Browse Topic: Engine cooling systems

Items (3,541)
A novel looped-freezing mean approach based on Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) approach is developed in context of assessing underhood cooling performance in heavy-duty vehicles. The method involves computing a temporally averaged flow field from DES simulations, which is then frozen and used by the energy solver to predict temperature distributions. This process is iteratively repeated until a statistically steady-state temperature field is achieved. It is demonstrated that traditional DES approach demonstrates superior accuracy in capturing forced convection heat transfer compared to the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) method. The validation against experimental data for flow over a heated sphere at a Reynolds number of 105 shows that DES yields Nusselt numbers with better correlation than RANS. However, it is observed that DES approach captures unsteady flow features that introduce temporal fluctuations in heat transfer. In the context of underhood cooling evaluations where
Holay, SarangSankar, HariDixit, PritishSingh, Ramanand
Abstract: This research paper investigates the performance of FKM (Fluorocarbon) seal material when exposed to a 50:50 ethylene glycol-water mixture. The study aims to determine the volume change percentage and Hardness change of FKM elastomers under standardized testing conditions. The experimental approach follows ASTM D471 and ASTM 2240 guidelines, focusing on weight and hardness measurements of the test samples to establish a success criterion. The results provide critical insights into the chemical compatibility and durability of FKM elastomers in Aerospace and industrial applications where ethylene glycol-water mixtures are commonly used. The findings contribute to enhanced material selection and design considerations for sealing applications subjected to glycol-based fluids. Samples of FKM material were immersed in the fluid at controlled temperatures and durations, simulating real-world operational conditions. The primary metric of interest, volume change percentage and
Yarolkar, MakrandPatil, SandipSingh, Tanul
SAE JA6097 (“Using a System Reliability Model to Optimize Maintenance”) shows how to determine which maintenance to perform on a system when that system requires corrective maintenance to achieve the lowest long-term operating cost. While this document may focus on applications to Jet Engines and Aircraft, this methodology could be applied to nearly any type of system. However, it would be most effective for systems that are tightly integrated, where a failure in any part of the system causes the entire system to go off-line, and the process of accessing a failed component can require additional maintenance on other unrelated components.
HM-1 Integrated Vehicle Health Management Committee
In order to achieve the research objective of simultaneously improving the air volume and reducing the noise of centrifugal fans, a combination of orthogonal experimental design, BP neural network modelling and multi-objective genetic algorithm (NSGA- II) was used to find the optimal method, and the worm tongue placement angle φ, worm tongue radius R, expansion angle θ and outlet expansion section height L of the worm casing were selected as optimization variables. The air volume and noise of the centrifugal fan under the design working condition were calculated by non-constant and constant calculations, and the air volume and noise were used as the optimization objectives. The results demonstrate that, compared to the initial design, the optimized fan model achieved a noise reduction of 10.99 dB and an airflow increase of 1.76%. Furthermore, the amplitude of the pressure pulsation coefficient at the blade passing frequency was significantly reduced at the monitoring point near the
Huang, GuoxingZhang, WeihongLi, Weichang
A full lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack has hundreds to thousands of cells, coolant flow lines and channels, and channel bends to control cell temperature within its operating window and minimize cell internal resistance, aging, and fire risk. A 75 kWh LIB pack has four modules, and each has 23–25 bricks. Two challenges in battery state predictions for hot and subzero temperatures are battery temperature (Tbatt ) and coolant flow within the whole pack. In this work, a 1D 75 kWh full-pack model with its thermal management system is developed using a holistic reverse-engineering method, which can predict Tbatt at any bricks/modules and inlet/outlet coolant flow characteristics. A Tesla Model Y equipped with dual e-motors is tested on an in-house state-of-the-art chassis dynamometer. The test data at V = 60–80 km/h, 100–150 A constant discharge, and Tbatt = −10°C to 40°C are used to develop the model. The 75 kWh pack model features 4000+ cylindrical cells (96S46P, Panasonic 21700-format
Sok, RatnakKusaka, Jin
