Browse Topic: Engine cooling systems

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Study on Temperature Rise and Heat Dissipation of Micro Electric Vehicle Drive Motor Based on Multi-Physics Coupling2026-99-11319/11/2026
This paper is mainly about heat dissipation and improvement technology, aiming at solving the problem that the driving motor of 4 low-speed electric vehicles has too high a rising speed when running under complicated working conditions. Core losses and conductor losses are calculated by using the finite element method as well as known empirical formulas, and magnetic eddy loss at three operating conditions (normal condition, maximum speed, and peak torque. The computed heat loads are then used to establish the complete 3- dimensional model of thermal analysis. As shown in Figure 3, without active cooling, the hottest conductors would be at about 141°C (Class-B Insulation limit). Therefore, three different liquid cooling designs (helical channel, serpent channel, and annular flow) have been designed and analyzed. A coupled thermal- fluid simulation has been performed on the helix structure, which showed better results, so we selected it to be optimized. The optimization is performed using central composite design, genetic algorithms for response surfaces, and multi-objective evolutionary optimization (NSGA-II). The objective function is to simultaneously achieve a low maximum working temperature as well as good heat transfer properties by changing the geometry of cooling channels. The cooling of the motor as well as the suction pressure was optimized, after which a decrease by up to 31.1°C (up 8.6% on the maximum temperature) was observed. Also, pressure drop reduction as much as 23% along with substantial increases in both the heat transfer performance and reliability.
Xi, Heyuan, Bai, Enjun, Ma, Wenyu, Tang, Fuyu, Liu, Zhiyi
Data-Driven Design of Copper Tube Drawing Algorithm for Automotive Air Conditioning Systems2026-99-11109/11/2026
As a critical component in thermal management systems, copper tubes are widely used in automotive radiators, condensers, and other parts. In copper tube production, the drawing process is essential for achieving target dimensions and performance specifications. However, as the copper tube industry evolves, nowadays manual drawing process design and traditional drawing algorithms struggle to meet increasingly diverse finished product specifications and complex manufacturing requirements. To address this issue, this study developed an intelligent drawing process design algorithm suitable for automotive copper tube production. This algorithm builds upon existing drawing without plug algorithms, floating plug drawing algorithms, and manually compiled drawing process sheets. It first learns the fundamental principles of drawing without plug algorithms, then derives the relationship between wall thickness changes before and after drawing using mathematical formulas. Subsequently, by analyzing the enterprise’s existing 297 drawing process sheets, the design principles of the drawing without plug algorithm were extracted. This established the number and positioning of required drawing without plug processes within different drawing procedures as the design principles for drawing without plug. Then, using the ‘Double decrement method’ from the floating plug drawing algorithm as an example and integrating the design principles of drawing without plug processes, we developed an intelligent drawing process design algorithm suitable for automotive copper tube production. Furthermore, we selected a typical drawing process sheet for comparison. Through comparative analysis of key parameters such as processing rate and relative wall thickness reduction coefficient, we validated that this algorithm yields more rational results compared to traditional methods. Utilizing this algorithm not only significantly reduces the workload for drawing process designers but also produces more optimal drawing process design outcomes. Compared to other floating plug drawing algorithms, this algorithm also demonstrates greater universality.
Yue, Fengli, Zhang, Jiakun, Liu, Jinsong, Meng, Dezhi
Coolant Filter Test ProcedureJ2709_202609 (Current)9/4/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice is applicable to coolant filters installed on mobile or stationary equipment. It describes a body of tests used to characterize the stuctural integrity and filtration performance of coolant filters.
Filter Test Methods Standards Committee
Research on Electromagnetic Characteristics Calculation of Small Lead Bismuth Ring Linear Induction Electromagnetic Pump Device2026-99-02017/31/2026
Compared to traditional reactors, lead-bismuth eutectic reactors (LBE) have higher neutron economy and stability. As a device for driving the coolant, the electromagnetic pump features non-contact operation, simplifying the sealing apparatus and achieving complete sealing inside the pump. It meets the requirements of miniaturization and modularity, while offering excellent flow regulation performance. Its input parameters determine the output performance in both performance analysis and structural design of lead-bismuth electromagnetic pumps . This article focuses on a small-scale annular linear induction electromagnetic pump (ALIP) as the simulation object and establishes an electromagnetic pump model. Based on Maxwell’s equations and N-S equations, and with the background of three-dimensional multiphysics coupling of electromagnetic field, flow field and heat transfer field, the coupling mechanism between the flow velocity of LBE and the Lorentz force was studied in detail. From the perspective of electromagnetic-flow coupling, the influence of different coil turns, input currents, and excitation frequencies on the Magnetic flux density and pressure of electromagnetic pumps was analyzed. Finally, a comprehensive analysis of the output characteristics of ALIP under various input parameters is performed, and the research results provide a theoretical reference for the design and optimization of lead-bismuth ALIP.
