Browse Topic: Wheels

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Quantifying the uncertainty in bicycle-computer speed measurements2025-01-8701To be published on 04/01/2025
The goal of this study is to quantify the uncertainty in bicycle computer measurements of speed. We acquired 100+ hours of data at 1-second intervals simultaneously from three Garmin Edge 530 computers mounted to the same handlebars during road cycling in rural and urban environments. Each computer recorded speed data using a different method: One unit was paired to a Garmin GSC 10 speed-and-cadence sensor (wheel rotation based), a second unit was paired to Garmin Speed Sensor 2 and Cadence Sensor 2 (accelerometer based), and a third unit was not paired to any remote sensors and relied on the device’s GPS position to calculate speed (GPS based). Based on these data, we generated probability distributions that quantify the uncertainty in the accelerometer based and GPS based speed measurements. This study provides foundational information regarding the appropriate methods to quantify the uncertainty in bicycle-computer speed data and to probabilistically interpret these data for
Booth, Gabrielle R., Siegmund, Gunter P.
Technical Paper
Multi-source error analysis for loading disk of suspension kinematics & compliance test bench2025-01-8291To be published on 04/01/2025
The suspension Kinematics & compliance (K&C) characteristics test bench can simulate the excitation of the road to the wheels under various typical working conditions in a quasi-static manner on the bench, enabling the measurement of the K&C characteristics of the suspension system without knowing the specific suspension structure form, parameters, etc., assisting in the entire design process of the vehicle. In this paper, aiming at various geometric source errors existing in the processing and assembly process of the K&C characteristic test bench, an evaluation method based on the homogeneous transformation matrix is proposed to establish the position error of the center of the end loading disk in the series motion chain. Firstly, the mapping relationship between the position error of the end loading disk in the series mechanism kinematic chain and the assembly error is established by using the homogeneous transformation matrix. Then, the change matrix of the coordinate system from
Sun, Haihua, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Bicycle Pitch-over Reconstruction Analysis2025-01-8684To be published on 04/01/2025
During a pitch-over event, the forward momentum of the combined bicycle and rider is suddenly impeded at the front tire and front axle causing the rider and bicycle to rotate about the bicycle front structures and also possibly propelling the rider forward. A pitch-over event can result in significant injuries to the rider. This paper presents the examination of the pitch-over of a bicycle by approaching the event using two different methods over what has been published previously. One method uses Newton’s 2nd Law directly and the other method uses the principle of impulse and momentum, the integrated form of Newton’s 2nd Law. The two methods provide useful equations, contributing to current literature on the topic of reconstructing and analyzing bicycle pitch-over incidents. The analysis is supplemented with Madymo simulation models to evaluate the kinematics and kinetics of the bicycle and rider interacting with front wheel obstructions of different heights. The effect of variables
Brach, R. Matthew, Kelley, Mireille, Van Poppel, Jon
Technical Paper
A drive anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for distributed three-axis drive vehicle2025-01-8303To be published on 04/01/2025
The research object of this project is the longitudinal and lateral control of the distributed three-axis drive tractor. Which is different from the traditional four motors power system layout is that the third axel have two motors while the second axel only have one motor. Compared with the traditional design, it can reduce the dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in high efficiency range by switching different working model. For example, when driving at high speed, only the two-axis motor works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerate or climb, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, established the vehicle model in Simulink firstly, and then Co-simulated with Trucksim. The longitudinal control identified the optimal slip rate of the road firstly, then used the adaptive sliding mode control to obtain the driving torque of each wheel, which can achieve well control effect under various road conditions and motion modes
Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Technical Paper
Simulating the DrivAer Notchback Car Model using Wall-Function LES2025-01-8777To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper summarizes work on the application of a new and fully parallelized native GPU-based finite-volume solver on the DrivAER Notchback configuration using a wall-function LES approach. A series of meshes generated using a Rapid-Octree strategy have been investigated, and results for drag, surface pressure coefficient and velocity profile are compared with available experimental data
Menter, Florian, Dalvi, Ashwini, Flad, David, Sharkey, Patrick
Technical Paper
Design of A Differential Braking Controller Based on Road Reaction Force Estimation to respond to Steering System Failure in Autonomous Driving Situations2025-01-8797To be published on 04/01/2025
As the electrification of chassis systems accelerates, the demand for fail-safety strategies is increasing. In the past, the steering system was mechanically connected, so the driver could respond directly to some extent. However, the Steer-By-Wire system is composed of the column and rack bar as electrical signals, so the importance of response strategies for steering system failure is gradually increasing. When a steering system failure occurs, a differential braking control using the difference in braking force between the left and right wheels was studied. Recently, some studies have been conducted to model the wheel reaction force generated during a differential braking. Those studies linearly modeled the reaction force generated at the kingpin axis. Since actual tires and road surfaces are nonlinear and cause large model errors, model-based control methods have limited performance. Also, in previous studies assumed that the driver normally operates the steering wheel in a failure
Kim, Sukwon, Kim, Young Gwang, Kim, SungDo, Moon, Sung Jin
Technical Paper
Research on Control Algorithm for Active Rear Wheel Steering System of Passenger Cars2025-01-8755To be published on 04/01/2025
With the continuous advancement of automotive technology, the active rear wheel steering system, serving as a crucial component for enhancing vehicle handling performance and safety, has garnered extensive attention. In this paper, the control algorithm and performance optimization of the active rear wheel steering system are deeply studied. Firstly, a complete vehicle dynamics model is established, providing a theoretical foundation for the research on control algorithms. Subsequently, the optimal control theory is adopted to achieve the control of the rear wheel steering angle, and the LQR control strategy with variable weight coefficients is proposed in response to the linear and nonlinear variations of the vehicle tire sideslip characteristics. Finally, taking the 2WS vehicle, the proportional steering control strategy for the front and rear wheels, and the proportional feedforward + yaw rate feedback control strategy as references, modeling and joint simulation based on the CarSim
