pneumatic Tire’s Spokes2025-01-8327To be published on 04/01/2025
Mechanical analysis was performed of a non-pneumatic tire, specifically a Michelin Tweel size 18x8.5N10, that can be used up to a speed of 40 km/h. A Parylene-C coating was added to the rubber spoke specimens before performing both microscopic imaging and cyclic tensile testing. Initially, standard ASTM D412 specimens type C and A were cut from the wheel spokes, and then the specimens were subjected to deposition of a nanomaterial. The surfaces of the specimens were prepared in different ways to examine the influence on the material behavior including the stiffness and hysteresis. Microscopic imaging was performed to qualitatively compare the surfaces of the coated and uncoated specimens. Both coated and uncoated spoke specimens of each standard type were then subjected to low-rate cyclic tensile tests up to 500% strain. The results showed that the Parylene-C coating did not affect the maximum stress in the specimens, but did increase the residual strain. Type C specimens also had a
Collings, William, Li, Chengzhi, Schwarz, Jackson, Lakhtakia, Akhlesh, Bakis, Charles, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, El-Gindy, Moustafa
Technical Paper
Simulating the DrivAer Notchback Car Model using Wall-Function LES2025-01-8777To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper summarizes work on the application of a new and fully parallelized native GPU-based finite-volume solver on the DrivAER Notchback configuration using a wall-function LES approach. A series of meshes generated using a Rapid-Octree strategy have been investigated, and results for drag, surface pressure coefficient and velocity profile are compared with available experimental data.
Menter, Florian, Dalvi, Ashwini, Flad, David, Sharkey, Patrick
Technical Paper
Optimal usage of engine torque to engage a disconnect device in situations where battery power is not available2025-01-8578To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper introduces a novel approach to optimize battery power usage and optimal engine torque for wheel end disconnect device engagement under power constrained scenarios for range extended hybrid vehicles. Range extended hybrid architecture provides benefits of BEV architecture and relief the range anxiety that BEV drivers often have. The wheel end disconnect device helps improve the efficiency of the battery power usage when it is disconnected and provides better drivability and performance to fulfill driver demand when it is connected. Under power constraint scenario, the disconnect device engagement could take too long or eventually fail to engage and result in degradation for drivability and vehicle level performance. This novel approach is utilizing engine to either generate more power to spin up the disconnect motor faster under discharge limited case or generate less power to allow the disconnect motor to spin down under charge limited case. The effectiveness of this
Sha, Hangxing, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Khanal, Shishir, Rock, Joe, Patel, Nadirsh
Technical Paper
Research on Control Algorithm for Active Rear Wheel Steering System of Passenger Cars2025-01-8755To be published on 04/01/2025
With the continuous advancement of automotive technology, the active rear wheel steering system, serving as a crucial component for enhancing vehicle handling performance and safety, has garnered extensive attention. In this paper, the control algorithm and performance optimization of the active rear wheel steering system are deeply studied. Firstly, a complete vehicle dynamics model is established, providing a theoretical foundation for the research on control algorithms. Subsequently, the optimal control theory is adopted to achieve the control of the rear wheel steering angle, and the LQR control strategy with variable weight coefficients is proposed in response to the linear and nonlinear variations of the vehicle tire sideslip characteristics. Finally, taking the 2WS vehicle, the proportional steering control strategy for the front and rear wheels, and the proportional feedforward + yaw rate feedback control strategy as references, modeling and joint simulation based on the CarSim
Zhang, Yi, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu, Zhang, Yuzhou
Technical Paper
Aerodynamic Effect on Vehicle Handling2025-01-8754To be published on 04/01/2025
Vehicle handling is significantly influenced by aerodynamic forces, which alter the normal load distribution across all four wheels, affecting vehicle stability. These forces, including lift, drag, and side forces, cause complex weight transfers and vary nonlinearly with the vehicle's apparent velocity and orientation relative to wind direction. In this study, we simulate the vehicle traveling on a circular path with constant steering input, calculate the normal load on each tire using a weight transfer formula, calculate the effect of lift force on the vehicle on the front and rear, and calculate the vehicle dynamic relation at steady state because the frequency of change due to aero load is significantly less than that of yaw rate response. The wind velocity vector is constant while the vehicle drives in a circle, so the apparent wind velocity relative to the car is cyclical. Our approach focuses on the interaction between two fundamental nonlinearities: the nonlinear aerodynamic
Patil, Harshvardhan, Williams, Daniel
Technical Paper
Optimization Design of Formula E Racing Car Transmission and Wheel System2025-01-8505To be published on 04/01/2025
The paper provides a detailed analysis of the transmission system design under the single motor drive scheme, with a focus on the 2024 Formula SAE (FSAE). The selection of the motor type is determined based on race rules and battery box output power limits. In terms of transmission ratio design, this study takes into account the car's power, balancing acceleration ability and maximum speed to determine an optimal transmission ratio through theoretical calculations and empirical values. Furthermore, it explores how to optimize overall drive system performance by considering technical parameters, power requirements, economic considerations of each system assembly, and validates these findings through software simulations. Notably, significant improvements in reliability are achieved with the newly designed transmission system and wheel rim system while also proposing lightweighting methods for key components. We have carried out extensive verification in both simulation and real vehicle
Wang, Liuxin, Li, Chengfeng, Zhu, Xiran, Liu, Minmin
Technical Paper
Correlation of Vehicle drop test in front & rear wheel landing condition using multibody dynamics simulations2025-01-8638To be published on 04/01/2025
