Browse Topic: Wheels

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Advanced Wheel Attachment Loosening Identification through Algorithmic Gear Error Analysis and Probabilistic Assessment2026-01-0590To be published on 04/07/2026
At present, tire failures directly affect road safety, and the number of incidents caused by them is gradually increasing. Examining wheel attachment loosening on time is vital for vehicle safety. Tire-related incidents not only put people in peril but also have a detrimental effect on the economy. Therefore, the goal of this research is to develop a new and effective method for identifying wheel attachment loosening. A novel gear error reduction approach, distinct from traditional methods, combines advanced computing and probabilistic analysis. This paper involves three key components: extracting looseness eigenvalues, calculating ring gear errors, and computing the tire loosen probabilities. Gear errors derived from the Kalman filter and adjusted for speed, eigenvalues were calculated, and a tire loosening probability analysis was performed. Real-car trials across speeds and roads confirm its accuracy and reliability. This technology can improve automotive safety and maintenance
Liu, Jianjian, Zhang, Zhijie, Wang, Zhenfeng, Ma, Guangtao, Shi, Meijuan, Liu, Jing, Zhao, Binggen, Lu, Yukun
Bias and Uncertainty in the Time, Position, and Speed Data of Consumer-Grade GPS Devices2026-01-0544To be published on 04/07/2026
The goal of this study is to quantify the accuracy (bias) and precision (uncertainty) of the time, position, and speed data acquired by a range of consumer-grade devices (4 bike computers, 5 watches, 1 application on 3 smart phones, and a camera) that access Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite signals. We acquired data at each device’s maximum sampling rate (typically 1 Hz) during 207 minutes (twelve sessions of ~17 min) over 61.6 km of road cycling. The time and position data from these devices were compared to real-time kinematic (RTK) data acquired using a differential GPS system, and speed data from these devices were compared to a high-resolution wheel speed sensor synchronized to the RTK data in order to statistically estimate the bias and 95th percentile confidence intervals of the uncertainty of the devices’ data. Overall, we found the position and speed data from the devices generally lagged the reference by 4 s or less, although the lags between the speed and position
Booth, Gabrielle R., Mitchell, Alan L., Siegmund, Gunter P.
Lightweight Wheel Design Through Shape Optimization with Structural Constraints2026-01-0504To be published on 04/07/2026
The wheel rim is an annular, thin-walled structure featuring complex geometry and is subjected to multiple load cases, including radial, rotary, and impact scenarios. Achieving an optimal balance between mass reduction and structural performance remains a significant challenge in modern vehicle wheel design. Aero-efficient vehicles demand lightweight backbone wheels capable of accommodating aerodynamic covers without compromising handling, steering precision, or overall performance. In this study, shape optimization is applied to an 8-spoke truck wheel with the goal of minimizing mass while enhancing lateral stiffness and ensuring that stress constraints are satisfied under all critical load cases. A three-dimensional finite element model is developed and evaluated under realistic radial, rotary, and impact loading conditions representative of industry validation tests. The optimization process fine-tuned the spoke geometry using symmetric shape domains and carefully defined
Yoo, Dong Yeon, Adduri, Phani, Chakravarty, Rajan
Development of a Tire Blowout Experimental Platform for Dynamics and Control Validation2026-01-0202To be published on 04/07/2026
Tires are critical to vehicle dynamics, transmitting traction, braking, and cornering forces to the road. A tire blowout, the sudden and rapid loss of inflation pressure due to puncture or structural failure, can cause severe instability, rollover, or collisions. Understanding vehicle response during blowout events is essential for developing robust safety systems and control strategies. Earlier developed simulation models are used to study and understand vehicle behavior during blowouts, but there is a lack of on-road testing platforms to validate these models experimentally. In this paper, an experimental platform integrating a tire blowout device and an instrumentation system has been developed to address this gap. The blowout device consists of multiple solenoid valves mounted on the wheel surface and powered by a 12V power supply. All valves can be triggered at the same time using an RF remote, producing rapid and synchronized deflation. As an extension of this implementation, an
Kanthala, Maha Vishnu Vardhan Reddy, Krishnakumar, Ashwin, Lin, Wen-Chiao, Chen, Yan
Study of Approaches for Enhanced Traction Control Response for Hybrid Powertrain Architectures2026-01-0415To be published on 04/07/2026
Traction Control functionality requires fast and accurate response by powertrain system for wheel slip control. Close loop control effort of wheel slip shall be greatly reduced with more accurate feedforward torque. This paper explores the method of achieving requested traction control torque with better accuracy for torque converter-based hybrid electric powertrain architectures using improved dynamic modeling of torque converter. This method uses input inertia compensation involving feedforward and closed loop control modeling of torque converter and includes conversion of traction control intervention request through appropriate domains. Commanded torques by hybrid controller at wheel with and without these approaches are compared in Model in the loop simulation environment to identify optimum approach.
Karogal, Indrasen, Ober, Mitchell, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Sharma, Ashay
Time-Step Analysis of Sliding Mesh Rotation Modeling15-19-01-00043/13/2026
The current work analyzes the effect of time-step size on the predictive capability and computational cost of the Sliding Mesh (SM) method for modeling flows around the rotating wheels of a mass-production luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV). Two unsteady turbulence models [Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) and Delayed Detached Eddy Simulations (DDES)] were tested using time-step sizes ranging from the current recommended time-step size of 1 degree of rotation per time-step (1 D/TS) up to 50 degrees of rotation per time-step (50 D/TS). The flow field predictions compare favorably to the 1 D/TS case for a time-step size as large as 5 D/TS. Using this time-step size leads to a reduction in computational cost of approximately 80% for both unsteady methods. At a time-step of 5 D/TS, the computational cost of the SM method is comparable to the more commonly used Moving Reference Frame (MRF) method. However, drag and flow field predictions by the SM method at this larger time
Struk, Michael, Aultman, Matthew, Disotell, Kevin, Duan, Lian, Bianco, Antonello, Metka, Matthew, Khasdeo, Nitin
Corrosion Test Master EstablishmentJ2636_202602 (Current)2/10/2026
This SAE lab recommended practice may be applied to corrosion test methods such as salt spray, filiform, Corrosion creep back, etc. This procedure is intended to permit corrosion testing to be assessed between Laboratories for correlation purposes.