Zhang, Yi, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Technical Paper
Aerodynamic Effect on Vehicle Handling2025-01-8754To be published on 04/01/2025
Vehicle handling is significantly influenced by aerodynamic forces, which alter the normal load distribution across all four wheels, affecting vehicle stability. These forces, including lift, drag, and side forces, cause complex weight transfers and vary nonlinearly with the vehicle's apparent velocity and orientation relative to wind direction. In this study, we simulate the vehicle traveling on a circular path with constant steering input, calculate the normal load on each tire using a weight transfer formula, calculate the effect of lift force on the vehicle on the front and rear, and calculate the vehicle dynamic relation at steady state because the frequency of change due to aero load is significantly less than that of yaw rate response. The wind velocity vector is constant while the vehicle drives in a circle, so the apparent wind velocity relative to the car is cyclical. Our approach focuses on the interaction between two fundamental nonlinearities: the nonlinear aerodynamic
Patil, Harshvardhan, Williams, Daniel
Technical Paper
Mechanical Analysis of a Non-Pneumatic Tire’s Spokes2025-01-8327To be published on 04/01/2025
Mechanical analysis was performed of a non-pneumatic tire, specifically a Michelin Tweel size 8x8.55 N10, that can be used up to a speed of 30 mph (48.3 km/h). A Parylene-C coating was added to the rubber spoke specimens before performing both microscopic imaging and cyclic tensile testing. Initially, standard ASTM D412 specimens type C and A were cut from the wheel spokes, and then the specimens were subjected to deposition of a nanomaterial. The surfaces of the specimens were prepared in different ways to examine the influence on the material behavior including the stiffness and hysteresis. Microscopic imaging was performed to qualitatively compare the surfaces of the coated and uncoated specimens. Both coated and uncoated spoke specimens of each standard type were then subjected to low-rate cyclic tensile tests up to 500% strain. The results showed that the Parylene-C coating did not affect the maximum stress in the specimens, but did increase the residual strain. Type C specimens
Collings, William, Li, Chengzhi, Schwarz, Jackson, Lakhtakia, Akhlesh, Bakis, Charles, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, El-Gindy, Moustafa
Technical Paper
Optimal usage of engine torque to engage a disconnect device in situations where battery power is not available2025-01-8578To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper introduces a novel approach to optimize battery power usage and optimal engine torque for wheel end disconnect device engagement under power constrained scenarios for range extended hybrid vehicles. Range extended hybrid architecture provides benefits of BEV architecture and relief the range anxiety that BEV drivers often have. The wheel end disconnect device helps improve the efficiency of the battery power usage when it is disconnected and provides better drivability and performance to fulfill driver demand when it is connected. Under power constraint scenario, the disconnect device engagement could take too long or eventually fail to engage and result in degradation for drivability and vehicle level performance. This novel approach is utilizing engine to either generate more power to spin up the disconnect motor faster under discharge limited case or generate less power to allow the disconnect motor to spin down under charge limited case. The effectiveness of this
Sha, Hangxing, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Khanal, Shishir, Rock, Joe, Patel, Nadirsh
Technical Paper
Time Step Analysis of Sliding Mesh Rotation Modeling2025-01-8626To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper analyzes the accuracy and computational cost of increasing the time-step size on a production vehicle while using Sliding Mesh (SM) for the rotation modeling of the wheels with two turbulence models (Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) and Delayed Detached-Eddy Simulations (DDES)). The current recommendations of using a SM model are too computationally expensive to be used in a consistent manner, especially compared to a Moving Reference Frame (MRF) model for the wheels. While changing the time-step size from 1x - 50x, 1x being the current recommendations of 1 degree of rotation on the wheels per time-step, a CFD analysis of a mass-production vehicle model was compared to wind tunnel data using time-averaged flow. The DDES simulations were more robust at larger time steps compared to the URANS simulations. The drag coefficients and flow field was more consistent to the wind tunnel data for SM compared to using a MRF rotation model for the wheels even at the
Struk, Michael, AULTMAN, MATTHEW, Disotell, Kevin, Duan, Lian, Bianco, Antonello, Metka, Matt, Khasdeo, Nitin, Ramsay, Thomas
Technical Paper
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-adhesion Road considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-8813To be published on 04/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability.This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a parallel composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length, road type, and vehicle
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Technical Paper
Automotive fatigue load spectra: modelization, identification and applications2025-01-8240To be published on 04/01/2025
Fatigue design is invariably of prior concern for the automotive industry, no matter of the evolution of the mobility market: at first because carmakers have to stay compliant with general structural integrity requirements for reliability, notably applicable to the chassis system, then due to the endless competition for lightweighting in order to mitigate product costs and/or enhance vehicle efficiency. In the past, this key performance was often tackled by basic reference load cases, making use of the simplest signal content, e.g. sinus functions, to practice constant amplitude loads on test rigs and for computations, respectively. Nowadays, full time series coming from proving ground measurements, or any corresponding virtual road load data computations, may be applied to feed complex vehicle computations for virtual assessment and complex test facilities for final approval, under variable amplitude loads. In between, the concept of load spectra (i.e. distribution of amplitudes with
Facchinetti, Matteo Luca, Tjhung, Tana, Jaffre lng, Sébastien, Datta, Sandip, Hayat lng, Romain, Guo, Mingchao
Technical Paper
Correlation of Vehicle drop test in front & rear wheel landing condition using multibody dynamics simulations2025-01-8638To be published on 04/01/2025