Two wheelers motorcycles are used for many purposes e.g. commuting from place to another, long highway rides, racing and off-roading. Motorcycles which are used in off-road conditions require large suspension strokes to absorb large oscillations due to road conditions. These motorcycles undergo jumps of different heights and different vehicle orientations. In some of the dynamic situations front wheel may land first than the rear and in some of the situations rear may land first as compared to front. To make sure that the vehicle is durable enough to withstand loads in such operating conditions, vehicle drop test was developed at component test lab where vehicle is dropped from predefined heights in both front & rear wheel landing conditions. Same load case is simulated in multibody dynamics to capture loads at important connections of the frame. This paper presents the correlation exercise carried out to validate MBD model and simulation process with test data captured during lab test
Jain, Arvind Kumar, Nirala, Deepak
Technical Paper
A drive anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for distributed three-axis drive vehicle2025-01-8303To be published on 04/01/2025
The research object of this project is the longitudinal and lateral control of the distributed three-axis drive tractor. Which is different from the traditional four motors power system layout is that the third axel have two motors while the second axel only have one motor. Compared with the traditional design, it can reduce the dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in high efficiency range by switching different working model. For example, when driving at high speed, only the two-axis motor works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerate or climb, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, established the vehicle model in Simulink firstly, and then Co-simulated with Trucksim. The longitudinal control identified the optimal slip rate of the road firstly, then used the adaptive sliding mode control to obtain the driving torque of each wheel, which can achieve well control effect under various road conditions and motion modes
Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Technical Paper
Quantifying the uncertainty in bicycle-computer speed measurements2025-01-8701To be published on 04/01/2025
The goal of this study is to quantify the uncertainty in bicycle computer measurements of speed. We acquired 100+ hours of data at 1-second intervals simultaneously from three Garmin Edge 530 computers mounted to the same handlebars during road cycling in rural and urban environments. Each computer recorded speed data using a different method: One unit was paired to a Garmin GSC 10 speed-and-cadence sensor (wheel rotation based), a second unit was paired to Garmin Speed Sensor 2 and Cadence Sensor 2 (accelerometer based), and a third unit was not paired to any remote sensors and relied on the device’s GPS position to calculate speed (GPS based). Based on these data, we generated probability distributions that quantify the uncertainty in the accelerometer based and GPS based speed measurements. This study provides foundational information regarding the appropriate methods to quantify the uncertainty in bicycle-computer speed data and to probabilistically interpret these data for
Booth, Gabrielle R., Siegmund, Gunter P.
Technical Paper
Design of A Differential Braking Controller Based on Road Reaction Force Estimation to respond to Steering System Failure in Autonomous Driving Situations2025-01-8797To be published on 04/01/2025
As the electrification of chassis systems accelerates, the demand for fail-safety strategies is increasing. In the past, the steering system was mechanically connected, so the driver could respond directly to some extent. However, the Steer-By-Wire system is composed of the column and rack bar as electrical signals, so the importance of response strategies for steering system failure is gradually increasing. When a steering system failure occurs, a differential braking control using the difference in braking force between the left and right wheels was studied. Recently, some studies have been conducted to model the wheel reaction force generated during a differential braking. Those studies linearly modeled the reaction force generated at the kingpin axis. Since actual tires and road surfaces are nonlinear and cause large model errors, model-based control methods have limited performance. Also, in previous studies assumed that the driver normally operates the steering wheel in a failure
Kim, Sukwon, Kim, Young Gwang, Kim, SungDo, Moon, Sung Jin
Technical Paper
Design of Road Sense Simulation Method for Automobile Front Wheel Steer-By-Wire System2025-01-8260To be published on 04/01/2025
With the continuous development of electronic control technology in the automobile industry, the integration of electronic components in the automobile control system is increasing day by day, which significantly improves the safety performance and handling stability of the automobile. After entering the 21st century, the rapid development of intelligent technology makes the steer-by-wire system gradually integrated into modern automobile design. Because the steer-by-wire system cancels the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering wheel in the traditional mechanical steering system, various road information on the road can’t be directly transmitted to the driver through the steering wheel in the form of road sense, and the driver can’t truly feel the road information, which is not conducive to the driver's control of the car. Therefore, this paper studies the road sense simulation method of steer-by-wire system. Firstly, the dynamic model of the steer-by-wire
Li, Xuesong, Li, Zhicheng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Stability-Based Coordinated Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Trajectory Tracking and Handling Stability2025-01-8307To be published on 04/01/2025
To address the issue of poor yaw stability in distributed drive electric vehicles under extreme trajectory tracking conditions, this paper proposes a novel control approach that coordinates upper-layer trajectory tracking and stability control with lower-layer active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC). Firstly, a stability domain boundary is defined in the β-β ̇ phase plane, and the instability factor is derived based on boundary line characteristics. This factor is used as a weight in the objective function to establish a model predictive control (MPC) for trajectory tracking and handling stability, thereby adjusting the control target weights for both objectives. Secondly, based on the front wheel tire load rate, a steering margin coefficient is set and used as a weight for AFS and DYC control quantities, modifying the front wheel steering angle and yaw moment control in the MPC model, and ultimately distributing the torque to all four wheels. Simulation results
Dou, Jingyang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
FIT File Processing for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-8696To be published on 04/01/2025