Peng, Chunyu, Xiao, Changzhi
Design and Optimization of Diesel Engine Cold Start Heating System under Extreme Cold Conditions2026-99-08097/30/2026
With the goal of enhancing diesel engine adaptability to low-temperature environments and exploring cold-start potential at - 50 °C, this paper develops a one-dimensional simulation model for the cold-start system. The model is based on a method that utilizes a diesel heater to warm the coolant, which in turn heats the engine block and oil. The heating condition of coolant and oil of a 10-cylinder V-type engine within a specified time under a -50 °C environment is studied through simulation. We further optimized the cold-start process by enhancing the coolant flow distribution within each circulation circuit to improve overall thermal management and start-up efficiency. The results show that: at an ambient temperature of -50 °C, with a heating power of 80 kW, a total flow rate of 110 L/min, and an engine block flow rate of not less than 54 L/min, the diesel engine can raise the coolant temperature at the engine outlet to 40 °C and the oil temperature to -35 °C within 20 minutes. Through flow optimization, by maximizing the flow rate of the engine block heating circuit and reducing the flow diversion of the intercooler, the coolant temperature at the engine outlet can reach 40 °C in 18.9 minutes, while the oil is heated to -34.9 °C, and the final heating coolant temperature reaches 44.4 °C at 20 minutes. Compared to the situation without flow optimization, the time for the engine outlet coolant temperature to reach 40 °C was shortened by 0.55 minutes, and the final heating coolant temperature increased by 2.2 °C. Based on relevant experiments and the dynamic viscosity curve of 5 W engine oil, this paper holds that the starting conditions of a diesel engine can be met when the engine outlet coolant temperature reaches 40 °C, and the engine oil temperature reaches -35 °C.
Wang, Jingfei, Xie, Peng, Wang, Zhuo, Xia, Yingqiu, Zhang, Xiaodong, Chen, Ke, Wang, Guodong
Research on Thermal Design of a Forced Air-Cooled Display Control Console2026-99-08087/30/2026
In this paper, the simulation software was used to conduct a thermal analysis of the design scheme of a certain type of forced air-cooled display and control console, and the results were compared with the experimental results. The results show that in an environment of 50 °C, the maximum temperature of the chip on this strong display control console does not exceed 98 °C, meeting the usage requirements of the chip and the thermal reliability requirements of the display control console. The thermal design scheme of the display and control console proposed in this paper has the advantages of a simple structural form, good heat dissipation effect, low fan noise, and consideration of the heat dissipation of multiple heat sources. It can provide a good reference for the thermal design of similar display and control consoles.
Li, Yun
Optimization of Preheating Energy Distribution for Low-Temperature Cold Starts in Diesel-Electric Hybrid Vehicles2026-99-05167/10/2026
To minimize energy input and preheating time, this study first analyzed the energy consumption of intake air, lubricating oil, and coolant preheating through simulations. Temperature rise data were collected under various heating parameters. Next, simulations evaluated the hybrid power system’s resistance characteristics immediately after startup and the combustion parameters during the first cycle post-ignition under different temperatures. The temperature thresholds for successful start-up were identified, defining the feasible domain for optimization. Optimization calculations aimed to minimize preheating time and energy input, constrained by maximum preheating power. Results show that intake air heating has the greatest impact on start-up success, followed by lubricating oil heating. It is recommended to increase energy allocation to intake air and lubricating oil heating. This optimized strategy reduces preheating time and energy input by approximately 26% without changing the preheating equipment.
Wei, Shengchen, Zhao, Zhenfeng
Self-Propelled Sweepers - Air Flow Performance - Part 2: Suction/Blower Fan PerformanceJ1792/2_202607 (Current)7/1/2026
This SAE Standard establishes a test method and a definition for disclosing the performance of suction/blower fans when applied to self-propelled sweepers that solely use a pneumatic conveyance means for the collection and transfer of “sweepings” into a collection hopper.
MTC2, Sweeper, Cleaner, and Machinery
A Comprehensive CFD-Driven Approach to Battery Thermal Modeling and Cooling System Optimization2026-01-07527/1/2026
With the continued expansion of electric mobility, liquid-cooled thermal management systems have become indispensable for ensuring the performance, durability, and safety of automotive battery packs. This work presents a novel cooling-plate design that integrates offset strip-fin turbulators to enhance convective heat transfer between lithium-ion cells and the circulating coolant. A comprehensive multi-region CFD model of the full battery pack is developed, incorporating an implicit lumped-parameter representation of cell heat generation. The numerical predictions are validated against dedicated experimental measurements available in the literature. Subsequently, a parametric study is conducted in which the number of hydraulic sub-modules and the inlet/outlet configurations are systematically varied to generate all feasible design permutations. The resulting configurations are compared to assess thermal performance and to quantify the benefits—as well as the potential penalties—introduced by the turbulators relative to the experimentally validated baseline.