Two wheelers motorcycles are used for many purposes e.g. commuting from place to another, long highway rides, racing and off-roading. Motorcycles which are used in off-road conditions require large suspension strokes to absorb large oscillations due to road conditions. These motorcycles undergo jumps of different heights and different vehicle orientations. In some of the dynamic situations front wheel may land first than the rear and in some of the situations rear may land first as compared to front. To make sure that the vehicle is durable enough to withstand loads in such operating conditions, vehicle drop test was developed at component test lab where vehicle is dropped from predefined heights in both front & rear wheel landing conditions. Same load case is simulated in multibody dynamics to capture loads at important connections of the frame. This paper presents the correlation exercise carried out to validate MBD model and simulation process with test data captured during lab test
Jain, Arvind Kumar, Nirala, Deepak
Technical Paper
Concept of an electromechanical brake-by-wire system for battery-electric vehicles2025-01-8804To be published on 04/01/2025
Brake-by-wire systems have received more and more attention in the recent years, but a closer look on the available systems shows, that they have not reached full by-wire level yet. Most systems are still using hydraulic connections between main cylinder and the brake calipers on at least one axle to ensure functional safety. Mostly, this is the front axle, since the front brakes have to convert more kinetic energy during braking manoeuvers due to the dynamic wheel load shift. Electromechanical actuators are currently used for rear brake systems in hybrid brake-by-wire applications solely, since a loss of the front brake calipers can lead to severe conditions and control loss of the vehicle during braking. Further, the higher mass of battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) leads to much higher braking forces on both axles, so the electromechanical calipers on the market are no longer suitable. This article presents a concept for a brake-by-wire system for a battery electric vehicle, which
Heydrich, Marius, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin, Stoev, Julian, Lecoutere, Johan
Technical Paper
FIT File Processing for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-8696To be published on 04/01/2025
It is becoming increasingly common for bicyclists to record their rides using cycling computers and watches, the majority of which save the data they collect using the Flexible and Interoperable Data Transfer (.FIT) Protocol. As the contents of .FIT files are not readily accessible to users, the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the differences induced by several common methods of analyzing .FIT files. We used a Garmin Edge 840 bicycle computer with a wireless wheel speed sensor to record ride data at both 1 Hz frequency and using the computer’s Smart Recording setting. The.FIT files were downloaded directly from the computer, uploaded to the test platforms, and then exported to .GPX, and/or .CSV formats: the platforms tested were Strava, RideWithGPS, Garmin Connect, and GoldenCheetah. Those same .FIT files were also converted directly to .CSV using the Garmin FIT Software Developer Kit (SDK) FitCSVTool utility, written to .KML files using a custom MATLAB script, and compared to
Sweet, David, Bretting, Gerald
Technical Paper
An incremental coordinated control method for distributed drive electric vehicle through the anti-squat/lift/dive suspension2025-01-8267To be published on 04/01/2025
In this paper, an incremental coordinated control method through anti-squat/lift/dive suspension is proposed based on and suited to a distributed drive electric vehicle with front and rear dual motors. The precise relationship between the suspension reaction force and the driving force of the wheel is derived as the control model through an in-depth analysis of the wheel motion and force. Through imposing the first-order dynamics, the proposed method not only provides the longitudinal speed control of the vehicle but also suppresses the longitudinal, vertical and pitch vibration of the vehicle Simulation results show that the suspension reaction force formula derived in this paper is more suitable for dynamic conditions, and compared with the control method based on the simplified suspension anti-squat/lift/dive control model, the proposed method using the accurate control model has superior comprehensive control performance
Feng, Cong, Wu, Guangqiang, Yang, Yuchen
Technical Paper
A Wide Belt Correction Strategy for Belt-Whip and Wheel Ventilation Drag2025-01-8770To be published on 04/01/2025
The increased importance of aerodynamics to help with overall vehicle efficiency necessitates a desire to improve the accuracy of the measuring methods. To help with that goal, this paper will provide a method for correcting belt-whip and wheel ventilation drag on single and 3-belt wind tunnels. This is primarily done through a method of analyzing rolling-road only speed sweeps but also physically implementing a barrier. When understanding the aerodynamic forces applied to a vehicle in a wind tunnel, the goal is to isolate only those forces that it would see in the real world. This primarily means removing the weight of the vehicle from the vertical force and the rolling resistance of the tires and bearings from the longitudinal force. This is traditionally done by subtracting the no-wind forces from the wind at testing velocity forces. The first issue with the traditional method is that a boundary layer builds up on the belt(s), which can then influence a force onto the vehicle’s
Borton, Zackery
Technical Paper
Intelligent Active Rear Wheel Steering with safety boundary Assist2025-01-8752To be published on 04/01/2025
Along with the innovation of vehicle technology, the active steering system has an excellent effect on the prevention of uncontrolled steering events due to its significant advantage in optimising handling stability. Meanwhile, the safety boundary is an important judgement basis for the stable operation of the vehicle, and based on the safety boundary, the controller can help the driver to keep the vehicle in the stable region of the state space. In this paper, an active rear wheel steering model prediction controller is proposed based on the safety boundary to control the rear wheel steering angle to assist the front wheel steering, and constrain the actual cross-swing angular angular velocity and centre-of-mass lateral deflection angle of the vehicle within the safety boundary of the state space, so as to ensure the stable operation of the vehicle, and the main research contents are as follows: 1. Aiming at the problem that the linear two-degree-of-freedom model of the vehicle can't
Li, Ziyu, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Leaf Spring Suspension System: MBD Model Building, Simulation, and Validation2025-01-8288To be published on 04/01/2025