In a traditional electric vehicle, managing its battery thermal performance is of prime importance. A well-designed battery thermal management system helps in extending its life and avoids safety-related issues like thermal runaways. A critical part of this thermal management is the battery cooling system (BCS), which can be air- or liquid-cooled. Based on the vehicle battery pack size, location, and its design complexity, the original equipment manufacturer can opt for either of the previous two methods. An air-cooled type of BCS system usually involves an active ventilation fan to dissipate the battery heat in the surroundings, which brings symbiotic noise into the picture. In an air-cooled BCS system, the primary source of noise is the cooling airflow over the heat exchanger caused by the fan. The airflow and noise performance characteristics of this fan are typically measured by the supplier in a standalone condition. These performance parameters deviate greatly when the fan is
Nomani, MustafaDupatti, DarshanNikam, KrishnaSasikumar, R.Kajagar, SureshPanchare, DattajiAgalawe, Kiran
Three levels of fan structural analysis are included in this practice: a. Initial structural integrity. b. In-vehicle testing. c. Durability (laboratory) test methods. The initial structural integrity section describes analytical and test methods used to predict potential resonance and, therefore, possible fatigue accumulation. The in-vehicle (or machine) section enumerates the general procedure used to conduct a fan strain gage test. Various considerations that may affect the outcome of strain gage data have been described for the user of this procedure to adapt/discard depending on the particular application. The durability test methods section describes the detailed test procedures for a laboratory environment that may be used depending on type of fan, equipment availability, and end objective. The second and third levels build upon information derived from the previous level. Engineering judgment is required as to the applicability of each level to a different vehicle environment
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
Linear time-invariant (LTI) reduced-order models (ROMs) have been widely used in battery thermal management simulations due to their low hardware requirements, high computational efficiency, and good accuracy. However, the inherent assumption of LTI behavior limits their applicability in scenarios with varying coolant flow rates, where this assumption is no longer valid. To address this limitation, a novel ROM is developed by decomposing the entire battery thermal system into two subsystems. All solid components are modeled as a traditional LTI ROM, while the coolant channel is represented using Newton’s cooling law. The two subsystems are then coupled through the exchange of heat transfer rate and temperature at the fluid–solid interface between the coolant and the cold plate. Model fidelity is further enhanced by introducing a spatially distributed heat flux during the generation of the LTI ROM for solid components. Validation is performed against CFD simulations at both module and
Guo, JiaChen, GuijieMa, ShihuHu, XiaoLi, JingSong, ShujunHuang, Long
The performance of a full battery pack with its effective thermal management system (BTMS) depends on coolant flow and heat transfer characteristics inside the pack. To develop a full BTMS using model-based design (MBD), the model must capture the coolant pressure drop ∆?? and heat-exchange performance from the cell to ambient air via the coolant, cooling flow channels, air gaps, and pack cases. Predicting battery pack responses (i.e., voltage, SOC, temperature) under all weather conditions is a challenge, as a complete pack contains several hundred to thousands of cells, coolant lines, coolant line bends, and coolant channels. This work presents a detailed approach to identifying heat transfer and ∆P correlations that can capture the real-time thermal-electrical performance of a mass-produced LIB pack under constant speed (in winter) and transient driving (in summer). A vehicle test is conducted using a Tesla Model Y, 2-motor model equipped with a 75-kWh LIB pack. The LIB pack's
Sok, RatnakKusaka, Jin
Expeditionary environments (such as remote exploration missions, forward military operations, and disaster response zones) demand adaptive manufacturing solutions to support vehicle sustainment in the absence of traditional supply chains. This work introduces a conceptual mathematical framework for modeling the constraints and tradeoffs inherent to expeditionary manufacturing, with a focus on vehicle repair and spare parts fabrication using low-energy and simple automated systems including desktop-scale 3D printers and CNC machines. The model integrates key variables such as energy availability, material transport cost, fabrication time, and environmental limitations to support rapid decision-making on part manufacturability and in-field feasibility. A case study involving the on-demand production of some common wear and failure parts on a vehicle, including suspension components and the water pump, is used to demonstrate how this framework can guide the selection of suitable
Mollan, CalahanPandey, VijitashwaPatterson, Albert E.