It is becoming increasingly common for bicyclists to record their rides using cycling computers and watches, the majority of which save the data they collect using the Flexible and Interoperable Data Transfer (.FIT) Protocol. As the contents of .FIT files are not readily accessible to users, the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the differences induced by several common methods of analyzing .FIT files. We used a Garmin Edge 840 bicycle computer with a wireless wheel speed sensor to record ride data at both 1 Hz frequency and using the computer’s Smart Recording setting. The.FIT files were downloaded directly from the computer, uploaded to the test platforms, and then exported to .GPX, and/or .CSV formats: the platforms tested were Strava, RideWithGPS, Garmin Connect, and GoldenCheetah. Those same .FIT files were also converted directly to .CSV using the Garmin FIT Software Developer Kit (SDK) FitCSVTool utility, written to .KML files using a custom MATLAB script, and compared to
Sweet, David, Bretting, Gerald
Technical Paper
Concept of an electromechanical brake-by-wire system for battery-electric vehicles2025-01-8804To be published on 04/01/2025
Brake-by-wire systems have received more and more attention in the recent years, but a closer look on the available systems shows, that they have not reached full by-wire level yet. Most systems are still using hydraulic connections between main cylinder and the brake calipers on at least one axle to ensure functional safety. Mostly, this is the front axle, since the front brakes have to convert more kinetic energy during braking manoeuvers due to the dynamic wheel load shift. Electromechanical actuators are currently used for rear brake systems in hybrid brake-by-wire applications solely, since a loss of the front brake calipers can lead to severe conditions and control loss of the vehicle during braking. Further, the higher mass of battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) leads to much higher braking forces on both axles, so the electromechanical calipers on the market are no longer suitable. This article presents a concept for a brake-by-wire system for a battery electric vehicle, which
Heydrich, Marius, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin, Stoev, Julian, Lecoutere, Johan
Technical Paper
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-adhesion Road considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-8813To be published on 04/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability.This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a parallel composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length, road type, and vehicle
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Technical Paper
Dynamic Testing and Analysis of Autocycle Vehicles for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-8687To be published on 04/01/2025
The Autocycle is a style of vehicle that most often utilizes a reverse-tricycle design with two front wheels and a single rear wheel. Modern autocycles in the United States are often utilized in a recreational role. This work presents physical measurements of two modern autocycles for use in accident reconstruction and pursues a deeper understanding of the unique attributes and handling associated with these vehicles. Vehicles were used to measure physical properties and subjected to cornering tests presented herein, and the data is compared to that for a conventional automobile. Observations on tire scuff marks are made from cornering tests unique to these vehicles. Strengths and challenges with this type of vehicle design are presented for various use cases as compared to conventional automobiles. Data and knowledge from this study will aid accident reconstruction efforts and act as a stepping stone for future work.
Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Warner, Mark
Technical Paper
A Wide Belt Correction Strategy for Belt-Whip and Wheel Ventilation Drag2025-01-8770To be published on 04/01/2025
The increased importance of aerodynamics to help with overall vehicle efficiency necessitates a desire to improve the accuracy of the measuring methods. To help with that goal, this paper will provide a method for correcting belt-whip and wheel ventilation drag on single and 3-belt wind tunnels. This is primarily done through a method of analyzing rolling-road only speed sweeps but also physically implementing a barrier. When understanding the aerodynamic forces applied to a vehicle in a wind tunnel, the goal is to isolate only those forces that it would see in the real world. This primarily means removing the weight of the vehicle from the vertical force and the rolling resistance of the tires and bearings from the longitudinal force. This is traditionally done by subtracting the no-wind forces from the wind at testing velocity forces. The first issue with the traditional method is that a boundary layer builds up on the belt(s), which can then influence a force onto the vehicle’s
Borton, Zackery
Technical Paper
Intelligent Active Rear Wheel Steering with safety boundary Assist2025-01-8752To be published on 04/01/2025
Along with the innovation of vehicle technology, the active steering system has an excellent effect on the prevention of uncontrolled steering events due to its significant advantage in optimising handling stability. Meanwhile, the safety boundary is an important judgement basis for the stable operation of the vehicle, and based on the safety boundary, the controller can help the driver to keep the vehicle in the stable region of the state space. In this paper, an active rear wheel steering model prediction controller is proposed based on the safety boundary to control the rear wheel steering angle to assist the front wheel steering, and constrain the actual cross-swing angular angular velocity and centre-of-mass lateral deflection angle of the vehicle within the safety boundary of the state space, so as to ensure the stable operation of the vehicle, and the main research contents are as follows: 1. Aiming at the problem that the linear two-degree-of-freedom model of the vehicle can't
Li, Ziyu, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zhang, Yuzhou
Technical Paper
An incremental coordinated control method for distributed drive electric vehicle through the anti-squat/lift/dive suspension2025-01-8267To be published on 04/01/2025
In this paper, an incremental coordinated control method through anti-squat/lift/dive suspension is proposed based on and suited to a distributed drive electric vehicle with front and rear dual motors. The precise relationship between the suspension reaction force and the driving force of the wheel is derived as the control model through an in-depth analysis of the wheel motion and force. Through imposing the first-order dynamics, the proposed method not only provides the longitudinal speed control of the vehicle but also suppresses the longitudinal, vertical and pitch vibration of the vehicle Simulation results show that the suspension reaction force formula derived in this paper is more suitable for dynamic conditions, and compared with the control method based on the simplified suspension anti-squat/lift/dive control model, the proposed method using the accurate control model has superior comprehensive control performance.