Title: Leaf Spring Suspension System: MBD Model Building, Simulation, and Validation The leaf spring suspension is a critical component of the chassis system, providing benefits such as improved ride quality, stable handling, and load-carrying capability. However, if a leaf spring fails, it can cause the vehicle frame and body to drop onto the wheel assembly, rendering the vehicle immobile. Therefore, it is crucial to identify leaf spring failures early in the product development cycle to save time, effort, and costs associated with market launch and development. Simpack, an MBD tool for the simulation of leaf spring system is used in this paper. Four types of spring models are available: Simbeam Flexible Spring, Multi Mass Spring, SMM Simbeam and SMM Multi Mass. Simbeam flexible spring approach is used here. Linear and non-linear beam modeling approaches are available, with linear flexible elements using the Euler-Bernoulli or Timoshenko hypothesis. Substructures and communicators are
Apte, Ameya P., Gawade, Tushar, Muralidharan, Sandeep, M, Kathikeyan, Wong, Jason
Technical Paper
Optimization Design of Formula E Racing Car Transmission and Wheel System2025-01-8505To be published on 04/01/2025
The paper provides a detailed analysis of the transmission system design under the single motor drive scheme, with a focus on the 2024 Formula SAE (FSAE). The selection of the motor type is determined based on race rules and battery box output power limits. In terms of transmission ratio design, this study takes into account the car's power, balancing acceleration ability and maximum speed to determine an optimal transmission ratio through theoretical calculations and empirical values. Furthermore, it explores how to optimize overall drive system performance by considering technical parameters, power requirements, economic considerations of each system assembly, and validates these findings through software simulations. Notably, significant improvements in reliability are achieved with the newly designed transmission system and wheel rim system while also proposing lightweighting methods for key components. We have carried out extensive verification in both simulation and real vehicle
Wang, Liuxin, Li, Chengfeng, Zhu, Xiran, Liu, Minmin
Technical Paper
Design of Road Sense Simulation Method for Automobile Front Wheel Steer-By-Wire System2025-01-8260To be published on 04/01/2025
With the continuous development of electronic control technology in the automobile industry, the integration of electronic components in the automobile control system is increasing day by day, which significantly improves the safety performance and handling stability of the automobile. After entering the 21st century, the rapid development of intelligent technology makes the steer-by-wire system gradually integrated into modern automobile design. Because the steer-by-wire system cancels the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering wheel in the traditional mechanical steering system, various road information on the road can’t be directly transmitted to the driver through the steering wheel in the form of road sense, and the driver can’t truly feel the road information, which is not conducive to the driver's control of the car. Therefore, this paper studies the road sense simulation method of steer-by-wire system. Firstly, the dynamic model of the steer-by-wire
Li, Xuesong, Li, Zhicheng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Dynamic Testing and Analysis of Autocycle Vehicles for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-8687To be published on 04/01/2025
The Autocycle is a style of vehicle that most often utilizes a reverse-tricycle design with two front wheels and a single rear wheel. Modern autocycles in the United States are often utilized in a recreational role. This work presents physical measurements of two modern autocycles for use in accident reconstruction and pursues a deeper understanding of the unique attributes and handling associated with these vehicles. Vehicles were used to measure physical properties and subjected to cornering tests presented herein, and the data is compared to that for a conventional automobile. Observations on tire scuff marks are made from cornering tests unique to these vehicles. Strengths and challenges with this type of vehicle design are presented for various use cases as compared to conventional automobiles. Data and knowledge from this study will aid accident reconstruction efforts and act as a stepping stone for future work
Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Warner, Mark
Technical Paper
Stability-Based Coordinated Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Trajectory Tracking and Handling Stability2025-01-8307To be published on 04/01/2025
To address the issue of poor yaw stability in distributed drive electric vehicles under extreme trajectory tracking conditions, this paper proposes a novel control approach that coordinates upper-layer trajectory tracking and stability control with lower-layer active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC). Firstly, a stability domain boundary is defined in the β-β ̇ phase plane, and the instability factor is derived based on boundary line characteristics. This factor is used as a weight in the objective function to establish a model predictive control (MPC) for trajectory tracking and handling stability, thereby adjusting the control target weights for both objectives. Secondly, based on the front wheel tire load rate, a steering margin coefficient is set and used as a weight for AFS and DYC control quantities, modifying the front wheel steering angle and yaw moment control in the MPC model, and ultimately distributing the torque to all four wheels. Simulation results
Dou, Jingyang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Brake Pedal Sizing and Preliminary Design of Balance Bar in the Brake of a SAE Formula Type Vehicle2024-36-005412/20/2024
The SAE Formula prototypes are developed by students, where in the competition, various aspects of project definitions are evaluated. Among the factors evaluated for scoring is the braking system, in which the present work aims to present the development and design of the braking system of a vehicle, prototype of Formula SAE student competition. As it is a project manufactured mostly by students, where the chassis, suspension system, electrical, transmission and powertrain are developed, it is important to first pass the static and safety tests, where the brakes of the four wheels are tested during deceleration at a certain distance from the track. To enable such approval and also to demonstrate, for the competition judges, the veracity of the system’s sizing, all the parameters and assumptions of the choice of the vehicle’s braking system are presented, thus ensuring their reliability, efficiency and safety. Using drawing and simulation software such as SolidWorks and Excel for
Gomes, Lucas Olenski, Grandinetti, Francisco José, Martins, Marcelo Sampaio, Souza Soares, Alvaro Manoel, Reis de Faria Neto, Antônio, Castro, Thais Santos, Almeida, Luís Fernando
Technical Paper
Development of the Steering System for a Formula SAE Prototype2024-36-009912/20/2024
The SAE Formula, a national stage of the international competition, consists of a student project at universities in Brazil that seeks to encourage engineering students to apply the theoretical knowledge obtained in the classroom to practice, dealing with real problems and difficulties in order to prepare them for the job market. The SAE Formula prototype is developed with the intention of competing in the SAE national competition, where teams from various universities in Brazil meet to compete and demonstrate the projects developed during the year. Focusing on the vehicle dynamics subsystem, which can be divided into the braking, suspension, and steering systems of a prototype, the steering system includes main mechanical components such as the front axle sleeves, wheel hub, steering arm, steering column, rack, wheel, and tire. All these components work together with the suspension systems, including suspension arms, “bell crank,” and spring/shock absorber assembly. These components