Wheel Standards Committee
Vibration Dynamics of a Half-Car Model Considering Tire–Road Separation02-19-04-00212/9/2026
The vibrating half-car model is used to represent the dynamic behavior of a truck’s dependent suspension system, capturing four degrees of freedom. This research investigates time and frequency responses of vibration behavior of half-car model with possible tire–road separation. This investigation is significant because all previously reported analyses based on the tire-road attachment were incorrect, particularly regarding the tire-road separation phenomenon. The differential equations are extended to enhance the accuracy of the model, incorporating tire–road separation conditions for both wheels. A numerical approach is applied to simulate the vertical and roll dynamics of the system under the separation assumption. The simulation results are validated through experiments conducted using ADAMS View software. Integrating the tire–road separation into the model results in dynamic responses that closely reflect real-world behavior. These findings provide valuable guidance for designing
Nguyen, Quy Dang, Jazar, Reza
Wheels - Passenger Car and Light Truck Performance Requirements and Test ProceduresJ328_202601 (Current)2/4/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice provides minimum performance requirements and uniform procedures for fatigue testing of wheels intended for normal highway use and temporary use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles. For heavy truck wheels and wheels intended to be used as duals, refer to SAE J267. For wheels used on trailers drawn by passenger cars, light trucks, or multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J1204. These minimum performance requirements apply only to wheels made of materials included in Tables 1 to 4. The minimum cycles noted in Tables 1 through 4 are to be used on individual test and a sample of tests conducted, with Weibull Statistics using two parameter, median ranks, 50% confidence level, and 90% reliability, typically noted as B10C50.
Wheel Standards Committee
Wheel and Wheel Trim Weathering Testing for Paint CoatingsJ2633_202601 (Current)2/3/2026
This SAE lab test procedure should be used when performing the following specialized weathering tests for wheels; Florida Exposure, QUV, Xenon and Carbon Weatherometer. In addition to these procedures, some additional post-weathering tests may be specified. Please refer to customer specifications for these requirements.
Wheel Standards Committee
Wheel Nut Seat StrengthJ2315_202601 (Current)1/27/2026
The purpose of this test is to evaluate the axial strength of the nut seat of wheels intended for use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles. In addition, a minimum contact area is recommended to ensure enough strength for the rotational force in tightening a nut against the nut seat. While this test ensures the minimum strength of the nut seat, the wheel must also have a degree of flexibility. This flexibility, as well as bolt tension, are important to maintain wheel retention.
Wheel Standards Committee
Wheel Side Load Calculation using the Strain Measurement on Swingarm and Duty Cycle Development2026-26-05831/16/2026
Typically duty cycle development for any component carried out in the absence of direct acting load will be based on the measured strain from the RLDA and comparing it with the rig level testing. The biggest drawback from such an approach is the fact that the selected loads can be drastically different from the actual experienced peak load from the actual RLDA. This happens because the strain gauges will have sensitivity toward all three directional loads and sometimes due to complex structure design uni directional sensitive locations are difficult to find out or strain gauge. This will lead to over predicting the loads in some cases and the selected load may end up yielding the component in a single cycle itself. This paper discusses the method employed to calculate the loads at the input load location using the strain gauges which are cross sensitive and using that input loads to select the loads for the testing of the component. Also it talks about the constraints it faces while
Anandh, Sudheep, Prasad, Sathish, R S, Mahenthran
Road Noise Improvement of a Passenger Vehicle through End-to-End CAE-Simulation Using Transfer Path Analysis (TPA) Approach2026-26-04311/16/2026
Refined NVH performance of a vehicle is a mark of premium quality. Achieving the desired NVH performance in different vehicle operating conditions is always a Herculean task and early stage “CAE design recommendations” play crucial role in overall vehicle design development. This becomes tougher when the program is very much cost, weight and timeline sensitive. This paper explores simulation approach for addressing a major noise issue for a vehicle running at a constant speed on a rough road. While working on any issue, the first and the most critical step is to identify the exact root cause of the issue. Hence, we propose a detailed full vehicle level “contribution analysis (CA) + transfer path analysis (TPA)” methodology (everything done through the simulation) and then go for the design recommendations to improve the performance. We used road excitation power spectral density (PSD) as the input at all the four wheels (spindle locations) calculated through MBD software. The first
Mahajani, Mihir, Nascimento, Fabio, Adinarayana Reddy, Kodidela, Matyal, Mahantesh, Tenagi, Irappa, Sardar, Chenna
Wheel Corner Module Energy Losses and Potential Improvements2026-26-00961/16/2026
With the inevitable shift of automotive industry towards E-mobility and mandatory fuel efficiency targets, there is a need to evaluate the energy losses in the vehicle & identify potential areas of improvement. Energy losses are calculated for different components in the corner module system of a passenger car. Contribution of losses (resistances) from respective component are depicted using simple analytical models. Potential energy saving improvements were identified and analyzed basis emerging technologies in respective areas.