Feng, Cong, Wu, Guangqiang, Yang, Yuchen
Technical Paper
Automotive fatigue load spectra: modelization, identification and applications.2025-01-8240To be published on 04/01/2025
Fatigue design is invariably of prior concern for the automotive industry, no matter of the evolution of the mobility market: at first because carmakers have to stay compliant with general structural integrity requirements for reliability, notably applicable to the chassis system, then due to the endless competition for lightweighting in order to mitigate product costs and/or enhance vehicle efficiency. In the past, this key performance was often tackled by basic reference load cases, making use of the simplest signal content, e.g. sinus functions, to practice constant amplitude loads on test rigs and for computations, respectively. Nowadays, full time series coming from proving ground measurements, or any corresponding virtual road load data computations, may be applied to feed complex vehicle computations for virtual assessment and complex test facilities for final approval, under variable amplitude loads. In between, the concept of load spectra (i.e. distribution of amplitudes with
Facchinetti, Matteo Luca, Tjhung, Tana, Jaffre lng, Sébastien, Datta, Sandip, Hayat lng, Romain, Guo, Mingchao
Technical Paper
Off-Road Tire and Rim Classification - Off-Road Work MachinesJ751_202502 (Current)02/25/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice describes the classification of off-road tires and rims for use on earthmoving machines (refer to SAE J1116), defines related terminology in common use, and shows representative construction details of component parts.
MTC8, Tire and Rim
Recommended Practice
Evaluation Method for the Impacts of Truck Platoons Lateral Control on Pavement Performance2025-01-715202/21/2025
The introduction of autonomous truck platoons is expected to result in drastic changes in operational characteristics of freight shipments, which may in turn have significant impacts on efficiency, energy consumption, and infrastructure durability. Since the lateral positions of autonomous trucks traveling consecutively within a lane are fixed and similar (channelized traffic), such platooning operations are likely to accelerate damage accumulation within pavement structures. To further advance the application of truck platooning technology in various pavement environments, this study develops a flexible evaluation method to evaluate the impact of lateral arrangement within autonomous truck platoons on asphalt pavement performance. This method simplifies the impact of intermittent axle load applications along the driving direction within a platoon, supporting platoon controllers in directly evaluating pavement damage for different platoon configurations. Specifically, a truck platoon
Wenlu, Yu, Ye, Qin, Chen, Daoxie, Min, Yitong, Chen, Leilei
Technical Paper
Brake Pedal Sizing and Preliminary Design of Balance Bar in the Brake of a SAE Formula Type Vehicle2024-36-005412/20/2024
The SAE Formula prototypes are developed by students, where in the competition, various aspects of project definitions are evaluated. Among the factors evaluated for scoring is the braking system, in which the present work aims to present the development and design of the braking system of a vehicle, prototype of Formula SAE student competition. As it is a project manufactured mostly by students, where the chassis, suspension system, electrical, transmission and powertrain are developed, it is important to first pass the static and safety tests, where the brakes of the four wheels are tested during deceleration at a certain distance from the track. To enable such approval and also to demonstrate, for the competition judges, the veracity of the system’s sizing, all the parameters and assumptions of the choice of the vehicle’s braking system are presented, thus ensuring their reliability, efficiency and safety. Using drawing and simulation software such as SolidWorks and Excel for
Gomes, Lucas Olenski, Grandinetti, Francisco José, Martins, Marcelo Sampaio, Souza Soares, Alvaro Manoel, Reis de Faria Neto, Antônio, Castro, Thais Santos, Almeida, Luís Fernando
Technical Paper
Development of the Steering System for a Formula SAE Prototype2024-36-009912/20/2024
The SAE Formula, a national stage of the international competition, consists of a student project at universities in Brazil that seeks to encourage engineering students to apply the theoretical knowledge obtained in the classroom to practice, dealing with real problems and difficulties in order to prepare them for the job market. The SAE Formula prototype is developed with the intention of competing in the SAE national competition, where teams from various universities in Brazil meet to compete and demonstrate the projects developed during the year. Focusing on the vehicle dynamics subsystem, which can be divided into the braking, suspension, and steering systems of a prototype, the steering system includes main mechanical components such as the front axle sleeves, wheel hub, steering arm, steering column, rack, wheel, and tire. All these components work together with the suspension systems, including suspension arms, “bell crank,” and spring/shock absorber assembly. These components
Rigo, Cristiano Shuji Shimada, Neto, Antonio Dos Reis De Faria, Grandinetti, Francisco Jose, Castro, Thais Santos, Dias, Erica Ximenes, Martins, Marcelo Sampaio
Technical Paper
Study of Impact Forces on Wheel Rim from Pothole Impacts and Improvement of Flange Design to Eliminate Wheel Bend2024-28-026212/05/2024
Typically, an automotive passenger car wheel rim can withstand gradual loading contributed from the vehicle during cornering and high-speed maneuvering and as per the standard as well as customer requirements wheel has to withstand some impact forced contributed from radial and inclined loading. But in some cased wheel rim may not withstand the impact forces generated during impact on potholes and curbs with high-speed maneuvering. This Study helps to understand the impact on wheel rim and the forces acting on the rim flanges during pothole impact and high-speed curb impact. For In this study author tends to explain about the design of the rim flanges considering the impact forces the wheel rims are exposed to during pothole impact. Also in this study, road load data for a double pothole impact in electric vehicle with lightest alloy wheel rim in the segment is acquired to understand the loads acting on the rim. Based on the simulation iterations with several design changes and
Thiyagarajan, Sriram, Jithendhar, A, Singh, Ram Krishnan, Sundaram, Raghupathi, Paua, Ketan
Technical Paper
Multiple Pathways to Decarbonize India PV Sector2024-28-012712/05/2024
The cumulative accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) historically has resulted in the current problem of global warming. This is further compounded by developed nations, therefore, to fill this gap enhanced global actions are decided. Considering Country’s development need, available resources, government boost for agriculture, A holistic approach for 4W PVs is taken considering well to wheel emissions, as there are other ways to reduce tank to wheel emissions but may not be very effective for overall country’s GHG reduction. Major emissions in vehicle use are calculated based on Carbon intensity of various fuels & optimum pathway for Indian scenario is prepared & discussed in the paper considering all aspects CO2 reduction, development & motorization need. This paper explains multiple pathways for Passenger Vehicle (PV) Sector to be considered to meet country’s GHG needs.