Rigo, Cristiano Shuji Shimada, Neto, Antonio Dos Reis De Faria, Grandinetti, Francisco Jose, Castro, Thais Santos, Dias, Erica Ximenes, Martins, Marcelo Sampaio
Technical Paper
Study of Impact Forces on Wheel Rim from Pothole Impacts and Improvement of Flange Design to Eliminate Wheel Bend2024-28-026212/05/2024
Typically, an automotive passenger car wheel rim can withstand gradual loading contributed from the vehicle during cornering and high-speed maneuvering and as per the standard as well as customer requirements wheel has to withstand some impact forced contributed from radial and inclined loading. But in some cased wheel rim may not withstand the impact forces generated during impact on potholes and curbs with high-speed maneuvering. This Study helps to understand the impact on wheel rim and the forces acting on the rim flanges during pothole impact and high-speed curb impact. For In this study author tends to explain about the design of the rim flanges considering the impact forces the wheel rims are exposed to during pothole impact. Also in this study, road load data for a double pothole impact in electric vehicle with lightest alloy wheel rim in the segment is acquired to understand the loads acting on the rim. Based on the simulation iterations with several design changes and
Thiyagarajan, Sriram, Jithendhar, A, Singh, Ram Krishnan, Sundaram, Raghupathi, Paua, Ketan
Technical Paper
Multiple Pathways to Decarbonize India PV Sector2024-28-012712/05/2024
The cumulative accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) historically has resulted in the current problem of global warming. This is further compounded by developed nations, therefore, to fill this gap enhanced global actions are decided. Considering Country’s development need, available resources, government boost for agriculture, A holistic approach for 4W PVs is taken considering well to wheel emissions, as there are other ways to reduce tank to wheel emissions but may not be very effective for overall country’s GHG reduction. Major emissions in vehicle use are calculated based on Carbon intensity of various fuels & optimum pathway for Indian scenario is prepared & discussed in the paper considering all aspects CO2 reduction, development & motorization need. This paper explains multiple pathways for Passenger Vehicle (PV) Sector to be considered to meet country’s GHG needs
Sarna, Nishant, Jaiswal, Harsh, Rani, Abha, Dwivedi, Vipin, Vashisth, Ajay, Bhat, Anoop, Aggarwal, Tarun
Technical Paper
A NEW APPROACH TO DYNAMIC FACTOR BASED ON VEHICLE ACTUAL VELOCITY AND TIRE SLIP2024-01-396411/15/2024
ABSTRACT The dynamic factor is a common characteristic of vehicle traction and acceleration performance derived from the traction balance of a vehicle. Typically, the dynamic factor is presented as a function of the vehicle theoretical velocity computed using the characteristics of the powertrain only with no tire slippage included. For off-road vehicles requiring large traction in most operational conditions, the tire slippage can impact considerably the vehicle velocity. Furthermore, tire slippages and vehicle actual velocity of multi-wheel drive vehicles significantly depends on the driveline system configuration. In this paper, a new method for analysis of the dynamic factor is proposed which includes the slippages of driving wheels and their influence on the vehicle actual velocity. The method facilitates determination of the effects of terrain grip limitations and slippage on the dynamic factor and acceleration performance of off-road vehicles. An example is given for a 4x4
Paldan, Jesse, Vantsevich, Vladimir, Gorsich, David, Whitson, Jordan, Letherwood, Michael
Technical Paper
INVERSE DYNAMICS APPROACH TO ESTABLISH MOBILITY MARGINS2024-01-392011/15/2024
ABSTRACT An inverse dynamics approach is applied to assess the relationship and establish an adjustable balance between acceleration performance, slip energy efficiency, and mobility margins of a wheel of a vehicle with four wheels individually-driven by electric DC motors. The time history of the reference wheel torques are recovered which would enable the motion at the desired linear velocity. Target velocity profiles are applied which provide different rates of acceleration. The profiles are simulated in stochastic terrain conditions which represent continuously changing, uncertain terrain characteristics with various quality of rolling resistance and peak friction coefficient. A wheel mobility margin is determined to track how close a driving wheel is to immobilization. When moving in drastically changing stochastic terrain conditions, boundaries are adjusted to accommodate changes in the resistance to motion in order to guarantee the motion while not exceeding limits which would
Paldan, Jesse, Vantsevich, Vladimir, Gorsich, David, Jayakumar, Paramsothy, Moradi, Lee
Technical Paper
PHYSICS BASED SINGLE-WHEEL MODULE SLIPPAGE ASSESSMENT FOR AUTONOMOUS CONTROL DESIGN2024-01-391911/15/2024
ABSTRACT In this paper, a conceptually new research direction of the tire slippage analysis is provided as a new technological paradigm for agile tire slippage control. Specifically, the friction coefficient-slippage dynamics is analyzed and its characteristic parameters are introduced. Next, the nonlinear relation between the wheel torque and the tire instantaneous rolling radius incorporating the longitudinal elasticity factor is analyzed. The relation is shown to be related to the tire slippage. Further, its importance is clarified by deriving its dynamics and specifically, the instruction is given how it can be utilized to control slippage. Finally, the indices are introduced to assess the mobility and agility of the wheel in order to achieve optimal response to severe terrain conditions. The indices comprise of the introduced friction coefficient-slippage characteristic parameters. Citation: M. Ghasemi, V. Vantsevich, D. Gorsich, J. Goryca, A. Singh, L. Moradi, “Physics Based
Ghasemi, Masood, Vantsevich, Vladimir, Gorsich, David, Goryca, Jill, Singh, Amandeep, Moradi, Lee
Technical Paper
SURVIVABILITY ENHANCED RUN-FLAT VARIABLE FOOTPRINT TIRES2024-01-319611/15/2024
ABSTRACT The military has a unique requirement to operate in different terrains throughout the world. The ability to travel in as much varying terrain as possible provides the military greater tactical options. This requirement/need is for the tire to provide a variable footprint to allow for different ground pressure. Much of the current run-flat technology utilized by the military severely limits mobility and adds significant weight to the unsprung mass. This technology gap has allowed for the development of new run-flat tire technology. New tire technology (fig 1) has been developed that substantially increases survivability, eliminates the need for heavy run-flat inserts, significantly reduces air pressure requirements and provides full (or near full) speed capability in degraded/damaged mode (punctured tire). This run-flat technology is built directly into the tire, yet maintains the normal variable footprint of a normal pneumatic tire. This makes the tire/wheel assembly much