Raghatate, Kumar Shreyas, Vedartham, Raghavendra, Khanger, Rakesh, Bisht, Arun
Enhanced Methodologies for Predicting Automotive Wheel Bearing Life and Damage Using RLDA2026-26-04821/16/2026
The durability of wheel bearings is assessed in terms of raceway life and flange life. Raceway life focuses on the performance and damage tolerance of rolling elements, while flange life evaluates the structural integrity of wheel flanges under operational stresses. Traditionally, durability predictions relied on conventional design methods and analytic formulas for raceway spalling, as well as static load assumptions for flange fatigue analysis. Recently, integrating design of experiments (DOE) with traditional approaches has enhanced these methods, enabling systematic evaluation of design variables and loading conditions. This paper introduces a methodology for analyzing raceway life and damage in automotive wheel bearings using RLDA (Road Load Data Acquisition) data. The process involves acquiring raw deterministic load data, filtering it to preserve high-peaked signals, and transforming the filtered data into block cycles derived from load time histories. Each block cycle contains
Narendra, Vishwanath, Mane, Yogiraj, Paua, Ketan, Singh, Ram Krishnan, Vellandi, Vikraman
Design Optimization of Jounce Bumper Support Ring Based on RWUP Loading2026-26-05141/16/2026
Designing and manufacturing a support ring (POM ring -Polyoxymethylene ring) for a MacPherson strut suspension system brings unique set of challenges due to the high-performance and durability demands for Indian road application. Support ring along with the jounce bumper used in the shock absorber is designed to absorb the strong shock coming from the road inputs when suspension travel reached to the maximum limit. thereby absorbing the impact energy and preventing it from transferring it to the body. A bump stopper for a suspension of a vehicle is made of poly urethane (PU) material and is surrounded by a support ring or POM ring made up of Polyoxymethylene material. The bump stopper deflects into bellow shape during the absorption of impact energy. In the present paper, the authors have demonstrated the key challenges experienced in successfully designing the support ring post initial failure experienced in the validation phase which was unprecedented. The authors detail the failure
Koritala, Ashok Kumar, Malekar, Amit, Kulkarni, Purushottam, S, Sivashankar, Mishra, Harshit, Ganesh, Mohan Selvakumar, Patnala, Avinash, J, Ramkumar, Nayak, Bhargav, M, Sudhan
Study of Style Wheel Rim Failure Due to Rim and Disc Assembly Interference2026-26-05411/16/2026
This study focuses on the investigation of wheel rim failures near weld zone during repeated cornering induced by interference between the rim and disc during the wheel manufacturing assembly process. Strain gauges were employed to capture real-time stress and strain distributions at critical zones during interference fitting. The experimental results revealed that improper interference levels lead to significant stress concentrations, often surpassing the material's elastic limit, initiating micro-crack formation and promoting fatigue failure. Detailed strain analysis indicated that both radial and axial stresses contribute to long-term structural degradation. The study highlights the critical role of dimensional tolerances, surface finishes, and assembly forces in minimizing stress-induced failures. Recommendations are provided for optimizing design and assembly practices to enhance the durability and reliability of automotive wheels.
P, Praveen, DEsigan, Lakshmipathy, K, Chandramohan, C, Santhosh
Experimental Evaluation of High Energy Impact Test of Wheel Rim2026-26-05041/16/2026
High energy impact testing using free fall mass is a crucial method for evaluating the structural integrity, and safety performance of automotive components subjected to sudden impact forces. This study focuses on assessing critical parts such as wheel rims, suspension knuckles, commonly exposed to unintentional impacts during vehicle operation, maintenance, or collisions. The test involves dropping a standardized mass from predetermined heights onto the component to simulate real-world impact scenarios. Key performance indicators include deformation, crack propagation, fracture resistance, and energy absorption capacity. Wheel rims and knuckles are evaluated for their ability to maintain structural integrity under localized impact without compromising vehicle handling or safety. Seats and related interior structures are tested to ensure occupant protection during crash-like events. Other components, such as brackets, mounts, or housings, are included based on functional criticality
Roham, Prasad, Bagade, Mohan, Sinnarkar, Nitin, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram
Durability Validation of Full Vehicle Structures Using Strain Correlation and RLDA-Based Simulations2026-26-05231/16/2026
Durability validation of full vehicle structures is crucial to ensure long-term performance and structural integrity under real-world loading conditions. Physical test strain and finite element (FE) strain correlation is vital for accurate fatigue damage predictions. During torture track testing of the prototype vehicle, wheel center loads were measured using wheel force transducers (WFTs). In same prototype strain time histories were recorded at critical structural locations using strain gauges. Preliminary FE analysis was carried out to find out critical stress locations, which provided the basis for placement of strain gauges. Measured loads at wheel centers were then used in Multi Body Dynamics (MBD) simulations to calculate the loads at all suspension mount points on BIW. Using the loads at hard points transient analyses were performed to find out structural stress response. Strain outputs from the FE model were compared with physical measurements. Insights gained from these
Jaju, Mayur, Dokhale, Sandeep, Gadre, Nilesh, Patil, Sanjay
Static Rollover Stability Analysis of Heavy Tipper Vehicle2026-26-00901/16/2026