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Tariq, Muhammad Hasnain, Bonetti, Elisa
Multiphysical Modeling of a Direct-Cooled Litz Wire Winding for a PMSM Using Surrogate Models2026-01-07317/1/2026
In permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) ohmic losses occur in the stator windings. Reducing these losses contributes to a higher efficiency and increases the vehicles range. An effective approach to reduce frequency-dependent AC conduction loss is the use of litz wires. In addition, direct cooling helps to reduce DC conduction loss and winding temperatures. Therefore, this work presents a multiphysical modeling approach of a direct-cooled litz wire winding in a PMSM. It combines loss modeling of the winding with novel thermal and hydraulic calculation methods. AC conduction loss due to skin and proximity effect and DC conduction loss are modeled temperature dependent. Scaled-down conjugate heat transfer simulations are used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between wires and coolant. Additionally, the pressure drop is derived and converted into parameters for use in a porous media model. The derived parameters are used to generate surrogate models to enable computationally efficient predictions. Using the developed methods a case study is carried out. The influence of the number of turns per slot, litz wire diameter and number of parallel litz wires is investigated. In order to isolate the influence of the winding configuration, the geometry of the PMSM and the coolant volume flow remain constant. Performance indicators are energy consumption during a duty cycle, winding mass and pressure drop. Based on this study it is shown that the stator winding design is a multiphysical compromise. The method enables a targeted design of the winding configuration with respect to various objectives and facilitates the assessment of their influencing factors on the overall machine characteristics under conflicting performance requirements.
Blaschke, Wolfgang Maximilian, Mengoni, Leonard, List, Adrian, Kulzer, André Casal
NVH Aspects of DC Charging2026-01-07036/20/2026
The deployment of high-power DC charging infrastructure for electric vehicles introduces new challenges in managing noise, particularly in public environments where acoustic comfort and regulatory compliance are essential. Noise emissions from both charging stations and vehicles during charging are a concern for operators of charging parks regarding customer experience and noise immission regulations. AVL employed a structured three-step approach to develop a non-expert tool for assessing the noise radiation of charging stations and vehicles during the charging phase. In a first step, AVL characterized the noise emissions with sound power measurements. Secondly, the measurement results were transferred to the virtual domain. To achieve this, the vehicles and charging station were characterized in the simulation with multiple monopole sources supported by transfer function measurements. This simulation model was validated against the sound power measurement results. After successful correlation of the simulation model, AVL implemented a user-friendly noise mapping tool for predictive planning of charging parks moving from a 3D FEM simulation approach to a simplified noise radiation model according to ISO 9613. Measurements were conducted on a representative high-power DC charging station and two electric vehicles. The vehicle cooling fan was identified as the dominant noise source on the vehicle side, while internal cooling fans of the charging station were the primary contributors to the noise radiated by the charger. Noise emissions were found to increase with higher charging currents, indicating a strong dependency on thermal load. The project established a reusable workflow for acoustic source identification enabling the creation of a scalable database. The noise mapping tool allows easy prediction of noise radiation from multiple charging stations and vehicles during the planning phase of charging parks and supports the design of countermeasures to meet regulatory requirements.
Gojo, Josef, Polanz, Markus, Graf, Bernhard, Langjahr, Paco, Mehrgou, Mehdi
Psychoacoustic Annoyance Models Assessment for Automotive Fan-Systems2026-01-06726/20/2026
Because of automotive electrification, fan system noises previously hidden by the internal combustion engine could become key contributors to the overall noise behavior. Metrics like overall sound pressure level or Loudness are first order metrics enabling noise ranking. Yet, second order factors, that are relevant to assess annoyance, are not correctly described using a single criterion. This paper studies the applicability of various psychoacoustic annoyance models in an attempt to address the subjective perception of sound quality. Based on pairwise comparisons through a jury test with a set of 8 noises at similar overall levels, the combined impact of several psychoacoustics metrics was previously determined. This computation includes a signal modulation metric, a frequency content balance and a tonal criterion. To complete this approach, the correlation for fan system noise annoyance ranking based on this jury test is compared with several psychoacoustic annoyance criteria. These models start from the initial Zwicker and Fastl model to later extensions including tonal contributions such as Schneider, More, Di or Cerkovnik. The low correlation between jury rankings and annoyance models highlights that general models are not applicable to low pressure axial fans and that the dominant contribution of Loudness in psychoacoustic annoyance calculation is biasing the comparison of similar overall sound pressure level sounds. Regarding Cerkovnik, which is dedicated to computer fans, similar poor applicability to automotive fans is highlighted. Through a new multi-linear regression with better correlation, when the metric focusing on High Frequencies is replaced by Loudness, the modified equation linking Loudness, Sharpness, Tonality and Roughness is then well correlated to jury tests.