Capouellez, James, Pannikottu, Abraham, Gerhardt, Jon
Technical Paper
SUSPENSION PARAMETER MEASUREMENTS OF WHEELED MILITARY VEHICLES2024-01-335511/15/2024
ABSTRACT At the request of the US Army’s Tank Automotive Command (TACOM) a device was built to measure the suspension parameters of any military wheeled vehicle. This is part of an ongoing effort to model and predict vehicle dynamic behavior. The new machine is called the Suspension Parameter Identification and Evaluation Rig (SPIdER) and has a capacity intended to cover all of the military’s wheeled vehicles. The machine operates by holding the vehicle body nominally fixed while hydraulic cylinders move an “axle frame” in bounce or roll under each axle being tested. Up to two axles may be tested at once. Forces at the tires and motions of the wheel centers in three dimensions and two angles are measured. Other motions of the suspension and the minimal motions of the vehicle body are measured. For steer axles the steering ratio, Ackerman steer characteristics, and kingpin orientation are measured
Andreatta, Dale, Heydinger, Gary, Sidhu, Anmol, Bixel, Ronald, Kurec, Aleksander, Singh, Amandeep, Baseski, Igor, Skorupa, Thomas
Technical Paper
SIMULATION STUDY OF LIGHT-WEIGHTING EFFECTS ON RIDE QUALITY AND MOBILITY2024-01-391211/15/2024
ABSTRACT We compared performance of a lightweighted and baseline vehicle and demonstrated how performance is affected by adjusting the spring and shocks using 2-D and 3-D simulations. 2-D lump-parameter model was constructed from physical vehicle parameters by transforming displacements and loads from the springs and dampers into wheel motion and spindle forces. For the 3-D model, a detailed model for each suspension was used including rotational inertia of moving parts. Ride quality was assessed for 16 ride-courses with varying RMS terrain roughness by finding maximum speed at which average absorbed power at the driver seat is lower than 6 W. Shock performance was evaluated by finding maximum speed for the driver not to exceed 2.5-G acceleration when riding over varying-size half-round obstacles. The forces on wheel axes and accelerations were measured for the vehicle dropped from the height of 6, 12, 18, and 24 in. Maximum longitudinal slope climbing capability was estimated on hard
Jelinek, Bohumir, Salmon, Ethan, Mason, George, Gibson, Michael, Hannis, Tyler, Pachel, Nathan, Jarrell, Walker, Towne, Brent
Technical Paper
TITANIUM ROAD WHEELS: A COST-EFFECTIVE LOW-RISK ALTERNATIVE FOR LEGACY AND NEXT GENERATION COMBAT VEHICLES2024-01-378111/15/2024
ABSTRACT The U.S. Army identified the use of advanced materials in next generation combat vehicles design as a focal technology area of interest and urged industry to develop replacements that realize weight, sustainment, and cost savings. An initial life cycle analysis suggests that using Titanium road wheels as an alternative to legacy road wheels could cut 555.6 lbs. and reduce cost by $39,760.00 per each M-1 tank over a life cycle of 8,000 mi, resulting with $71.72 savings per each pound reduced. Secondary side-effects of the weight reduction achieved by the Titanium road wheels include improvements such as fuel economy, mobility, transportability, and risk-reduction in the inclusion of emerging metal matrix composite technologies in next generation combat vehicles. The paper recommends conducting field evaluation and considering the application of Titanium road wheels in the M-1/M-88, M-109, AMPV, MPF, OMFV, DLP/FDL, and RCV (H) platforms Citation: R. Paytan, R. Mazor, “Titanium
Paytan, Ronnen, Mazor, Ronen
Technical Paper
HOLLOW ROADWHEEL DESIGN TO INCREASE PERFORMANCE AND REDUCE WEIGHT2024-01-391111/15/2024
ABSTRACT Reducing roadwheel weight by replacing legacy steel designs with hollow, aluminum roadwheels could save 690 lb per vehicle (a 34% reduction). Hollow roadwheels offer greater load-carrying capacity, higher stiffness, improved corrosion resistance and no debris entrapment. Two hollow roadwheel configurations, bolt-together (HB) and welded (HW), were physically tested and exceeded the radial and lateral stiffness of the legacy steel (LS) roadwheel. The HW radial stiffness was 32% higher than LS and lateral was 65% higher. The HB radial stiffness was 14% higher than LS and lateral was 73% higher. Both hollow configurations offer significant weight reduction, better performance and can be implemented in the near-term based on their ease of manufacturing and high TRL. The HB configuration has already passed testing at discrete loads of 5G radial and 4G lateral (per roadwheel) with no cracks and acceptable levels of permanent deformation. The hollow roadwheel in its current
Hobe, Peter
Technical Paper
INVESTIGATION OF STRESS AND FAILURE IN GRANULAR SOILS FOR LIGHTWEIGHT ROBOTIC VEHICLE APPLICATIONS2024-01-337911/15/2024
ABSTRACT This paper describes novel experimental methods aimed at understanding the fundamental phenomena governing the motion of lightweight vehicles on dry, granular soils. A single-wheel test rig is used to empirically investigate wheel motion under controlled wheel slip and loading conditions on sandy, dry soil. Test conditions can be designed to replicate typical field scenarios for lightweight robots, while key operational parameters such as drawbar force, torque, and sinkage are measured. This test rig enables imposition of velocities, or application of loads, to interchangeable running gears within a confined soil bin of dimensions 1.5 m long, 0.7 m wide, and 0.4 m deep. This allows testing of small-scale wheels, tracks, and cone or plate penetrators. Aside from standard wheel experiments (i.e., measurements of drawbar force, applied torque, and sinkage during controlled slip runs) two additional experimental methodologies have been developed. The first relies on high-speed
Senatore, Carmine, MacLennan, Jamie, Jayakumar, Paramsothy, Wulfmeier, Markus, Iagnemma, Karl
Technical Paper
The verification and demonstration of a unique course-profile-measurement methodology2024-01-337011/15/2024
ABSTRACT This paper presents an experimental methodology for regeneration of course profiles, with tire acceleration and speed, suspension force and pitch data collected from an instrumented trailer wheel running over the course profile to be identified. The collected data is used to derive the course profile as a function of time, while the speed data is used to map the ground elevation data from a time domain into a spatial domain. To verify the course re-generating rationale, the required test data was simulated with the data extracted from a trailer model running over selected course profiles. The regenerated course profiles are then compared against those used as the inputs to the trailer model, demonstrating the feasibility of using the methodology to regenerate course profiles which statistically align with real-world course profiles. The methodology may be used to develop the inputs statistically equivalent to realistic course profiles as needed in dynamic simulation of terrain
Zhang, Xiong, Knezevic, Zeljko, Eng, M.