Sarna, Nishant, Jaiswal, Harsh, Rani, Abha, Dwivedi, Vipin, Vashisth, Ajay, Bhat, Anoop, Aggarwal, Tarun
Technical Paper
Semi-Active Suspension Design for Truck Using Pneumatic Spring Joining MR Fluid Damper Based on Neural Networks Controller10-09-01-000110/21/2024
In order to modify both stiffness and damping rates according to various road conditions, this research introduces a pneumatic spring in conjunction with a magnetorheological (MR) fluid damper as a single suspension unit for each wheel in the truck. Preventing weight transfer and improving riding comfort during braking, acceleration, and trajectory prediction are the main objectives. A two-axle truck has been used, consisting of three degrees of freedom for the sprung mass, including vertical, pitch, and roll motions, and four degrees of freedom for the unsprung masses, which have been redesigned according to the different types of springs and dampers. Pneumatic-controlled springs, often referred to as dynamic or classic models, replace laminated leaf springs commonly found in vehicles. Additionally, an MR damper replaces a hydraulic double-acting telescopic shock absorber. These models are studied to evaluate the effect of pneumatic spring parameters on truck dynamics. Pneumatic
Shehata Gad, Ahmed, El-Zomor, Haytham M.
Journal Article
Structural and Thermal Analysis of Brake Disc with Various Composites2024-28-006609/19/2024
The essential aspect of an automobile is its braking system. Brakes absorb the kinetic energy of the rotating parts, i.e., wheels, and dissipate this energy into the surroundings in the form of heat. This entire process is quite complex, and the brake disc is subjected to extreme thermal and structural stresses along with deformation, which might damage the disc. This paper presents a structural and thermal analysis of an Audi Q3 brake disc using an ANSYS 2021-R1. The present brake disc is designed using SOLIDWORKS software. Composite materials are added in the ansys material library by adding their respective characteristics. The thermal analysis mainly focused on temperature variation and directional heat flux. The structural study was conducted to understand the stresses developed during braking and the deformations observed. Along with a comprehensive structural and thermal analysis, this work has also estimated the life of the brake disc, the factor of safety, and the real-time
Bahulekar, Atharv, Shiralkar, Shaunak, Jomde, Amit, Shamkuwar, Sonal, Patane, Prashant, Shinde, Tarang, Dandin, Shahbaz
Technical Paper
Brake Particle Emission Influenced by Grooved Disc Friction Surfaces with or without a Hard Coating2024-01-303009/08/2024
Many performance sport passenger vehicles use drilled or grooved cast iron brake rotors for a better braking performance or a cosmetic reason. Such brake rotors would unfortunately cause more brake dust emission, appearing with dirty wheel rims. To better understand the effects of such brake rotors on particle emission, a pin-on-disc tribometer with two particle emission measurement devices was used to monitor and collect the emitted airborne particles. The first device was an aerodynamic particle sizer, which is capable of measuring particles ranging from 0.5 to 20 μm. The second device was a condensation particle counter, which measures and collects particles from 4 nm to 3 μm. The testing samples were scaled-down brake discs (100 mm in diameter) against low-metallic brake pads. Two machined surface conditions (plain and grooved) with uncoated or ceramic-coated friction surfaces were selected for the investigation. The results showed that the grooved friction surface led to a higher
Cai, Ran, Nie, Xueyuan, Lyu, Yezhe, Wahlström, Jens
Technical Paper
Comprehensive Analysis of Titanium Alloy Machining with 2–7% Carbon Nanotube-Infused Cubic Boron Nitride Grinding Wheel Utilizing Full-Factorial Design2024-01-507908/12/2024
This research explores the experimental analysis of titanium alloy using an innovative approach involving a 2–7% carbon nanotube (CNT)-infused cubic boron nitride (CBN) grinding wheel. Employing a full-factorial design, the study systematically investigates the interactions among varied wheel speed, workpiece feed rate, and depth of cut, revealing compelling insights. The integration of CNTs in the CBN grinding wheel enhances the machining performance of titanium alloy, known for its high strength and challenging machinability. The experiment varies CNT infusion levels to assess their impact on material removal rate (MRR) and surface finish. Significantly, MRR is influenced by CNT content, with 5% and above demonstrating optimal performance. The 7% CNT-CBN wheel exhibits a remarkable 61% improvement in MRR over the conventional CBN wheel. Interaction studies highlight the pivotal role of depth of cut, indicating that slower speeds and feeds, combined with increased depth of cut
Stephen, Deborah Serenade, Sethuramalingam, Prabhu
Technical Paper
Researchers Demonstrate the First Chip-Based 3D PrinterTBMG-5124808/01/2024
Imagine a portable 3D printer you could hold in the palm of your hand. The tiny device could enable a user to rapidly create customized, low-cost objects on the go, like a fastener to repair a wobbly bicycle wheel or a component for a critical medical operation.