Scouarnec, Denis, Bennouna, Saad
A Novel Looped-Freezing Mean Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Based Approach to Evaluate Underhood Cooling Performance of Commercial Vehicles02-19-03-00186/9/2026
A novel looped-freezing mean approach based on Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) approach is developed in context of assessing underhood cooling performance in heavy-duty vehicles. The method involves computing a temporally averaged flow field from DES simulations, which is then frozen and used by the energy solver to predict temperature distributions. This process is iteratively repeated until a statistically steady-state temperature field is achieved. It is demonstrated that traditional DES approach demonstrates superior accuracy in capturing forced convection heat transfer compared to the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) method. The validation against experimental data for flow over a heated sphere at a Reynolds number of 105 shows that DES yields Nusselt numbers with better correlation than RANS. However, it is observed that DES approach captures unsteady flow features that introduce temporal fluctuations in heat transfer. In the context of underhood cooling evaluations where properties of the fluid are strong functions of temperature and coupled with iterative processes such as dual-stream heat-exchanger modeling, these instabilities can frequently lead to numerical divergence of the simulation. The novel looped-freezing mean DES method is then applied to a reduced underhood model, including the heat exchanger and fan assembly, bounded by walls representing adjacent vehicle components. The study show that the novel looped-freezing mean DES approach provides stable and converged thermal predictions for the reduced underhood model. This approach is particularly beneficial for simulations involving highly transient flow fields coupled with thermal phenomena, enabling accurate and reportable temperature evaluations in critical regions.
Holay, Sarang, Sankar, Hari, Dixit, Pritish, Singh, Ramanand
Evaluating Volume and Hardness change in Fluorocarbon and Ethylene Propylene Rubber Elastomers: Effects of Fluid Aging2026-26-07586/1/2026
Abstract: This research paper investigates the performance of FKM (Fluorocarbon) seal material when exposed to a 50:50 ethylene glycol-water mixture. The study aims to determine the volume change percentage and Hardness change of FKM elastomers under standardized testing conditions. The experimental approach follows ASTM D471 and ASTM 2240 guidelines, focusing on weight and hardness measurements of the test samples to establish a success criterion. The results provide critical insights into the chemical compatibility and durability of FKM elastomers in Aerospace and industrial applications where ethylene glycol-water mixtures are commonly used. The findings contribute to enhanced material selection and design considerations for sealing applications subjected to glycol-based fluids. Samples of FKM material were immersed in the fluid at controlled temperatures and durations, simulating real-world operational conditions. The primary metric of interest, volume change percentage and Hardness change, were assessed through precision measurement techniques. Weight changes before and after immersion were also recorded to correlate material absorption characteristics with the success criteria. Success thresholds were established based on industry requirements for seal integrity and operational reliability. Preliminary results indicate that FKM exhibits minimal volume expansion and hardness change under specified conditions, aligning with the acceptance criteria. These findings support the suitability of FKM seals for long-term use in coolant systems, with implications for material selection and design in demanding applications. This research contributes to the development of durable sealing solutions, ensuring reliability and safety in systems utilizing ethylene glycol-based coolants. Keywords: FKM, Volume Expansion, ASTM D471
Yarolkar, Makrand, Patil, Sandip, Singh, Tanul
Multi-Objective Parameters Optimization of Centrifugal Fan Based on GA-BP Neural Network and NSGA- II2026-99-07015/15/2026
In order to achieve the research objective of simultaneously improving the air volume and reducing the noise of centrifugal fans, a combination of orthogonal experimental design, BP neural network modelling and multi-objective genetic algorithm (NSGA- II) was used to find the optimal method, and the worm tongue placement angle φ, worm tongue radius R, expansion angle θ and outlet expansion section height L of the worm casing were selected as optimization variables. The air volume and noise of the centrifugal fan under the design working condition were calculated by non-constant and constant calculations, and the air volume and noise were used as the optimization objectives. The results demonstrate that, compared to the initial design, the optimized fan model achieved a noise reduction of 10.99 dB and an airflow increase of 1.76%. Furthermore, the amplitude of the pressure pulsation coefficient at the blade passing frequency was significantly reduced at the monitoring point near the volute tongue. This suggests a reduction in the intensity of dynamic and static interactions between the impeller and the volute tongue, thereby enhancing the operational stability of the fan. The proposed optimization method has certain reference significance for improving the aerodynamic performance of centrifugal fans.