Technical Paper
TERRAMECHANICS IMPACT OF THE WHEEL NORMAL REACTION ON MOBILITY AND STEERABILITY MARGINS2024-01-391011/15/2024
ABSTRACT The normal reaction force in the tire-soil patch is a continuously changing wheel parameter. When a vehicle moves over uneven ground, motion in the vehicle’s sprung and unsprung masses produce dynamic shifts in the magnitude of the load transmitted to the ground. With the damping force controlled for better ride quality, tight constraining of the sprung mass motion may lead to significant dynamic changes of the normal load. At excessive loads, the wheel can dig into the soil. Considerably reduced loads can negatively impact vehicle steerability and diminish traction performance. The purpose of this paper is to develop a method that allows for establishing boundaries of the dynamic normal reaction in the tire-soil patch on uneven terrain. The boundary constraints are considered for both maximum and minimum values to establish conditions for mobility and steerability. Using differential equations describing the motion two masses of a single-wheel module representing a vehicle
Paldan, Jesse, Vantsevich, Vladimir, Gorsich, David, Goryca, Jill, Singh, Amandeep, Moradi, Lee
Technical Paper
ROAD WHEEL READINESS EXPERIMENT2024-01-357811/15/2024
ABSTRACT Tracks and wheels are some of the top constituents of ground vehicle mobility and sustainment cost. Even small improvements in performance parameters and support strategies can go a long way. Analyzing equipment sustainment models can help identify these opportunities in conjunction with maintaining a situational awareness of R&D activities. Specifically, understanding component failure analysis, characterizing production road wheel material properties, conducting component testing, and benchmarking diverse manufacturing capabilities provides a roadmap to establishing and identifying “Best in Class” road wheel materials. Establishing and executing an R&D compounding plan to deliver 5X-10X durability improvement is hypothesized. Leveraging the Defense Mobility Enterprise (DME) and its authority under the 10 USC 2370 Section 845 Ground Vehicle Systems Other Transaction Agreement will allow the government to rapidly determine the technical feasibility of realizing such colossal
Patria, Garett S., Rescoe, Stu, Bradford, William, Mynderse, James A.
Technical Paper
WHEEL SLIP AND ENGINE TORQUE PULSE SIMULATION FOR TRANSMISSION-IN-THE-LOOP EXPERIMENTATION2024-01-326811/15/2024
Abstract This paper presents the development of a transmission-in-the-loop (TiL) experimentation system. In this TiL experimental setup, the input side of the transmission is controlled by a dynamometer emulating the engine, while the output sides of the transmission are controlled by two dynamometers emulating the wheels and vehicle. The models emulating these vehicle components are required to possess sufficient fidelity to simulate engine torque pulse (ETP) and wheel slip dynamics while being computationally efficient to run in real-time. While complex engine and tire models exist in the literature that accurately capture these dynamics, they are often too numerically stiff for real-time simulation. This paper presents the system level details of such a TiL setup, and the modeling concepts for the development of high fidelity real-time models of the engine and tire dynamics for use in this experiment. Parameters of the engine model are identified using experimental data. Vehicle
Nutter, Don
Technical Paper
Semi-Active Suspension Design for Truck Using Pneumatic Spring Joining MR Fluid Damper Based on Neural Networks Controller10-09-01-000110/21/2024
In order to modify both stiffness and damping rates according to various road conditions, this research introduces a pneumatic spring in conjunction with a magnetorheological (MR) fluid damper as a single suspension unit for each wheel in the truck. Preventing weight transfer and improving riding comfort during braking, acceleration, and trajectory prediction are the main objectives. A two-axle truck has been used, consisting of three degrees of freedom for the sprung mass, including vertical, pitch, and roll motions, and four degrees of freedom for the unsprung masses, which have been redesigned according to the different types of springs and dampers. Pneumatic-controlled springs, often referred to as dynamic or classic models, replace laminated leaf springs commonly found in vehicles. Additionally, an MR damper replaces a hydraulic double-acting telescopic shock absorber. These models are studied to evaluate the effect of pneumatic spring parameters on truck dynamics. Pneumatic
Shehata Gad, Ahmed, El-Zomor, Haytham M.