Magazine Article
Wheel End Assembly and Axle Spindle Interface Dimensions - Truck and BusJ2475_202407 (Current)07/26/2024
This recommended practice contains dimensions and tolerances for spindles in the interface area. Interfacing components include axle spindle, bearing cones, bearing spacer, and seal. This recommended practice is intended for axles commonly used on Class 7 and 8 commercial vehicles. Included are SAE axle configurations FF, FL, I80, L, N, P, R, U, and W.
Truck and Bus Wheel Committee
Recommended Practice
Scribing of Coatings in Preparation for Testing of Wheels and Wheel TrimJ2634_202406 (Current)06/12/2024
This SAE practice is intended for the sample preparation of test pieces for automotive wheels and wheel trim. The practice provides a consistent scribing method for use on test panels and or component parts with substrate chemical pretreatment and coating systems. Test specimens can then be subjected to various corrosion tests in order to evaluate performance without significant variations of the degree of exposure of the substrate. The scribing is used to create a break in the coating/finishing as can occur in the field through gravel and other damaging conditions. NOTE— Significant variability is attributed to surface contour, coating hardness/softness, operator reproducibility, and the scribing tool and it’s condition.
Wheel Standards Committee
Recommended Practice
A Low-Cost System for Road Induced Tire Cavity Noise Control (RTNC)2024-01-296106/12/2024
The transition from ICE to electric power trains in new vehicles along with the application of advanced active and passive noise reduction solutions has intensified the perception of noise sources not directly linked to the propulsion system. This includes road noise as amplified by the tire cavity resonance. This resonance mainly depends on tire geometry, gas temperature inside the tire and vehicle speed and is increasingly audible for larger wheels and heavier vehicles, as they are typical for current electrical SUV designs. Active technologies can be applied to significantly reduce narrow band tire cavity noise with low costs and minimal weight increase. Like ANC systems for ICE powertrains, they make use of the audio system in the vehicle. In this paper, a novel low-cost system for road induced tire cavity noise control (RTNC) is presented that reduces the tire cavity resonance noise inside a car cabin. The approach is cheap in terms of computational effort (likewise ICE order
Sues, Micha, Nojavan, Aidin, Kirchhof, Jan, Schirmacher, Rolf
Technical Paper
A New Equivalent Static Load (ESL) Creation Procedure for Complete Vehicle2024-01-294406/12/2024
When dealing with the structural behavior of a car body, analyzing the dynamic distortion in all body closure openings in a complete vehicle, provides a better understanding of the body characteristics compared to traditional static load cases such as static torsional body stiffness. This is particularly relevant for non-traditional vehicle layouts and electric vehicle architectures where mass distribution and in particular battery mass and stiffness play a completely different effect with respect to the internal combustion engine vehicles. A methodology typically adopted to measure the body response, e.g. when driving a vehicle on a rough pavé road, is the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS). The MSS is measuring the distortion in each body closure opening in two diagonals. During the virtual development, the distortion is described by the relative displacement in diagonal direction in time domain using a modal transient analysis. The results are shown as Opening Distortion Fingerprint
Weber, Jens, Luiz Felipe, Faria Ricardo, Bäcklund, Jesper, Vignati, Michele, Cheli, Federico
Technical Paper
Roadnoise Reduction through Component-TPA with Test and Simulation Convergence Using Blocked Force2024-01-295206/12/2024
While conventional methods like classical Transfer Path Analysis (TPA), Multiple Coherence Analysis (MCA), Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), and Modal Analysis have been widely used for road noise reduction, component-TPA from Model Based System Engineering (MBSE) is gaining attention for its ability to efficiently develop complex mobility systems. In this research, we propose a method to achieve road noise targets in the early stage of vehicle development using component-level TPA based on the blocked force method. An important point is to ensure convergence of measured test results (e.g. sound pressure at driver ear) and simulation results from component TPA. To conduct component-TPA, it is essential to have an independent tire model consisting of wheel-tire blocked force and tire Frequency Response Function (FRF), as well as full vehicle FRF and vehicle hub FRF. In this study, the FRF of the full vehicle and wheel-tire blocked force are obtained using an in-situ method with a
Park, Junmin, Park, Sangyoung
Technical Paper
Frequency Response Analysis of Fully Trimmed Models Using Compressed Reduced Impedance Matrix Methodology2024-01-294706/12/2024
As vibration and noise regulations become more stringent, numerical models need to incorporate more detailed damping treatments. Commercial frameworks, such as Nastran and Actran, allow the representation of trim components as frequency-dependent reduced impedance matrices (RIM) in direct frequency response (DFR) analysis of fully trimmed models. The RIM is versatile enough to couple the trims to modal-based or physical components. If physical, the trim components are reduced on the physical coupling degrees of freedom (DOFs) for each connected interface. If modal, the RIMs are projected on the eigenmodes of the connected component. While a model size reduction is achieved compared to the original model, most numerical models possess an extensive number of interfaces DOFs, either modal or physical, resulting in large, dense RIMs that demand substantial memory and disk storage. Thus, the approach faces challenges related to storage capacities and efficiency, because of the demanding
Paiva, Andre, Verhaegen, Julien, Lielens, Gregory, Van den Nieuwenhof, Benoit
Technical Paper
REE's P7 brings advanced suspension control to medium-duty EVs24TOFHP06_0906/01/2024
REE Automotive is aiming to be a major disruptor in the medium-duty truck space with the rollout of its P7 EV chassis. The P7 frame is built around its “REEcorners” suspension, which are modular suspension units featuring REE's x-by-wire design. By packaging components into the area between the chassis and the wheel, REE claims that it was able to design the P7 with a completely flat chassis with up to 35% more interior volume for passengers, cargo and batteries. “The REEcorners suspension system is the core of the technology that we built this truck around,” Peter Dow, VP of engineering for REE Automotive, said during an interview with Truck & Off-Highway Engineering. “It also allows us to achieve the level of vehicle dynamics we were looking for. We were trying to make a truck that was very exciting and easy to drive.”