Huang, Guoxing, Zhang, Weihong, Li, Weichang
Optimal Heat Transfer and Coolant Flow Correlations in a Cylindrical Cell Format, Production-Based Battery Pack Model under Constant Discharge, Winter–Summer Driving14-15-02-00115/6/2026
A full lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack has hundreds to thousands of cells, coolant flow lines and channels, and channel bends to control cell temperature within its operating window and minimize cell internal resistance, aging, and fire risk. A 75 kWh LIB pack has four modules, and each has 23–25 bricks. Two challenges in battery state predictions for hot and subzero temperatures are battery temperature (Tbatt ) and coolant flow within the whole pack. In this work, a 1D 75 kWh full-pack model with its thermal management system is developed using a holistic reverse-engineering method, which can predict Tbatt at any bricks/modules and inlet/outlet coolant flow characteristics. A Tesla Model Y equipped with dual e-motors is tested on an in-house state-of-the-art chassis dynamometer. The test data at V = 60–80 km/h, 100–150 A constant discharge, and Tbatt = −10°C to 40°C are used to develop the model. The 75 kWh pack model features 4000+ cylindrical cells (96S46P, Panasonic 21700-format), 20+ coolant lines (or plates, tubes), and 700+ flow channels. The model considers heat exchange from cells to the ambient air via coolant (water-glycol), coolant channel walls, adhesive bonding, trays, and cases. Four forced convective heat transfer coefficient correlations (α) from the coolant to the walls are used to predict coolant outlet temperature (T cool, out ) and Tbatt at different bricks. Three coolant flow losses correlations (K) due to pipe friction, and pipe bends are used to predict the coolant pressure drop ∆Pcool across the pack. Optimal α and K correlations are identified using the fully validated pack model, and the transient temperatures at any cell in bricks and the inlet/outlet coolant flow characteristics are well predicted with over 90% accuracy. This work provides guidelines for selecting optimal α and K correlations to develop any 1D fully liquid-based battery pack models for all-weather driving.
Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
Battery Cooling System Airborne Noise Correlation Using Statistical Based Tool14-15-02-00084/16/2026
In a traditional electric vehicle, managing its battery thermal performance is of prime importance. A well-designed battery thermal management system helps in extending its life and avoids safety-related issues like thermal runaways. A critical part of this thermal management is the battery cooling system (BCS), which can be air- or liquid-cooled. Based on the vehicle battery pack size, location, and its design complexity, the original equipment manufacturer can opt for either of the previous two methods. An air-cooled type of BCS system usually involves an active ventilation fan to dissipate the battery heat in the surroundings, which brings symbiotic noise into the picture. In an air-cooled BCS system, the primary source of noise is the cooling airflow over the heat exchanger caused by the fan. The airflow and noise performance characteristics of this fan are typically measured by the supplier in a standalone condition. These performance parameters deviate greatly when the fan is introduced inside a battery cooling module. In the current work, flow-induced noise simulation of a fan placed inside a confined BCS is performed. The simulation has made use of a statistically based tool due to its inherent low dissipative and dispersion properties. The simulation model included all complex interior parts of the BCS, including the mating gaps higher than 1 mm. The simulation results were correlated with the test, and further iterations were performed in simulations to understand the sensitivity of the condenser core location with respect to the fan. Additionally, the changes in noise performance behavior while moving from a standalone fan toward a fan integrated with the BCS system are also studied. The overall noise correlation between the simulation and test is achieved within a 0.4 dBA level. Further, the presence of flow-induced resonance inside the BCS at a lower frequency than the BPF was identified in simulation.
Nomani, Mustafa, Dupatti, Darshan, Nikam, Krishna, Sasikumar, R., Kajagar, Suresh, Panchare, Dattaji, Agalawe, Kiran
Engine Cooling Fan Structural AnalysisJ1390_202604 (Current)4/13/2026
Three levels of fan structural analysis are included in this practice: a. Initial structural integrity. b. In-vehicle testing. c. Durability (laboratory) test methods. The initial structural integrity section describes analytical and test methods used to predict potential resonance and, therefore, possible fatigue accumulation. The in-vehicle (or machine) section enumerates the general procedure used to conduct a fan strain gage test. Various considerations that may affect the outcome of strain gage data have been described for the user of this procedure to adapt/discard depending on the particular application. The durability test methods section describes the detailed test procedures for a laboratory environment that may be used depending on type of fan, equipment availability, and end objective. The second and third levels build upon information derived from the previous level. Engineering judgment is required as to the applicability of each level to a different vehicle environment or a new fan design. This SAE Recommended Practice is applicable to any engine cooling fan application including medium and heavy-duty trucks, buses, construction equipment, industrial, and agricultural equipment. Some sections are more applicable to engine-driven fans than to hydraulic-driven or electric-motor-driven fans, especially with respect to speed control. Fan failure modes, however, are generally the same regardless of driving modes. The usage of non-metallic construction necessitates areas of evaluation not required by metallic designs. Chief among these are temperature extremes, moisture content, impact resistance, chemical attack, material purity/homogeneity, and aging/weathering. Areas of evaluation affecting both metallic and non-metallic fans, but requiring somewhat different approaches with non-metallic parts, include natural frequency determination and durability testing.