The increasing concentration of atmospheric pollutants in urban environments necessitates innovative solutions to mitigate their impact on public health and the environment. This work presents the AirCARE project, which investigates the integration of a catalytic converter and a particulate filter with a vehicle's radiator to create an active air purification system. The primary objective is to evaluate the feasibility and performance implications of this integrated system on the vehicle's thermal management. A comprehensive methodology combining computational modeling and experimental testing was employed. A 1D longitudinal vehicle model was developed to simulate the powertrain's heat generation and the cooling system's performance under various representative driving conditions. This model allows for a parametric study of the radiator, assessing the impact of the additional components on its heat exchange efficiency. Concurrently, experimental tests were conducted on a radiator to
de Carvalho Pinheiro, HenriqueSartoretti, Enrico
Renewable gasoline offers significant benefits in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, five gasolines with different renewable hydrocarbon classes and varying distillation curves were taken to investigate their effect on particle number (PN) emissions in a spark-ignition GDI engine at 10 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The engine coolant temperature was varied from 90°C to 35°C to investigate the effect of fuel evaporation on soot formation. Injectors with various spray plume targets and start of injection (SOI) timing (300° and 260° bTDC) were used to assess how different gasolines affect engine performance and to determine engine calibration requirements. A simplified transient cycle examines how engine motoring influences PN emissions for test gasolines. A high-speed camera and endoscope were used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. Simulations were done to assess the quality of fuel-air mixing in support of the
Muniappan, KrishnamoorthiDahlander, PetterHelmantel, AyoltAlemahdi, NikaLehto, Kalle
This paper presents transient, complex, multi-species, multiphase, 3D CFD transient simulation of engine coolant pump weep chamber for predicting coolant evaporation. The engine coolant pump contains a rotating mechanical face seal to prevent liquid coolant leakage at the rotating interface. During normal engine operation, a small amount of coolant vapor is expressed by this rotating seal; this vapor can condense on solid surfaces within the weep chamber. The coolant collected in weep chamber evaporates from the chamber and exits out of the weep chamber in vapor form. Evaporation rate of the coolant is a primary factor deciding weep chamber size. Evaporation rate of coolant depends on several factors – ambient humidity, ambient temperature, flow of air in and out of the weep chamber, pump temperature, and pump rotational speed. Weep chamber is small in dimensions (~ 100 cm^3) and dependence of coolant evaporation on several factors results in necessity of an accurate and predictive
Tawar, Ranjit RamchandraDrechsel, JamesBedekar, SanjeevNallamothu, Sravan
Modern vehicle design involves complex considerations and tradeoffs between system integration and layout which have a direct impact on performance, efficiency, and cost. The placement of equipment including control boards, motors, and fans as well as the routing of ducts and wire harnesses poses a time-consuming and intricate problem for design engineers. This paper presents an automated methodology to determine the optimal component packaging configuration, duct routing, and wire harnessing layout to maximize component packing density and minimize the total routing length. A two-stage optimization framework has been developed where the first stage packages the components within the design space with considerations for space utilization, component overlap, proximity relationships, point-to-point accessibility, and component mounting. The second stage implements a custom A* path-finding algorithm and gradient based optimization to determine the optimal route layout between port points
LeFrancois, RichardKim, Il Yong
Effective thermal management in internal combustion engines is essential for meeting increasingly stringent emissions regulations and achieving fuel efficiency improvements. This study introduces a novel and comprehensive approach to optimize engine thermal management by addressing key system components, including coolant circuit design, Integrated Thermal Management Module (ITM) control strategies, port-specific flow management, zero-flow operation techniques, and HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) settings standardization. Unlike previously published works, this study focuses on reducing coolant circuit thermal mass to accelerate engine and component warm-up, refining ITM control logic through linear mapping and advanced signal filtering for precision, and enhancing zero-flow operation for minimizing lubricant oil dilution during start-up and reducing heat loss under low ambient conditions. Additional optimizations include port-specific adjustments and radiator flow
Lee, ChangjooLee, KyuminKim, SeonyeongNam, ChoonhoYoo, Jihun
This SAE Recommended Practice was developed primarily for passenger car and truck applications but may be used in marine, industrial, and similar applications. It addresses nonmetallic caps and both metallic and nonmetallic filler necks.
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
This paper focus on the direct cooling plate with serpentine flow channels, the effects of heat load power, compressor speed, fan speed, and types of heating plates on the temperature field of the cold plate were investigated respectively based on the direct cooling thermal management system.The experimental results show that as the heating power decreases, both the overall temperature and temperature difference of the cold plate decrease synchronously. The temperature distribution along the flow channel is non-monotonic, with the highest temperature at the first elbow (T2/T3) and the lowest temperature at the outlet (T12), which is lower than the inlet temperature.A study on the T4-T11 region reveals that when the fan speed is low, with the increase of compressor speed, both Tmax and Tmin first decrease and then increase, while ΔT decreases. When the fan speed is constant at medium or high levels, as the compressor speed increases from low to medium, Tmax and Tmin decrease and ΔT also