Journal Article
Structural and Thermal Analysis of Brake Disc with Various Composites2024-28-006609/19/2024
The essential aspect of an automobile is its braking system. Brakes absorb the kinetic energy of the rotating parts, i.e., wheels, and dissipate this energy into the surroundings in the form of heat. This entire process is quite complex, and the brake disc is subjected to extreme thermal and structural stresses along with deformation, which might damage the disc. This paper presents a structural and thermal analysis of an Audi Q3 brake disc using an ANSYS 2021-R1. The present brake disc is designed using SOLIDWORKS software. Composite materials are added in the ansys material library by adding their respective characteristics. The thermal analysis mainly focused on temperature variation and directional heat flux. The structural study was conducted to understand the stresses developed during braking and the deformations observed. Along with a comprehensive structural and thermal analysis, this work has also estimated the life of the brake disc, the factor of safety, and the real-time
Bahulekar, Atharv, Shiralkar, Shaunak, Jomde, Amit, Shamkuwar, Sonal, Patane, Prashant, Shinde, Tarang, Dandin, Shahbaz
Technical Paper
Brake Particle Emission Influenced by Grooved Disc Friction Surfaces with or without a Hard Coating2024-01-303009/08/2024
Many performance sport passenger vehicles use drilled or grooved cast iron brake rotors for a better braking performance or a cosmetic reason. Such brake rotors would unfortunately cause more brake dust emission, appearing with dirty wheel rims. To better understand the effects of such brake rotors on particle emission, a pin-on-disc tribometer with two particle emission measurement devices was used to monitor and collect the emitted airborne particles. The first device was an aerodynamic particle sizer, which is capable of measuring particles ranging from 0.5 to 20 μm. The second device was a condensation particle counter, which measures and collects particles from 4 nm to 3 μm. The testing samples were scaled-down brake discs (100 mm in diameter) against low-metallic brake pads. Two machined surface conditions (plain and grooved) with uncoated or ceramic-coated friction surfaces were selected for the investigation. The results showed that the grooved friction surface led to a higher
Cai, Ran, Nie, Xueyuan, Lyu, Yezhe, Wahlström, Jens
Technical Paper
Comprehensive Analysis of Titanium Alloy Machining with 2–7% Carbon Nanotube-Infused Cubic Boron Nitride Grinding Wheel Utilizing Full-Factorial Design2024-01-507908/12/2024
This research explores the experimental analysis of titanium alloy using an innovative approach involving a 2–7% carbon nanotube (CNT)-infused cubic boron nitride (CBN) grinding wheel. Employing a full-factorial design, the study systematically investigates the interactions among varied wheel speed, workpiece feed rate, and depth of cut, revealing compelling insights. The integration of CNTs in the CBN grinding wheel enhances the machining performance of titanium alloy, known for its high strength and challenging machinability. The experiment varies CNT infusion levels to assess their impact on material removal rate (MRR) and surface finish. Significantly, MRR is influenced by CNT content, with 5% and above demonstrating optimal performance. The 7% CNT-CBN wheel exhibits a remarkable 61% improvement in MRR over the conventional CBN wheel. Interaction studies highlight the pivotal role of depth of cut, indicating that slower speeds and feeds, combined with increased depth of cut
Stephen, Deborah Serenade, Sethuramalingam, Prabhu
Technical Paper
Researchers Demonstrate the First Chip-Based 3D PrinterTBMG-5124808/01/2024
Imagine a portable 3D printer you could hold in the palm of your hand. The tiny device could enable a user to rapidly create customized, low-cost objects on the go, like a fastener to repair a wobbly bicycle wheel or a component for a critical medical operation
Magazine Article
Wheel End Assembly and Axle Spindle Interface Dimensions - Truck and BusJ2475_202407 (Current)07/26/2024
This recommended practice contains dimensions and tolerances for spindles in the interface area. Interfacing components include axle spindle, bearing cones, bearing spacer, and seal. This recommended practice is intended for axles commonly used on Class 7 and 8 commercial vehicles. Included are SAE axle configurations FF, FL, I80, L, N, P, R, U, and W
Truck and Bus Wheel Committee
Recommended Practice
A New Equivalent Static Load (ESL) Creation Procedure for Complete Vehicle2024-01-294406/12/2024
When dealing with the structural behavior of a car body, analyzing the dynamic distortion in all body closure openings in a complete vehicle, provides a better understanding of the body characteristics compared to traditional static load cases such as static torsional body stiffness. This is particularly relevant for non-traditional vehicle layouts and electric vehicle architectures where mass distribution and in particular battery mass and stiffness play a completely different effect with respect to the internal combustion engine vehicles. A methodology typically adopted to measure the body response, e.g. when driving a vehicle on a rough pavé road, is the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS). The MSS is measuring the distortion in each body closure opening in two diagonals. During the virtual development, the distortion is described by the relative displacement in diagonal direction in time domain using a modal transient analysis. The results are shown as Opening Distortion Fingerprint
Weber, Jens, Luiz Felipe, Faria Ricardo, Bäcklund, Jesper, Vignati, Michele, Cheli, Federico
Technical Paper
Frequency Response Analysis of Fully Trimmed Models Using Compressed Reduced Impedance Matrix Methodology2024-01-294706/12/2024
As vibration and noise regulations become more stringent, numerical models need to incorporate more detailed damping treatments. Commercial frameworks, such as Nastran and Actran, allow the representation of trim components as frequency-dependent reduced impedance matrices (RIM) in direct frequency response (DFR) analysis of fully trimmed models. The RIM is versatile enough to couple the trims to modal-based or physical components. If physical, the trim components are reduced on the physical coupling degrees of freedom (DOFs) for each connected interface. If modal, the RIMs are projected on the eigenmodes of the connected component. While a model size reduction is achieved compared to the original model, most numerical models possess an extensive number of interfaces DOFs, either modal or physical, resulting in large, dense RIMs that demand substantial memory and disk storage. Thus, the approach faces challenges related to storage capacities and efficiency, because of the demanding
Paiva, Andre, Verhaegen, Julien, Lielens, Gregory, Van den Nieuwenhof, Benoit
Technical Paper
A Low-Cost System for Road Induced Tire Cavity Noise Control (RTNC2024-01-296106/12/2024
The transition from ICE to electric power trains in new vehicles along with the application of advanced active and passive noise reduction solutions has intensified the perception of noise sources not directly linked to the propulsion system. This includes road noise as amplified by the tire cavity resonance. This resonance mainly depends on tire geometry, gas temperature inside the tire and vehicle speed and is increasingly audible for larger wheels and heavier vehicles, as they are typical for current electrical SUV designs. Active technologies can be applied to significantly reduce narrow band tire cavity noise with low costs and minimal weight increase. Like ANC systems for ICE powertrains, they make use of the audio system in the vehicle. In this paper, a novel low-cost system for road induced tire cavity noise control (RTNC) is presented that reduces the tire cavity resonance noise inside a car cabin. The approach is cheap in terms of computational effort (likewise ICE order
Sues, Micha, Nojavan, Aidin, Kirchhof, Jan, Schirmacher, Rolf
Technical Paper
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