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
Thermal Management Simulation of Liquid-Cooled Energy Storage Batteries Using a Reduced-Order Model2026-01-01224/7/2026
Linear time-invariant (LTI) reduced-order models (ROMs) have been widely used in battery thermal management simulations due to their low hardware requirements, high computational efficiency, and good accuracy. However, the inherent assumption of LTI behavior limits their applicability in scenarios with varying coolant flow rates, where this assumption is no longer valid. To address this limitation, a novel ROM is developed by decomposing the entire battery thermal system into two subsystems. All solid components are modeled as a traditional LTI ROM, while the coolant channel is represented using Newton’s cooling law. The two subsystems are then coupled through the exchange of heat transfer rate and temperature at the fluid–solid interface between the coolant and the cold plate. Model fidelity is further enhanced by introducing a spatially distributed heat flux during the generation of the LTI ROM for solid components. Validation is performed against CFD simulations at both module and pack levels, under constant and varying flow rates. The results demonstrate that the proposed ROM achieves high accuracy while requiring several orders of magnitude less computational time than the corresponding CFD models.
Guo, Jia, Chen, Guijie, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao, Li, Jing, Song, Shujun, Huang, Long
A Decision-Making Framework for Field Manufacturability of Vehicle Parts in Expeditionary Environments2026-01-01434/7/2026
Expeditionary environments (such as remote exploration missions, forward military operations, and disaster response zones) demand adaptive manufacturing solutions to support vehicle sustainment in the absence of traditional supply chains. This work introduces a conceptual mathematical framework for modeling the constraints and tradeoffs inherent to expeditionary manufacturing, with a focus on vehicle repair and spare parts fabrication using low-energy and simple automated systems including desktop-scale 3D printers and CNC machines. The model integrates key variables such as energy availability, material transport cost, fabrication time, and environmental limitations to support rapid decision-making on part manufacturability and in-field feasibility. A case study involving the on-demand production of some common wear and failure parts on a vehicle, including suspension components and the water pump, is used to demonstrate how this framework can guide the selection of suitable manufacturing technologies, part redesign or repair for field printing. This modeling approach highlights how predictive modeling can optimize both component geometry and process parameters to meet requirements while minimizing energy expenditure and logistics overhead. This work informs future efforts in resilient vehicle system design by embedding manufacturability considerations into the early stages of development, particularly for platforms intended for deployment in expeditionary environments. It offers practical guidance to designers, logisticians, and mission planners seeking to integrate field-capable manufacturing into vehicle lifecycle support.
Mollan, Calahan, Pandey, Vijitashwa, Patterson, Albert E.
AirCARE: Assessing the Impact of an Integrated Air Purification System on Vehicle Thermal Management2026-01-02724/7/2026
The increasing concentration of atmospheric pollutants in urban environments necessitates innovative solutions to mitigate their impact on public health and the environment. This work presents the AirCARE project, which investigates the integration of a catalytic converter and a particulate filter with a vehicle's radiator to create an active air purification system. The primary objective is to evaluate the feasibility and performance implications of this integrated system on the vehicle's thermal management. A comprehensive methodology combining computational modeling and experimental testing was employed. A 1D longitudinal vehicle model was developed to simulate the powertrain's heat generation and the cooling system's performance under various representative driving conditions. This model allows for a parametric study of the radiator, assessing the impact of the additional components on its heat exchange efficiency. Concurrently, experimental tests were conducted on a radiator to measure the pressure drop across the integrated filter and to validate the heat exchange performance predicted by the simulations. This paper focuses on the results from the vehicle and component-level simulations and the corresponding experimental validation of the radiator's fluid-dynamic and thermal behavior. The results provide a quantitative analysis of the trade-offs between the potential for pollutant abatement and the constraints imposed on the vehicle's cooling system. The study identifies key design parameters and operating conditions that influence system performance, offering insights for optimizing the integration. The findings demonstrate the technical considerations required to implement such a system without compromising vehicle safety and performance, establishing a foundation for the future development of vehicles as mobile air purification platforms.