Chen, SijianHuo, GuojunChen, JiyongWei, ShaoliangZhang, GuihaoZhang, JinglongJu, XinzeYang, Xiaoxia
The performance and longevity of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) are critically dependent on effective thermal management. As internal heat generation during charge and discharge cycles can lead to uneven temperature distribution, exceeding optimal operating limits (25 - 40°C) can significantly degrade battery performance and lifespan. This study presents a performance evaluation of a novel liquid-based Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) featuring a dual-directional coolant channel configuration designed to enhance thermal uniformity and heat dissipation. The proposed configuration combines horizontal and vertical coolant passages in an indirect cooling layout to address the limitations of conventional serpentine-type channels. A comprehensive thermal analysis was carried out under realistic loading conditions using three coolant types: water, ethylene glycol- based G48, and graphene-enhanced water nanofluids. These were evaluated for thermal
Selvan, Arul MozhiPeriyasamy, MuthukumarR, ThiruppathiPrasad S, HariRaghav, RBoddu, Sriram Pydi Aditya
In the era of Software Defined Vehicles, the complexity and requirements of automotive systems have increased knowingly. EV Thermal management systems have become more complicated while having multiple functions and control strategies within software frameworks. This shift creates new challenges like increased development efforts and long lead time in creating an efficient thermal management system for Electric Vehicles (EV’s) due to battery charging and discharging cycles. For solving these challenges in the early stages of development makes it even more challenging due to the unavailability of key components such as fully developed ECU hardware, High voltage battery pack and the motor. To address this, a novel framework has been designed that combines virtual simulation with physical emulation at the same time, enabling the testing and validation of thermal control strategies without fully matured system and the ECU hardware. The framework uses the Speedgoat QNX machine as the
Chothave, AbhijeetS, BharathanS, AnanthGangwar, AdarshKhan, ParvejGummadi, GopakishoreKumar, Dipesh
In current scenario, demand for alternate energy is increasing due to depletion of fossil fuels and countries working to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Hydrogen being a cleaner fuel, many OEMs across the world started to work on various strategies like hydrogen combustion engine and fuel cell. Passenger vehicles like buses are at the lookout for fuel cell technology at faster rate than other commercial vehicles. In fuel cell vehicles, cooling system design is critical & complex since it includes fuel cell cooling, Power electronics cooling & battery cooling. In this paper, cooling system design of a Fuel cell electric bus for inter-city application is demonstrated. Radiators and Fans are designed considering overall heat rejection and Coolant inlet temperature requirements of components. Cooling system circuit and pump is decided to meet the coolant flow rate targets. Flow simulation and thermal simulation done with the help of simulation models built using software KULI to predict
M S, VigneshKiran, Nalavadath
This study focuses on enhancing energy efficiency in electric vehicle (EV) thermal management systems through the development and optimization of control logic. A full vehicle thermal management system (VTMS) was modeled using GT-Suite software, incorporating subsystems such as the high voltage battery (HVB), Electric powertrain (EPT), and an 8-zone cabin. Thermal models were validated with experimental data to ensure accurate representation of key dynamics, including coolant to cell heat transfer, cell-to-ambient heat dissipation, and internal heat generation. Control strategies were devised for Active Grille Shutter (AGS) and radiator fan operations, targeting both cabin cooling and EPT thermal regulation. Energy consumption was optimized by balancing aerodynamic drag, fan power, and compressor power across various driving conditions. A novel series cooling logic was also developed to improve HVB thermal management during mild ambient conditions. Simulation results demonstrate
Chothave, AbhijeetKumar, DipeshGummadi, GopakishoreKhan, ParvejThiyagarajan, RajeshPandey, RishabhS, AnanthAnugu, AnilMulamalla, SarveshwarGangwar, Adarsh
The performance and longevity of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles are significantly influenced by the cell temperature. Hence, efficient thermal management techniques are essential for battery packs. Simulation based optimization approaches improves the efficiency of the battery pack thermal management during the early stage of product development. In this paper, a simulation-based methodology has been introduced to increase the heat transfer from/to coolant via cooling plate as well as to reduce the heat transfer from/to the external environment. The heat transfer coefficient between cooling plate and coolant needs to be enhanced to achieve efficient heat transfer through cooling plate, without exceeding the coolant pressure drop the target limit. A one-dimensional simulation methodology described in this work analyzed numerous design of experiments for coolant layout without performing CAD iteration loops and optimized the cooling channel width, height and number of channels to
U, ReghunathP S, Shebin
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) necessitate highly efficient thermal management strategies, as cabin heating directly consumes energy from the finite traction battery, potentially reducing driving range significantly. Early-stage design evaluations of warmup performance commonly rely on one-dimensional (1D) simulations due to their computational speed and efficiency. The accuracy and predictive capability of these models are critically dependent on how well they represent blower operation and account for temperature-induced variations in air density. This fidelity is essential because engineers depend on warmup simulations to set HVAC targets that will deliver real-world comfort and defrost performance within stringent range constraints. Earlier, warmup simulations employed a Constant Mass Flow (CMF) approach, which simplifies computations by assuming a fixed air density at a standard reference temperature. However, this approach contrasts with real-world blower behavior, where