Wolfe, Matt
Magazine Article
Multi-Output Physically Analyzed Neural Network for the Prediction of Tire–Road Interaction Forces10-08-02-001605/08/2024
This article introduces an innovative method for predicting tire–road interaction forces by exclusively utilizing longitudinal and lateral acceleration measurements. Given that sensors directly measuring these forces are either expensive or challenging to implement in a vehicle, this approach fills a crucial gap by leveraging readily available sensor data. Through the application of a multi-output neural network architecture, the study focuses on simultaneously predicting the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical interaction forces exerted by the rear wheels, specifically those involved in traction. Experimental validation demonstrates the efficacy of the methodology in accurately forecasting tire–road interaction forces. Additionally, a thorough analysis of the input–output relationships elucidates the intricate dynamics characterizing tire–road interactions. This research underscores the potential of neural network models to enhance predictive capabilities in vehicle dynamics, offering
Marotta, Raffaele, Strano,  Salvatore, Terzo, Mario, Tordela, Ciro
Journal Article
Effect of Shock Absorber Friction on Vehicle Vertical Dynamics10-08-02-001004/10/2024
In order to efficiently predict and investigate a vehicle’s vertical dynamics, it is necessary to consider the suspension component properties holistically. Although the effects of suspension stiffness and damping characteristics on vertical dynamics are widely understood, the impact of suspension friction in various driving scenarios has rarely been studied in both simulation and road tests for several decades. The present study addresses this issue by performing driving tests using a special device that allows a modification of the shock absorber or damper friction, and thus the suspension friction to be modified independently of other suspension parameters. Initially, its correct functioning is verified on a shock absorber test rig. A calibration and application routine is established in order to assign definite additional friction forces at high reproducibility levels. The device is equipped in a medium-class passenger vehicle, which is driven on various irregular road sections as
Deubel, Clemens, Schneider, Scott Jarod, Prokop, Günther
Journal Article
Aerodynamic analysis of ultra-efficient vehicle prototype: Effect of spoked wheels and different configurations2024-01-253904/09/2024
As the world population and industry increase, the demand for sustainable and efficient energy accelerates each day. One of the most energy-consuming sectors is transportation, which accounted for 27% of the total energy consumption in the US in 2022. This context provides the need to research and innovate on efficient vehicles and academic programs such as SAE supermileage or Shell Eco-Marathon which inspire students to build ultra-efficient vehicles. In vehicle efficiency, aerodynamics has high importance, and designing a low-drag vehicle is a key step. The purpose of this study is to analyze the vehicle aerodynamics of an ultra-efficient vehicle prototype built by Unisabana Herons Electric Vehicles for Shell Eco-Marathon 2022, regarding the influence on drag by having different configurations on spoked wheels, such as open spoked wheels, covered spokes, covered wheels, and a whole different body that follows a streamlined shape. The methodology is to model CAD designs of streamlined
Galvis Chaves, David Andrés, Illera-Perozo, Danny, Longas Lalinde, Luis
Technical Paper
Analysis of Aerodynamic Characteristics of Fan-Type Wheels2024-01-254004/09/2024
This research addresses the pressing need for reducing vehicle aerodynamic resistance, with a specific focus on mitigating wheel and tire resistance, which constitutes approximately 25% of the overall vehicle drag. While the prevailing method for reducing resistance in mass production development involves wheel opening reduction, it inadvertently increases wheel weight and has adverse effects on brake cooling performance. To overcome these challenges, novel complementary resistance reduction methods that can be employed in conjunction with an appropriate degree of wheel opening reduction are imperative. In this study, we introduce symmetrical wheels with a fan-like shape as a solution. The fan configuration influences the surrounding flow by either drawing it in or pushing it out, depending on the direction of rotation. Application of these fan-type wheels to a vehicle's wheels results in the redirection of flow inwards or outwards during high-speed driving due to wheel rotation. This
Shin, Yong-su, Lee, Jungsoo
Technical Paper
Road Feel Modeling and Return Control Strategy for Steer-by-Wire Systems2024-01-231604/09/2024
The steer-by-wire (SBW) system, an integral component of the drive-by-wire chassis responsible for controlling the lateral motion of a vehicle, plays a pivotal role in enhancing vehicle safety. However, it poses a unique challenge concerning steering wheel return control, primarily due to its fundamental characteristic of severing the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the turning wheel. This disconnect results in the inability to directly transmit the self-aligning torque to the steering wheel, giving rise to complications in ensuring a seamless return process. In order to realize precise control of steering wheel return, solving the problem of insufficient low-speed return and high-speed return overshoot of the steering wheel of the SBW system, this paper proposes a steering wheel active return control strategy for SBW system based on the backstepping control method. First, the dynamics model of the SBW system is established, thereby laying the foundation for
Chen, Chaoning, Kaku, Chuyo, Zheng, Hongyu