Heavy tipper vehicles are primarily utilized for transporting ores and construction materials. These vehicles often operate in challenging locations, such as mining sites, riverbeds, and stone quarries, where the roads are unpaved and characterized by highly uneven elevations in both the longitudinal and lateral directions of vehicle travel. During the unloading process, the tipper bodies are raised to significant heights, which increases the vehicle's centre of gravity, particularly if the payload material does not discharge quickly. Such conditions can lead to tipper rollover accidents, causing severe damage to life and substantial vehicle breakdowns. To analyse this issue, a study is conducted on the vehicle design parameters affecting the rollover stability of a 35-ton GVW tipper using multi-body simulations in ADAMS software. The tilt table test was simulated to determine the table angle at which wheel lift occurs. Initially, simulations are performed with the rigid body model
Vichare, Chaitanya Ashok, Patil, Sudhir, Gupta, Amit
Determining Optimal Suspension & Body in White Mountings to maximize Off-Road Capability of Passenger Vehicles2026-26-00981/16/2026
The automotive market trend is shifting more and more to SUVs and crossovers. This, therefore, means increasing consumer demand for off-road abilities in passenger vehicles. While dedicated off-road platforms provide a path to performance robustness, getting the same level of functionality out of a passenger vehicle with minimal architectural changes proves to be a great feat for engineers. One highly critical performance determinant in the domain of off-road ability is wheel articulation, it requires independent movement capacity of the wheels to keep contact and stability over uneven terrain. Traditional articulations found in passenger car suspensions—created for comfort, packaging, and on-road dynamics—are limited by suspension geometry, damper alignment as well as compliance setup. Damper side loads- were not considered a significant factor in suspension systems that are operating within their original intended design envelope for on-road use. However, when the vehicle is taken
Siddiqui, Arshad, Iqbal, Shoaib, Dwivedi, Sushil
Design of a McPherson Strut Based Split Link Front Suspension for a Higher Rear to Front Weight Ratio SUV with Least Turning Circle Diameter2026-26-00921/16/2026
Generally, in an electric sports utility vehicle with rear mounted powertrain the mass distribution is greater in the rear compared to front. This higher rear to front weight distribution results in oversteer behavior during high-speed cornering deteriorating vehicle handling & risking passenger safety. To compensate this inherent oversteer nature of such vehicles & produce understeer behavior, the steering rack is placed frontwards of the front wheel center for toe-out behavior due to lateral compliance during cornering. This compensation measure results in lower Ackermann percentage resulting in higher turning circle diameter deteriorating vehicle maneuverability. This paper proposes a design to obtain ideal understeer gradient with minimal turning circle diameter through utilization of split link technology with a McPherson Strut based suspension framework & frontwards placed steering rack. This suspension is utilized in our Mahindra Inglo platform. This paper elaborates on how
Nadkarni, Ameya Ravindra, Mhatre, Nitij, Patnala, Avinash, NAYAK, Bhargav
Wheel Speed Control for Corner Module ABS with Full Brake-By-Wire System2025-01-732212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB), with its continuous torque control characteristic, can enhance the performance of anti-lock braking control in intelligent chassis system. Therefore, in this study, a corner module anti-lock braking system (ABS) using EMB is proposed for intelligent chassis driven by in-wheel motors (IWMs). The corner module design can directly utilize the high-bandwidth speed signal of the IWM. This transforms traditional ABS wheel slip rate control into low-latency, high-bandwidth wheel speed tracking control under strong transient conditions. As a result, the control loop is simplified and signal transmission delay is reduced, which allows EMB to fully exploit its performance advantages. Additionally, this study proposes an Improved Higher-order Sliding Mode Control strategy with Super-Twisting Algorithm (IHSMC-STA) for wheel speed tracking control. The proposed strategy enhances the traditional first-order sliding mode exponential reaching law and integrates the
Chang, Cheng, Chu, Liang, Zhao, Di
A Unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive Framework for Sensorless Control of Brake-By-Wire Systems2025-01-732812/31/2025
Conventional control of Brake-by-Wire (BBW) systems, including electro-hydraulic brake(EHB) and electro-mechanical brake(EMB), relys on pressure sensors, the errors of which usually resulted inaccurate braking force tracking bringing a lot of safety hazards, e.g., wheel locking and slipping. To address challenges of accurate braking force control under the circumstance of the system nonliearities (such as friction) and uncertainties (such as stiffness characteristics) for a sensorless BBW system, this paper proposes a unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive (LLP) control framework to enable fast and precise brake control. The work has been conducted with three new contributions in the three cascaded stages within the control framework: in the coarse compensation stage, a load-adaptive LuGre friction model is proposed to handle modellable nonlinearities; in the fine compensation stage, an Adaptive Extended Disturbance Observer (AEDO) is developed to estimate and compensate for parameter
Zhou, Quan, Lv, Zongyu, Han, Wei, Li, Congcong, Zhao, Xinyu, Xiong, Lu, Shu, Qiang
Kinematics-Based Differential In-Situ Steering Control for Distributed-Drive Electric Vehicles2025-01-733312/31/2025