Subramanian, Karthik
With the increasing tonnage of electric heavy commercial vehicles, there is a growing demand for higher power and torque-rated traction motors. As motor ratings increase, efficient cooling of the EV powertrain system becomes critical to maintaining optimal performance. Higher heat loads from traction motors and inverters pose significant challenges, necessitating an innovative cooling strategy to enhance system efficiency, sustainability, and reliability. Battery-electric heavy commercial vehicles face substantial cooling challenges due to the high-pressure drop characteristics of conventional traction system cooling architectures. These limitations restrict coolant flow through key powertrain components and the radiator, reducing heat dissipation efficiency and constraining the operating ambient temperature range. Inefficient cooling also leads to increased energy consumption, impacting the overall sustainability of electric mobility solutions. This paper presents a novel approach of
Dixit, SameerPatil, BhushanGhosh, Sandeep
This paper presents Nexifi11D, a simulation-driven, real-time Digital Twin framework that models and demonstrates eleven critical dimensions of a futuristic manufacturing ecosystem. Developed using Unity for 3D simulation, Python for orchestration and AI inference, Prometheus for real-time metric capture, and Grafana for dynamic visualization, the system functions both as a live testbed and a scalable industrial prototype. To handle the complexity of real-world manufacturing data, the current model uses simulation to emulate dynamic shopfloor scenarios; however, it is architected for direct integration with physical assets via industry-standard edge protocols such as MQTT, OPC UA, and RESTful APIs. This enables seamless bi-directional data flow between the factory floor and the digital environment. Nexifi11D implements 3D spatial modeling of multi-type motor flow across machines and conveyors; 4D machine state transitions (idle, processing, waiting, downtime); 5D operational cost
Kumar, RahulSingh, Randhir
This paper presents an innovative in-lab accelerated testing approach for chassis-mounted components, with a particular focus on the cooling module of commercial vehicles. The proposed method simulates real-time data acquired from field operations and replicates all critical chassis modes, including torsion. Additionally, real-time coolant circulation at specified pressure and temperature maintenance are feasible during durability testing, enhancing the realism of the test environment. The cooling modules, comprising the radiator, intercooler, and charge air cooler (CAC), often experience failures due to various multi-axial inputs and chassis modes. This paper introduces an innovative methodology for replicating field conditions in the lab, utilizing seven servo-hydraulic actuators to simulate multi-axial inputs. The accuracy of in-lab simulation for the acceleration levels at input and response locations of the cooling module exceeds 90%. This makes it a preferred choice for test
V Dhage, YogeshSatale, Sunil
Air suction in a naturally aspirated engine is a crucial influencing parameter to dictate the specific fuel consumption and emissions. For a multi-cylinder engine, a turbocharger can well address this issue. However, due to the lack of availability of continuous exhaust energy pulses, in a single or two-cylinder engine, the usage of turbocharger is not recommended. A supercharger solution comes handy in this regard for a single or two-cylinder engine. In this exercise, we explore the possibility of the usage of a positive displacement type supercharger, to enhance the air flow rate of a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, diesel engine for genset application, operating at 1500 rpm. The supercharger parametric 3D CAD model has been prepared in Creo, with three design parameters i.e. (a) Generating radius, (b) depth of blower and (c) clearance between lobes & lobe and casing. The optimum roots blower design is expected to fulfil the target boost pressure, power consumption and
Satre, Santosh DadasahebMukherjee, NaliniRajput, SurendraNene, Devendra
Maximizing vehicle uptime and reducing maintenance costs are critical objectives in modern automotive systems, making efficient resource utilization a top priority. One of the key factors is engine oil life or degradation, which directly affects the engine performance, longevity, and overall vehicle efficiency/fuel economy. Most vehicles tracks engine oil life solely on a fixed mileage interval while few uses dedicated sensor, which is costly and requires service and maintenance. As the engine oil degrades, it reduces Oil Total Acid Number (TAN) increases while Oil Total Base Number (TBN) decreases. It is recommended that maximum usable life of the engine oil is up to the crossover point between oil TAN and TBN (as the engine oil degrades). Vehicle driving pattern governs the occurrence of crossover points with respect to vehicle mileage. Based on this fundamental concept, an XG-Boost machine-learning algorithm is trained using vehicle Controller Area Network (CAN) channels and varying
Dusane, MangeshTade, VilasIqbal, Shoaib
The present work demonstrates a Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) based methodology that couples a Finite Volume Method (FVM) and Finite Element Method (FEM) based tools to estimate air guide deformation, thereby predicting accurate aerothermal performance. The method starts with a digital assembly step where the assembly shape and the induced stress due to assembly is predicted. A full vehicle Aerodynamic simulation is performed to extract the surface pressure on the air guide which is then used to estimate the extent of deformation of the air guides. Based on the extent a subsequent Aerodynamic simulation may be carried out to predict thermal efficiency. Comparison against pressure data and deflection data extracted from the wind tunnel experiments of vehicles has shown reasonable match demonstrating the accuracy and usefulness of the method.