Technical Paper
A Path Tracking Method for an Unmanned Bicycle Based on the Body-Fixed Coordinate Frame2024-01-230304/09/2024
The present study introduces a novel approach for achieving path tracking of an unmanned bicycle in its local body-fixed coordinate frame. A bicycle is generally recognized as a multibody system consisting of four distinct rigid bodies, namely the front wheel, the front fork, the body frame, and the rear wheel. In contrast to most previous studies, the relationship between a tire and the road is now considered in terms of tire forces rather than nonholonomic constraints. The body frame has six degrees of freedom, while the rear wheel and front fork each have one degree of freedom relative to the body frame. The front wheel exhibits a single degree of freedom relative to the front fork. A bicycle has a total of nine degrees of freedom. The expression of the kinetic energy of a bike is formulated using quasi-coordinates in the local body-fixed coordinate frame, which provides a more simplified representation compared to the utilization of absolute coordinates in the global coordinate
Cheng, Kaizhuo, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Testing and Analysis of Riding a Road Bicycle over an Artificial Pothole2024-01-275504/09/2024
Whenever bicyclists ride on public roads, they ride through roadway defects which occasionally causes them to lose control of their bicycles and/or damage components. Previous research has quantified the forces experienced during general road and offroad riding, but did not study the specific influences of variables such as pothole geometry, riding speed, etc. To begin quantifying these effects, a road bike was equipped with a triaxial accelerometer and ridden over poor roadway conditions around an industrial park in Southern California. Next, in a laboratory setting, an artificial pothole was constructed that was 12 inches long and either 1 or 1.65 inches deep. A force plate was placed at the far edge to measure the horizontal loads induced by the bicycle tire riding over the edge and high-speed camera was positioned perpendicular to the path of travel to measure the speed and vertical drop of the front wheel. Lastly, two riders of differing weights rode the same road bicycle over the
Sweet, David Michael, Bretting, Gerald, Wilhelm, Christopher
Technical Paper
Compatibility between Handling Agility and Stability of Vehicle using Rear Wheel Steering with Dual-Link Actuators2024-01-276104/09/2024
The experimental control findings of increasing the handling performance so that the yaw motion of the vehicle is nimble and stable utilizing the upgraded rear wheel steering system equipped with dual-link actuators are shown in this work. In most automobiles, the steering axis is well defined in front suspension. However, unless the vehicle's rear suspension is a sort of double wishbone, the steering axis is not clearly defined in regular multi-link rear suspensions. As a result, most current automobiles have a suspension geometry feature in which the camber and toe angles change at the same time when the assist link is changed to steer the back wheels. To create lateral force from the rear tire while preserving maximum tire grip, the dual-link actuators control for modifying the strokes of suspension links must keep the camber angle constant and adjust only the toe angle. The relationship between the motion of two suspension link actuators and the camber angle/toe angle is found in
Park, Jaeyong, Na, Sungsoo
Technical Paper
Development of an Automated CAD Database and Application on Aluminum Wheel2024-01-272404/09/2024
As data science technologies are being widely applied on various industries, the importance of data itself increased. A typical manufacturer company has a vast data set of products as 2D&3D drawing formats, but a common problem was that building a database from the 2D&3D drawings costs much, and it is hard to update the database after it once built. Also, it is high-cost job when the new factor researched and necessary to investigate the new factors on previously fixed or uploaded drawings. As new products are developed with time, these problems are getting more difficult. In this paper, an automated database building method using CATIA introduced and future probabilities are suggested. An aluminum wheel part was used as an example. An automated logic used CATIA V5’s VBA functions and was handled by python programming language. Product database was established by using the automated logic for extracting engineering design features, and data mining process was deployed based on the
Seo, Jeongin, Jang, Youngseok, Seo, Myoungkyu, Yum, Kiho
Technical Paper
Wheel Drive Unit Lift Corrections in Automotive Wind Tunnels2024-01-254404/09/2024
Correct simulations of rotating wheels are essential for accurate aerodynamic investigations of passenger vehicles. Therefore, modern automotive wind tunnels are equipped with five-belt moving ground systems with wheel drive units (WDUs) connected to the underfloor balance. The pressure distribution on the exposed areas of the WDU belts results in undesired lift forces being measured which must be considered to obtain accurate lift values for the vehicle. This work investigates the parasitic WDU lift for various configurations of a crossover SUV using numerical simulations that have been correlated to wind tunnel data. Several parameters were considered in the investigation, such as WDU size, WDU placement, tyre variants and vehicle configurations. The results show that the parasitic lift is more sensitive to the width than the length of the WDU. However, the belt length is also important to consider, especially if the wheel cannot be placed centred. Varying the tyre pattern changes
Josefsson, Erik, Urquhart, Magnus, Sebben, Simone
Technical Paper
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