In-situ steering can significantly improve the vehicle's maneuverability in narrow spaces, especially suitable for extreme scenarios such as off-road driving and professional operations. For distributed drive electric vehicles, kinematics-based left and right wheel differential control and dynamics-based vehicle yaw control can achieve in-situ steering, however, the two methods have different effects on in-situ steering performance. This paper proposes a kinematics-based distributed drive electric vehicle differential in-situ steering control method, which first establishes the functional relationship between the drive pedal and the expected yaw rate, so that the driver can adjust the steering speed. The initial reference wheel speed is calculated from the expected yaw rate, and the reference wheel speed is adjusted by feedback from the actual and expected yaw rate errors to improve the tracking accuracy. On this basis, the sliding mode control algorithm is used to calculate the
Chen, Jingxu, Li, Yang, Zhang, Yi, Zhao, Hongwang, Qiao, Miaomiao, Wang, Beibei, Wu, Dongmei
Coordinated Control of DYC/ABS for Cornering Braking Based on Driver Intention2025-01-734012/31/2025
This paper proposes a DYC/ABS coordinated control strategy for cornering and braking based on driver intention. A hierarchical control structure is established, where the upper-level controller uses a vehicle dynamics model to calculate the additional yaw moment required by the DYC controller to track the desired yaw rate and sideslip angle, as well as the driver’s intended braking intensity. Taking multiple constraints into account, a quadratic programming algorithm is employed to optimize the distribution of braking forces among the four wheels. The lower-level ABS controller is designed with multiple thresholds and corresponding control phases to precisely regulate the hydraulic pressure of individual wheel cylinders. In emergency braking scenarios where ABS intervention may conflict with the upper-layer braking force allocation, a rule-based, stepwise diagonal pressure reduction compensation strategy is proposed. This strategy fully considers the influence of longitudinal and
Zou, Yan, Ma, Yao, Kong, Yan, Pei, Xiaofei
Impact of Tire-Ground Contact Width on Pavement Roughness Evaluation2025-99-025612/23/2025
The International Roughness Index (IRI) is a key indicator for evaluating the performance of road surfaces. However, traditional measurement methods only focus on the evaluation data of a single longitudinal section and do not consider the lateral difference between the actual contact area between the tire and the road surface, which may lead to inaccurate evaluation results. In recent years, with the advancement of 3D laser scanning and digital photogrammetry technology, full-section data acquisition has brought new possibilities for roughness evaluation. However, how to find a balance between data fineness and computing efficiency has become a core problem that needs to be solved. Based on the principle of interaction between vehicles and road surfaces, this paper proposes to include only the pavement height data within the tire width range into IRI analysis, and establishes an evaluation framework based on standard tire-ground contact width. This method not only retains the key
An, Huazhen, Wang, Rui, Han, Xiaokun, Luo, Yingchao
Research on Vibration Tension Control of High-Speed Tracked Vehicle Systems2025-99-042412/10/2025
Addressing the vibration issues during the operation of high-speed tracked vehicles, a dynamic tension control method based on an electro-hydraulic servo system is investigated, along with a comparative study of two tension control strategies. Based on the force analysis of the idler wheel and curved arm, a theoretical model for tension near the idler wheel is established. The accuracy of this theoretical numerical model is verified by comparing it with the results of multibody system dynamics simulations conducted in RecurDyn. A co-simulation platform for electro-hydraulic servo control is built using the software interfaces of RecurDyn, Simulink, and AMESim to tune the PID control parameters and achieve dynamic tension control of the track. Simulation results indicate that the root mean square value of the track plate displacement is reduced by 18% when using the PID control strategy, and by 33.3% when employing the fuzzy PID control strategy. Furthermore, the track tension
Huang, Zhangxian, Deng, Jiahui
Train Wheel Tread Defects Detection Algorithm Based on SEN-YOLO2025-99-045812/10/2025
Railway is a key component driving innovation and sustainability in transportation systems. Aiming at solving the problems of metal reflection, oil contamination and complex background interference in railway wheel tread defect detection, this paper will focus on the railway wheel tread defect detection method, SEN-YOLO, based on the YOLOv5s and the comparison between different generations of YOLO detection. To better adapt the model to actual detection scenarios, multi-stage dynamic data augmentation strategy combining illumination robustness optimization and motion blur simulation is designed to construct a railway wheel dataset that closely mirrors real-world conditions. In terms of model architecture, the YOLOv5s-based approach integrates the Squeeze-and-Excitation Networks (SENets) module to enhance the capture of minor defect features and employs an adaptive feature fusion strategy to mitigate background noise. To further improve detection accuracy and generalization, the YOLOv5s
You, Lijie, Mo, Yayelin, Tu, Jingjie, Zhou, Hang
Wheels/Rims - Truck and Bus - Performance Requirements and Test Procedures for Radial and Cornering FatigueJ267_202511 (Historical)11/19/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice provides minimum performance target and uniform laboratory procedures for fatigue testing of wheels and demountable rims intended for normal highway use on trucks, buses, truck-trailers, and multipurpose vehicles. Users may establish design criteria exceeding the minimum performance target for added confidence in a design. The cycle target noted in Tables 1 and 2 are based on Weibull statistics using two parameter, median ranks, 50% confidence level and 90% reliability, and beta equal to two, typically noted as B10C50. For other wheels intended for normal highway use and temporary use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J328. For wheels used on trailers drawn by passenger cars, light trucks, or multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J1204. For bolt together military wheels, refer to SAE J1992. This document does not cover other special application wheels and rims.