Gadasu, RavishastriChoudhury, SatyajitUmesh, Acharya VaibhavKumar, SaravananYenugu, SrinivasaZander, DanielBeesetti, SivaHattarke, Mallikarjun
The Indian farmers choice of agriculture tractor brand is driven by the ease of operation and fuel efficiency. However, the customer preference for operator comfort is driving many tractor OEMs for improvement in noise and vibration at the operator location. Also, the compliance to CMVR regulation for noise at operator ear location and vibration at operator touch point location are mandatory for all the tractors in India. NVH refinement development of the tractor plays a critical role in achieving the regulated noise level and improved tactile vibration In presented work, the airborne sources such as exhaust tail pipe, intake snorkel and cooling fan are quantified by at tractor level through elimination method. The detailed engine level testing in engine noise test cell (hemi anechoic chamber) is carried out to estimate the contribution of engine components to overall noise. The outcome of Noise source identification (NSI) has revealed silencer, timing gear cover and oil sump to be
Gaikwad, Atul AnnasahebHarishchandra Walke, NageshYadav, Prasad SBankar, Harshal
In last two decades, Farm customer expectation on cabin comfort has been increased multifold. To provide the best-in-class customer experience in terms of comfort without adding cost and weight is bigger challenge for all NVH Engineers. It is evident from literature survey that cabin tractors with better comfort is well accepted by customers in US and European Market. Apart from engine excitation, customer has become more sensitive to customer-actuated-accessory noises due to overall reduction in cabin noise in last 2 decades. This paper presents the study conducted on HVAC blower noise in 30HP cabin tractor. Tactile vibrations and cabin noise is not acceptable when AC is switched on due to low frequency modulating nature in frequency range of ~65Hz and 130Hz. The investigation is carried out systematically considering each component of Source-Path-Receiver model. HVAC blower unit as source is diagnosed in detail to understand root cause. Strong dominance of first order of blower been
K, SomasundaramChavan, Amit
The inclusion of the cabin in HVAC simulations gained more importance with the introduction of BEV’s. Thermal management and efficiency being in the forefront, exploration for the possible opportunities to reduce the energy consumption for meeting the comfort of passengers gained importance. The energy consumed by the Electric coolant or air heaters for heating the cabin at extreme cold ambient temperatures to deliver similar comfort to that of an ICE version is 2 to 3 times that of the energy required for cooling the cabin in a high ambient condition. Even during the sizing of HVAC system, if traditional method of ambient or fresh air conditions is considered for calculating the requirements, the result is we would require a product which will have unrealistic performance demand. Hence to explore different possibilities for studying the system, usage of recirculation air was considered as one of the options. This paper talks about the approach followed in creating the cabin model in
Veerla, EswarSubramanian, Karthik
This paper presents the methodology and outcomes of modifying a 1.2L naturally aspirated (NA) engine to enable flex-fuel compatibility, targeting optimal performance with ethanol blends ranging from E20 to E100. Ethanol is being increasingly promoted due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to provide an additional source of income for farmers. As per the road map for Ethanol blending released by Govt. of India, there has been continuous increase in blending of ethanol in gasoline. An initial target of 20% ethanol blending in gasoline by April 2025 has already been achieved. This work is in alignment with the broader push for development of flex-fuel vehicles, which necessitates engine adaptations capable of operating on varying ethanol blends. The primary objective was to upgrade the engine, which can give optimum performance with both lower range of ethanol blends starting from E20 as per IS 17021:2018 standard till higher blends of up to E100 as per IS 17821:2022
Tyagarajan, SethuramalingamPise, ChetanKavekar, PratapAgarwal, Nishant Kumar
Turbochargers play a crucial role in modern engines by increasing power output and fuel efficiency through intake air compression, thereby improving volumetric efficiency by allowing more air mass into the combustion chamber. However, this process also raises the intake air temperature, which can reduce charge density, lead to detonation, and create emissions challenges—such as smoke limits in diesel engines and knock in gasoline spark-ignited (GSL) engines. To mitigate this, intercoolers are used to cool the compressed air. Due to packaging constraints, intercoolers are typically long and boxy, limiting their effectiveness, especially at low vehicle speeds where ram air flow is minimal. This study investigates the use of auxiliary fans to enhance intercooler performance. Two methodologies were adopted: 1D simulation using GT-Suite and experimental testing on a vehicle under different fan configurations—no fan, single fan, and dual fans (positioned near the intercooler inlet and outlet
Patra, SomnathHibare, NikhilGanesan, ThanigaivelGharte, Jignesh Rajendra
This SAE Recommended Practice was developed primarily for passenger car and truck applications but may be used in marine, industrial, and similar applications.