Truck and Bus Wheel Committee
Research on Off-Road Performance Optimization Strategy for Agricultural Smart Vehicles Based on Traction Control System2025-99-011811/11/2025
(TC)The paper presents a designed and evaluated optimal traction control (TC) strategy for unmanned agriculture vehicle, where onboard sensors acquire various real-time information about wheel speed, load sharing, and terrain characteristics to achieve the precise control of the powertrain by establishing an optimal control command; moreover, the developed AMT-adaptive SMC combines the AMT adaptive control algorithm and the SMC to implement the dynamic gear shifting, torque output, and driving mode switching to obtain an optimal power distribution according to different speed demand and harvest load. Based on the establishment of models of the autonomous agriculture vehicle and corresponding tire model, a MATLAB/Simulink method based on dynamic simulation is adopted to simulate the unmanned agricultural vehicle traversing different terrains conditions. The results from comparison show that the energy saving reaches 19.0%, rising from 2. 1 kWh/km to 1. 7 kWh/km, an increase in
Feng, Zhenghao, Lu, Yunfan, Gao, Duan, An, Yi, Zhou, Chuanbo
Characterization of the Brake Linings Coefficient of Friction by Means of Instrumented Suspensions Equipped on a Hybrid Race Vehicle10-10-01-000411/8/2025
The knowledge of the brake linings coefficient of friction (BLCF) is crucial for the control of the braking moment in modern vehicles equipped with electric powertrains. In the case of race vehicles equipped with carbon–carbon brakes, the coefficient of friction exhibits great variations as a function of the main influencing factors, namely the pressure, the temperature, and the sliding speed at the pad–disc interface. In this work, a Le Mans Hypercar instrumented with more than 150 sensors was adopted to perform the characterization of the BLCF from racetrack acquisitions. The front and rear left suspensions of the vehicle were instrumented with strain gauge channels and position transducers to acquire the reaction loads at the upright and the orientation of the arms. Then, the geometric matrix method was implemented for calculating the moments at the upright from which the braking torque was derived without the need to know any of the wheel inertia, nor the driveshaft torque. Data
Cortivo, Davide, Vendramin, Mattia, Dindo, Luigi
“Reduction in Product Development Time by Field-To-Lab Simulation”2025-28-028211/6/2025
Puddling is a crucial process in rice cultivation, involving the preparation of the soil in a flooded field to create a soft, muddy seedbed. There are two classifications for puddling: full cage and half cage. Full cage puddling involves replacing the rear wheels of the tractor with steel paddle wheels, which are used to till the rice paddies directly without any additional implement. In the half cage puddling, the rear wheels remain on the tractor, and a smaller cage or paddle wheel is attached to the outside. Considering the field size, the operator often releases the clutch very quickly after a speed or direction change. This generates torque spikes, which are harmful to Transmission Gears and Clutches. This can lead to gear teeth bending fatigue failure due to repeated higher bending stresses. In this paper, a study related to how to reduce overall product development time by simulating bending fatigue failure of gear in lab environment is presented. A systematic approach is used
Pathan, Irfan Hamidulla, Bardia, Prashant
Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions2025-32-003311/3/2025
This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the
Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya
Higher-Strength, Higher-Toughness Die Cast Wheel Material using Recycled Aluminum2025-32-000711/3/2025
In an attempt to reduce CO2 release from alloy wheel production, we have developed an aluminum alloy for casting that satisfies necessary property requirements using recycled aluminum, but without heat treatment. The wheel is a critical safety feature of any vehicle, and it should have toughness and strength .In many wheels, virgin aluminum containing small amounts of impurities is used to maintain toughness, and heat treatment (T6), which is post-casting quick heating and quenching, is applied to provide strength. At the start of this project, we focused on two wheel-manufacturing processes, production of virgin aluminum and heat treatment, from which a large amount of CO2 is released. By switching to recycled aluminum, CO2 was reduced to one-ninth the original amount. The issue with recycled material is that impurities grow in the metal structures as intermetallic compounds and this reduces toughness. To deal with this issue, we have chosen high-pressure die casting (HPDC), in which
Suzuki, Noritaka
On Optimal Tire Usage in the Path-Tracking Control of Four-Wheel Independent Steering Four-Wheel Independent Drive Electric Vehicles12-09-02-001410/22/2025
Four-wheel independent steering four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles have an independent steering motor and an independent driving motor for each wheel, for a total of eight motors. About 28 works in this emerging field have shown path-tracking control algorithms for these vehicles, 18 of them explicitly or implicitly aspire for a condition known as optimal tire usage. This article first defines this optimality condition and explains its significance. Second, this article identifies three indicators of tire usage that aid in assessing the existing algorithms. Third, this article performs block diagram examination of four of the 18 works, revealing significant commonalities across the 28 works and identifying areas for improvement in three of the four algorithms. Lastly, this article suggests motor control systems to fill these gaps. Furthermore, it employs these motor control systems in one of the four algorithms, and illustrates path-tracking and achievement of the
Kumar, Dileep, Potluri, Ramprasad
Simulation Study of Wheel Bearing Friction Losses at Vehicle Level2025-01-039910/7/2025
With the ongoing electrification of vehicles, components contributing a minor share of overall drivetrain losses are coming into focus. Analyzing these losses is crucial for enhancing the energy efficiency of modern vehicles and meeting the increasing demands for sustainability and extended driving range. These components include wheel bearings, whose friction losses are influenced by parameters such as temperature, mechanical loads, and mounting situation. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the resulting friction losses and their dependence on the mentioned influencing parameters at an early stage of development, both through test bench measurements and with the help of simulation models. To achieve these objectives, this submission presents a methodology that combines test bench measurements with a measurement-based simulation of the friction losses of wheel bearings occurring in the vehicle as a complete system under varying driving cycles and parameters. For this purpose, an
Hartmann, Lukas, Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman, Notz, Fabian
Optimization of Steering Geometry in Four-Wheel Steering Vehicles to Minimize Bump Steer and Exploit Kinematic Steering Using a Multibody Approach2025-01-50639/24/2025
This paper presents a methodology for optimizing the steering system of a multi-purpose agricultural vehicle (MPAV) equipped with four-wheel steering (4WS) and a symmetrically configured double-wishbone suspension on both axles. The MPAVs are often prone to bump steer issues due to their narrow track width and the need for long suspension travel. The objective is to define and dimension the steering geometry while maintaining the existing suspension kinematics and preserving the hard points of the wheel hubs. In the scientific literature, this issue is typically addressed by adjusting the hard points of both the steering mechanism and the suspension kinematics. The proposed optimization framework begins with a sensitivity analysis of key design parameters: the position and length of the steering actuator. Based on this analysis, the problem is formulated as an optimization task with two different objective functions, whose solutions are then compared. The functions aim to minimize bump
Belloni, Mattia, Vignati, Michele, Sabbioni, Edoardo
Actuator-to-Vehicle Joint Estimation of Clamping Force for Sensorless Control of the Electro-Mechanical Brake System2025-01-03389/15/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) is a promising brake actuating system for electrified vehicle. To enhance the system function safety while saving space from redundancy sensors, this paper studied sensorless climbing force control for the EMB where a new climbing force estimator is proposed by fusing the information from vehicle dynamics and EMB states. The work was done with three contributions: 1) The priori clamping force characteristics were implemented to build the estimator with two parallel models, one of which was derived from the actuator rigid-body dynamics while the other was derived from vehicle longitudinal dynamics model; 2) a proportional-integral (PI) observer utilizing wheel speed residual signals was developed to correct the initial estimates iteratively; 3) a fuzzy control controller was proposed to optimize the key parameters of the PI observer. Comparative study was conducted on a co-simulation platform and the results showed that the actuator-to-vehicle joint
Xing, Yipu, Zhou, Quan, Cheng, Yulin, Li, Congcong, Han, Wei, Zhuo, Guirong, Xiong, Lu
Design Considerations for Wheel Bearing Outer Ring for Electric Vehicles2025-01-03679/15/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) require improved drag performance from wheel bearings to achieve a longer range. EVs are heavier and have higher torque output compared to internal combustion-powered vehicles. Due to the increased weight and torque of EVs, there will be higher loads at the bearing-to-knuckle joint. These increased loads may necessitate higher clamp loads to maintain joint integrity. However, higher clamp loads can lead to distortion or reduced roundness of the wheel bearing outer ring. Such distortion permanently increases drag and reduces bearing life. Therefore, after vehicle corner assembly with higher clamp loads, it is critical to minimize outer ring distortion during the initial assembly and throughout the bearing's lifespan. This paper will cover the design considerations for the wheel bearing outer ring to minimize distortion, utilizing Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) analysis for various designs. A Design of Experiments (DOE) will be conducted to understand the
Mandhadi, Chaitanya Reddy, Callaghan, Kevin, Sutherlin, Robert, Lee, Seungpyo, Lee, Yeonsik, Bovee, Benjamin
Dynamic Analysis of Automotive Wheel Bearings2025-01-03669/15/2025
Bearings are essential mechanical components that support external loads and facilitate rotational motion. With the increasing demand for high-performance applications in industries such as semiconductors, aerospace, and robotics, the need for accurate and robust performance evaluation has intensified. Traditionally, bearing performance has been assessed using static or quasi-static theoretical approaches. However, these methods are limited in their ability to capture time-dependent behaviors, which are critical in real-world applications. In this study, a rigid body dynamics analysis was proposed to evaluate the time-dependent behavior of bearings. The methodology was first applied to a deep groove ball bearing, and the results were compared with those obtained from bearing theory to validate the approach. Subsequently, the method was extended to an automotive wheel bearing, and the time-dependent contact angles and ball loads were analyzed under axial and radial loading conditions
Lee, Seungpyo
Dimensional Compatibility for Commercial Vehicles Fitment of Complete Wheels in Drum Brake Applications - Truck and BusJ1865_202508 (Current)8/22/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice defines a clearance line for establishing dimensional compatibility between drum brakes and wheels with 19.5-inch, 22.5-inch, and 24.5-inch diameter rims. Wheels designed for use with drum brakes may not be suitable for disc brake applications. The lines provided establish the maximum envelope for brakes, including all clearances, and minimum envelope for complete wheels to allow for interchangeability. This document addresses the dimensional characteristics only and makes no reference to the performance, operational dynamic deflections, or heat dissipation of the system. Valve clearances have not been included in the fitment lines. Bent valves may be required to clear brake drums. Disc brake applications may require additional running clearances beyond those provided by the minimum contour lines. Mounting systems as noted are referenced in SAE J694.
Truck and Bus Wheel Committee
Developing Military Light Utility Vehicle Performance Based on Air Semi-Active Suspension System Using Recurrent Neural Network–Based Controller10-09-04-00306/19/2025
This research presents a semi-active suspension system that combines an air spring and a magneto-rheological (MR) fluid damper to produce both active force and variable damping rates based on the road conditions. The suspension system used for the military light utility vehicle (MLUV) has seven degrees of freedom. A nonlinear model predictive control system generates the desired active force for the air spring control signal, while the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) estimates the target tracking of the intended damping force. The recurrent neural network is designed to develop a controller for an identification system. To achieve the optimal voltage for the MR damper without log time, it is used to simultaneously determine the active control force of the air spring by modifying the necessary damping force tracking. The MLUV suspension system is integrated with the traction control system to improve overall vehicle stability. A fuzzy traction controller adjusts the throttle angle
Shehata Gad, Ahmed
Automobile Wheel Alignment and Wheel Balancing, Second EditionR-5916/12/2025
With over thirty years of hands-on experience in designing, developing, and patenting products in the wheel alignment industry, the author brings invaluable expertise to the second edition of this essential guide. Perfectly suited for mechanics, technicians, engineers, and even vehicle owners, this book goes beyond the basics to offer a comprehensive understanding of wheel alignment and its critical role in vehicle performance. The importance of proper wheel alignment and balancing cannot be overstated—incorrect alignment leads to premature tire wear and reduced safety. This updated edition provides in-depth coverage on wheel alignment techniques for light vehicles, commercial trucks, and trailers, with clear illustrations to help readers recognize and address various types of tire wear. The book explores everything from the mechanics of alignment to the impact of air pressure and tire rotation on longevity. With the growing need for vehicle maintenance, this guide empowers