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
The reliability and durability of vehicles are crucial for the acceptance of new technologies by customers. Realistic test methods are necessary to validate or ensure the lifespan of vehicles and their components, particularly regarding specific conditions such as freeze start. This article provides an overview of the current state of research on the effects of freeze starts on the degradation of fuel cells. With this knowledge, relevant operating and boundary conditions for potential damage of the fuel cell are identified (e.g. start temperature, duration in subzero operation, dehydration). The field data from the BMW demonstrator fleet of iX5 Hydrogen Next were analyzed to gain insights into realistic freeze start related stress to the fuel cells. The dynamics of heating rates and the influence of the operating strategy are best represented on a Fuel Cell System (FCS). An experimental setup for a stack centered test on a FCS was developed including a climatic chamber and a subzero
Schwarz, MarkusAlbert, AlbertEichel, Rüdiger-A.
In automotive applications a power electronic converter is used for energy conversion between battery and electrical machine. For high performance drives a lightweight design is demanded. Additionally, a higher efficiency of the inverter results in lower cooling requirements but is often achieved by increasing component weight. Hence, thermal modeling of the components and their interactions is essential to determine the best compromise between weight, efficiency and cooling requirements. In traction inverters the DC-link capacitors, power modules, high voltage electrical connections and low voltage devices dissipate power. In this paper the focus is on the thermal modeling of the DC-link capacitor, power modules and high voltage electrical connections and their system, as the performance of the inverter is defined by these components. The thermal models are derived based on physical properties and geometries. First, the DC-link capacitor thermal model is presented and considers the
Blaschke, Wolfgang MaximilianMengoni, LeonardPflüger, RobinKulzer, André Casal
One of the most important components of an electric vehicle is the drive motor. Induction motors are often used for this purpose. During operation of these motors, power loss occurs, especially at high speeds. This power loss corresponds, among other things, to the sum of winding losses, iron core losses and mechanical losses. The power losses generate heat, which causes the temperature in the rotor and stator to rise. The increase in temperature of the components inside the motor can lead to premature wear and fatigue failure. To prevent overheating, the motors are air- or water-cooled. Water cooling can be achieved, for example, by means of jacket cooling. Here, the heat generated is dissipated directly by forced convection. However, the cooling jacket makes it difficult to determine the temperature inside the motor. Determining these temperatures is necessary to protect the motor from premature fatigue. The temperatures inside the motor during operation are of particular interest
Schamberger, StephanieReuss, Hans-Christian
This study presents a methodology to develop a new 25kWh battery pack for off-highway application. Initially an enclosure space is extracted from tractor model maintaining minimum space with adjacent components. Based on available space, various combination of cell form factors and different cell chemistries are evaluated considering operating ambient temperature range (-20 to 45 deg C) and charge/discharge rate 1C. Cylindrical NMC type cell with indirect cooling system fulfils all our technical requirements. However, complete battery pack thermal simulation is carried out for ensuring battery pack safety and limited deterioration with different discharge rate and wider temperature range. The battery pack model contains multiple cells, bricks, and modules with numerous coolant pipes and flow channels. Cell characterization experimental data is used for estimating cell thermal capacity and IR behavior. Battery pack model is tested with different Charge/discharge rates. Five
Nain, AjayLamba, Shamsherjayagopal, Sdhir, Anish
Agricultural tractors require self-cleaning and cooling technology, especially in hot and dusty environments. This study introduces a novel reversible fan system designed which is incorporating a manually operated lever-type connection mechanism as an alternative to conventional pneumatic systems. Traditional reversible fans often rely on pneumatic actuators for blade rotation control, which can introduce complexity, maintenance challenges, and energy inefficiency. The proposed design replaces pneumatic components with a mechanically optimized lever linkage system, enabling users to manually reverse the fan’s airflow direction with minimal effort. This innovation enhances operational simplicity, reduces dependency on compressed air systems, and low costs as compared to conventional type reversible fan. The lever mechanism, engineered for ergonomic usability, ensures rapid switching between sucker and pusher modes, optimizing the fan’s utility in applications such as dust removal
Debbarma, RespectParwal, MahendraBaghel, Anand
Traditionally, off-highway vehicles like tractors and construction machinery have relied on hydraulic, viscous, or fixed fans to meet the cooling demands of diesel engines. These fans draw power from the engine, impacting fuel consumption and contributing to noise levels that affect operator comfort. Recently, the adoption of electric fans in off-highway applications has increased due to their energy efficiency, lower noise, and flexible design. Electric fans can cool various components, such as radiators and condensers, and can be positioned for optimal performance. They are easily selected from established supplier catalogs based on application requirements like machine voltage, fan size, and type. This study explores various fan arrangements, including pusher and puller types, and multiple electrical fan banking based on cooler zones to improve cooling system performance without changing cooler size or specifications. A mathematical flow model was developed for both setups: the