R., Mananathan
Effects on Motorcycle Response Data Using Wheel Force Transducers2025-01-00945/5/2025
Wheel Force Transducers (WFT) are precise and accurate measurement devices that seamlessly integrate into any vehicle. They can be applied in numerous vehicle applications for both on-road and in laboratory settings. The instrumentation requires replacing an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) wheel with a custom WFT system which is specific to the wheel hub design. An ideal design will minimally impact a vehicle's dynamics, but the vehicle system is inherently modified from the mass of the measurement device. Research and technical documentation have been published which provide conclusions explaining reduction in the unsprung mass reduces dynamic wheel load. However, there doesn’t appear to be clear compensation techniques for how a modified unsprung mass can be related to the original system, thus allowing the WFT signals to be more accurate to the OEM wheel forces. An experimental study was performed on a prototype motorcycle to better understand these differences. An
Frisco, Jacob, Larsen, William, Rhudy, Scott, Oosting, Nicholas, Laurent, Matthew
Road Noise Analysis using Component TPA and FBS with Vehicle Component Modifications2025-01-00555/5/2025
Road noise caused by road excitation is a critical factor for vehicle NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) performance. However, assessing the individual contribution of components, particularly bushings, to NVH performance is generally challenging, as automobiles are composed of numerous interconnected parts. This study describes the application of Component Transfer Path Analysis (CTPA) on a full vehicle to provide insights into improving NVH performance. With the aid of Virtual Point Transformation (VPT), blocked forces are determined at the wheel hubs; afterward, a TPA is carried out. As blocked forces at the wheel hub are independent of the vehicle dynamics, these forces can be used in simulations of modified vehicle components. These results allow for the estimation of vehicle road noise. To simulate changes in vehicle components, including wheel/tire and rubber bushings, Frequency-Based Substructuring (FBS) is used to modify the vehicle setup in a simulation model. In this
Kim, Jungu, Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis, Schütler, Willem, Malic, Mario, Kim, Hyeongjun, Kim, Uije
Mechanical Analysis of a Non-Pneumatic Tire’s Spokes2025-01-83274/1/2025
Mechanical analysis was performed of a non-pneumatic tire, specifically a Michelin Tweel size 18x8.5N10, that can be used up to a speed of 40 km/h. A Parylene-C coating was added to the rubber spoke specimens before performing both microscopic imaging and cyclic tensile testing. Initially, standard ASTM D412 specimens type C and A were cut from the wheel spokes, and then the specimens were subjected to deposition of a nanomaterial. The surfaces of the specimens were prepared in different ways to examine the influence on the material behavior including the stiffness and hysteresis. Microscopic imaging was performed to qualitatively compare the surfaces of the coated and uncoated specimens. Both coated and uncoated spoke specimens of each standard type were then subjected to low-rate cyclic tensile tests up to 500% strain. The results showed that the Parylene-C coating did not affect the maximum stress in the specimens, but did increase the residual strain. Type C specimens also had a
Collings, William, Li, Chengzhi, Schwarz, Jackson, Lakhtakia, Akhlesh, Bakis, Charles, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, El-Gindy, Moustafa
On the Critical Importance of Physical Modelling for the Analysis of Coast-Down Data2025-01-87744/1/2025
Novel experimental and analytical methods were developed with the objective of improving the reliability and repeatability of coast-down test results. The methods were applied to coast-down tests of a SUV and a tractor-trailer combination, for which aerodynamic wind-tunnel data were available for comparison. The rationale was to minimize the number of unknowns in the equation of motion by measuring rolling and mechanical resistances and wheel-axle moments of inertia, which was achieved using novel experimental techniques and conventional rotating-drum tests. This led to new modelling functions for the rolling and mechanical resistances in the equation of motion, which was solved by regression analysis. The resulting aerodynamic drag coefficient was closer to its wind-tunnel counterpart, and the predicted low-speed road load was closer to direct measurements, than the results obtained using conventional methods. It is anticipated that applying the novel techniques to characterize the
Tanguay, Bernard, de Souza, Fenella
An Incremental Coordinated Control Method for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle through the Anti-Squat/Lift/Dive Suspension2025-01-82674/1/2025
In this paper, an incremental coordinated control method through anti-squat/lift/dive suspension is proposed based on and suited to a distributed drive electric vehicle with front and rear dual motors. The precise relationship between the suspension reaction force and the driving force of the wheel is derived as the control model through an in-depth analysis of the wheel motion and force. Through imposing the first-order dynamics, the proposed method not only provides the longitudinal speed control of the vehicle but also suppresses the longitudinal, vertical and pitch vibration of the vehicle. Simulation results show that the suspension reaction force formula derived in this paper is more suitable for dynamic conditions, and compared with the control method based on the simplified suspension anti-squat/lift/dive control model, the proposed method using the accurate control model has superior comprehensive control performance.
Feng, Cong, Wu, Guangqiang, Yang, Yuchen
Optimization Design of Formula E Racing Car Transmission and Wheel System2025-01-85054/1/2025
The paper provides a detailed analysis of the transmission system design under the single motor drive scheme, with a focus on the 2024 Formula SAE (FSAE). The selection of the motor type is determined based on race rules and battery box output power limits. In terms of transmission ratio design, this study takes into account the car's power, balancing acceleration ability and maximum speed to determine an optimal transmission ratio through theoretical calculations and empirical values. Furthermore, it explores how to optimize overall drive system performance by considering technical parameters, power requirements, economic considerations of each system assembly, and validates these findings through software simulations. Notably, significant improvements in reliability are achieved with the newly designed transmission system and wheel rim system while also proposing lightweighting methods for key components. We have carried out extensive verification in both simulation and real vehicle
Wang, Liuxin, Li, Chengfeng, Zhu, Xiran, Liu, Minmin
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