Durairaj, RenganathanDewangan, NitinAnand, KetanBhujbale, Sagar
Engine is the prime mover of an automobile. Tractor is also equipped with engine of higher capacity to meet the power requirement. Apart from powering the wheels, engine also runs different accessories such as water pump, alternator, AC pump, Oil pump and so on. The power from the engine is transferred to accessories via chain drive or belt drive through the crankshaft pulley. During field testing, in one of the tractors, engine pulley mounting bolt failure was reported. The failure resulted in immediate seizure of the engine making the tractor standstill in the field. The root cause of the failure was unknown. Hence, there was a need to develop a component or subsystem level test methodology to address the issue quickly. In the current scope, an attempt was made to develop a subsystem level laboratory test methodology to simulate the failure mode and to validate the design modifications in an accelerated manner. The failure mode was simulated in lab and different design iterations
Chakraborty, Abhirup
In the evolving landscape of energy efficiency and sustainability, understanding machine behavior in real-world operating conditions is essential. This solution introduces a data-driven Energy Management Dashboard designed to analyze and report critical machine parameters by leveraging LFI (Leverage Fleet Intelligence) and LFI Data (Local Field Intelligence Data). The tool serves as a robust solution for engineering and operations teams to gain actionable insights into machine performance and exposure. By tracking key parameters—such as engine fan speed, coolant temperature, and machine speed—across a fleet of machines (with support for over 1100 unique signals), the solution enables real-time monitoring and historical analysis. It helps identify when parameters go outside their specified limits and assesses the resulting impact on overall machine performance. The core functionality includes: Monitoring machine operating conditions under real field environments. Correlating parameter
Nandre, RatnapratikJoshi, Aaditya
To ensure the effective operation of engine cooling systems in agricultural tractors, several critical parameters must be considered, including grille opening area and location, grille resistance, front-end blockage, fan speed, and coolant flow rate. While grille design has been moderately explored for highway vehicles, research specific to grille configuration in agricultural tractors remains limited. This study investigates the influence of grille location, grille resistance (modeled using porous inertial and viscous resistance coefficients) front-end blockage, fan speed, and coolant flow rate on radiator top tank temperature (TTT) using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The analysis is conducted in two phases: first, the effects of grille opening area and location, grille resistance, and front-end blockage are evaluated under fixed fan speed and coolant flow rate; second, an orthogonal array design of experiments is employed to rank the influence of grille opening area, fan speed
Subramani, SridharanBaskar, SubramaniyanGopinathan, Nagarajan
Vibration testing is an essential component of automotive product development, ensuring that components such as engines, transmissions, and electronic systems perform reliably under various operating conditions. The adoption of electronics in the automotive industry, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, marked a shift in vibration testing approaches, moving from primarily low-frequency tests to methods that could address high-frequency vibrations as well. This evolution highlights the need for effective vibration fixture designs that can simulate real-world conditions, enabling manufacturers to detect potential weaknesses before products are integrated into vehicles. A key aspect of vibration testing is the identification of resonant frequencies within components. The coupled mass-spring-damper system, for example, can exhibit multiple resonances characterized by a Bode Diagram, where the Q factor technique is utilized to assess damping levels. Accurate vibration analysis can be
Shinde, PramodkumarShah, Viren
This study investigates the failure mechanisms of a press-fitted AISI 304L pulley, which is used to drive an engine coolant variable water pump in automotive applications. The analysis focuses on the peculiar loading scheme of the pulley resulting from the innovative water pump design which combines high mean stress from press fitting with cyclic stress from rotating bending loads that exceed the material's yield point. This is coupled with the cyclic material behavior of AISI 304L which exhibits a strong cyclic hardening. This combination significantly influences the stress distribution and fatigue life of the component under cyclic loads combined with material plasticity, ultimately leading to fatigue failure at the pulley-shaft mating surface. Assembly endurance tests were conducted on a specialized test bench, allowing control of pulley bending load. A comprehensive failure analysis, including visual inspection, metallurgical examination, and finite element analysis (FEA) was
Franceschini, AlessandroSquarcini, RaffaeleRybicki, Gilles
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