de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Sartoretti, Enrico
Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on Particulate Emissions in Warm-Up Conditions in a GDI Engine2026-01-03044/7/2026
Renewable gasoline offers significant benefits in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, five gasolines with different renewable hydrocarbon classes and varying distillation curves were taken to investigate their effect on particle number (PN) emissions in a spark-ignition GDI engine at 10 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The engine coolant temperature was varied from 90°C to 35°C to investigate the effect of fuel evaporation on soot formation. Injectors with various spray plume targets and start of injection (SOI) timing (300° and 260° bTDC) were used to assess how different gasolines affect engine performance and to determine engine calibration requirements. A simplified transient cycle examines how engine motoring influences PN emissions for test gasolines. A high-speed camera and endoscope were used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. Simulations were done to assess the quality of fuel-air mixing in support of the experimental data. The results revealed that the type of hydrocarbons in gasoline was crucially affecting PN emissions. Particles with >10 nm increased with increasing fuel’s aromatics. Paraffin-rich gasoline showed 71% and 98% lower PN than aromatics-rich gasoline under hot and cold engine conditions. Paraffin-rich gasoline showed lower PN in cold tests than in hot tests with retarded SOI. Replacing ~10% paraffins with olefins and naphthene reduced >10 nm PN by 15-77%. However, replacing 19% of paraffins with olefins and naphthene increases PN emissions. Optimal SOI timing reduces PN by 80% for aromatics-rich gasoline. Fuel consumption and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions increased with increasing aromatics and paraffins in gasoline under cold conditions. Yellow flames on the piston top and near the injector tip were the primary sources of soot. Simulation results showed that the liquid fuel mass increased by 14% when the coolant temperature was reduced by 55 K.
Muniappan, Krishnamoorthi, Dahlander, Petter, Helmantel, Ayolt, Alemahdi, Nika, Lehto, Kalle
Optimization of Engine Cooling System for Improved Fuel Efficiency and Vehicle Marketability2026-01-02974/7/2026
Effective thermal management in internal combustion engines is essential for meeting increasingly stringent emissions regulations and achieving fuel efficiency improvements. This study introduces a novel and comprehensive approach to optimize engine thermal management by addressing key system components, including coolant circuit design, Integrated Thermal Management Module (ITM) control strategies, port-specific flow management, zero-flow operation techniques, and HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) settings standardization. Unlike previously published works, this study focuses on reducing coolant circuit thermal mass to accelerate engine and component warm-up, refining ITM control logic through linear mapping and advanced signal filtering for precision, and enhancing zero-flow operation for minimizing lubricant oil dilution during start-up and reducing heat loss under low ambient conditions. Additional optimizations include port-specific adjustments and radiator flow distribution strategies to improve system responsiveness and fuel economy. Standardized HVAC configurations were implemented to ensure reproducibility across WLTP vehicle and bench testing scenarios. The methodology validated key improvements through rigorous testing on a newly developed engine platform and demonstrated scalability by successfully integrating these measures into vehicles designed to comply with EU7 regulations. Results indicate substantial gains in warm-up performance, coolant temperature control stability, energy efficiency, and regulatory compliance. Furthermore, these advancements underscore their practical application for automakers seeking novel solutions to meet evolving environmental standards and enhance market competitiveness. Overall, this study presents a set of scalable and widely applicable strategies for modern spark-ignition engines, supporting both new engine development and optimization of existing engines, while addressing global fuel-efficiency and emissions challenges effectively.
Lee, Changjoo, Lee, Kyumin, Kim, Seonyeong, Nam, Choonho, Yoo, Jihun
Identifying Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for a Liquid-Cooled Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Model of Electric Vehicles under Hot-Cold Driving2026-01-03944/7/2026
The performance of a full battery pack with its effective thermal management system (BTMS) depends on coolant flow and heat transfer characteristics inside the pack. To develop a full BTMS using model-based design (MBD), the model must capture the coolant pressure drop ∆?? and heat-exchange performance from the cell to ambient air via the coolant, cooling flow channels, air gaps, and pack cases. Predicting battery pack responses (i.e., voltage, SOC, temperature) under all weather conditions is a challenge, as a complete pack contains several hundred to thousands of cells, coolant lines, coolant line bends, and coolant channels. This work presents a detailed approach to identifying heat transfer and ∆P correlations that can capture the real-time thermal-electrical performance of a mass-produced LIB pack under constant speed (in winter) and transient driving (in summer). A vehicle test is conducted using a Tesla Model Y, 2-motor model equipped with a 75-kWh LIB pack. The LIB pack's thermal and electrical performance is recorded at 60 km/h under cold conditions and during transient driving in summer. The pack is based on the 2RC equivalent circuit model, reduced from the P2D-based NCA/Gr-SiOx Li-ion cell, to accelerate simulation times at the pack and vehicle levels. The approach to identifying ∆P and heat transfer correlations are discussed, with pack model validations under coolant temperatures ranging from 0 to 40 °C and coolant flow rates of 4 to 14 L/min. The thermal and electrical performances (voltage, SOC, ∆P, and temperatures of the coolant, bricks, and modules) of the high-fidelity battery pack model are validated against vehicle test data at 60 km/h driving (ambient temperature Ta = -10 °C) and repeated FTP+HWFET cycle (Ta = 30°C). The whole pack model achieves an average accuracy of 90%, and this work can serve as a guideline for designing battery packs with their BTMS using MBD.
Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
Coolant Pump Weep Chamber 3D CFD Transient Simulation for Predicting Coolant Evaporation2026-01-04854/7/2026
This paper presents transient, complex, multi-species, multiphase, 3D CFD transient simulation of engine coolant pump weep chamber for predicting coolant evaporation. The engine coolant pump contains a rotating mechanical face seal to prevent liquid coolant leakage at the rotating interface. During normal engine operation, a small amount of coolant vapor is expressed by this rotating seal; this vapor can condense on solid surfaces within the weep chamber. The coolant collected in weep chamber evaporates from the chamber and exits out of the weep chamber in vapor form. Evaporation rate of the coolant is a primary factor deciding weep chamber size. Evaporation rate of coolant depends on several factors – ambient humidity, ambient temperature, flow of air in and out of the weep chamber, pump temperature, and pump rotational speed. Weep chamber is small in dimensions (~ 100 cm^3) and dependence of coolant evaporation on several factors results in necessity of an accurate and predictive simulation methodology while designing a coolant pump. The simulation of evaporation is challenging due to need of modeling multiple species, multiple phases, and transient physics. In current work, an innovative 3D CFD simulation approach for predicting coolant evaporation in weep chamber is developed. The simulation approach can account for variation of ambient conditions, pump speed, coolant quantity, and coolant temperature. Evaporation rate prediction from the simulation is compared with a coolant pump evaporation rig test data and the results are found to be correlating within engineering accuracy. The simulation approach will be helpful in coolant pump design development work for determining design features of a weep chamber.
Tawar, Ranjit Ramchandra, Drechsel, James, Bedekar, Sanjeev, Nallamothu, Sravan
Multi-Stage Packaging and Routing Optimization for Automotive Component Layout, Wire Harness and Duct Route Design2026-01-05074/7/2026
Modern vehicle design involves complex considerations and tradeoffs between system integration and layout which have a direct impact on performance, efficiency, and cost. The placement of equipment including control boards, motors, and fans as well as the routing of ducts and wire harnesses poses a time-consuming and intricate problem for design engineers. This paper presents an automated methodology to determine the optimal component packaging configuration, duct routing, and wire harnessing layout to maximize component packing density and minimize the total routing length. A two-stage optimization framework has been developed where the first stage packages the components within the design space with considerations for space utilization, component overlap, proximity relationships, point-to-point accessibility, and component mounting. The second stage implements a custom A* path-finding algorithm and gradient based optimization to determine the optimal route layout between port points. The objective of this work – using A* and gradient based optimization - is to minimize the total length of the duct work and harness layout while respecting proximity, overlap, and accessibility considerations. This paper outlines the methodology and real-world application through the design optimization of an automotive dashboard.
LeFrancois, Richard, Kim, Il Yong
Cooling System Nonmetallic Caps and Filler Necks - Threaded ConstructionJ3096_202604 (Current)4/1/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice was developed primarily for passenger car and truck applications but may be used in marine, industrial, and similar applications. It addresses nonmetallic caps and both metallic and nonmetallic filler necks.
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
New Evaporative Cooling Technology Aims to Thwart Rising Energy DemandsTBMG-547133/1/2026
Engineers at the University of California San Diego have developed a new cooling technology that could significantly improve the energy efficiency of data centers and high-powered electronics. The technology features a specially engineered fiber membrane that passively removes heat through evaporation. It offers a promising alternative to traditional cooling systems like fans, heat sinks and liquid pumps. It could also reduce the water use associated with many current cooling systems.
Research on the Working Characteristics of Thermal Management System of Refrigerant Direct Cooling for Battery2026-01-70242/27/2026
This paper focus on the direct cooling plate with serpentine flow channels, the effects of heat load power, compressor speed, fan speed, and types of heating plates on the temperature field of the cold plate were investigated respectively based on the direct cooling thermal management system.The experimental results show that as the heating power decreases, both the overall temperature and temperature difference of the cold plate decrease synchronously. The temperature distribution along the flow channel is non-monotonic, with the highest temperature at the first elbow (T2/T3) and the lowest temperature at the outlet (T12), which is lower than the inlet temperature.A study on the T4-T11 region reveals that when the fan speed is low, with the increase of compressor speed, both Tmax and Tmin first decrease and then increase, while ΔT decreases. When the fan speed is constant at medium or high levels, as the compressor speed increases from low to medium, Tmax and Tmin decrease and ΔT also decreases; when the compressor speed increases from medium to high, Tmax and Tmin remain basically unchanged, while ΔT continues to decrease.The PID automatic control strategy was introduced to adjust the rotational speed, and a comparison was made between the silicone heating plate and the metal heating plate. The results indicate that the heating uniformity of the silicone heating plate is better than that of the metal heating plate. Moreover, when the compressor operates at approximately 60% load and the fan operates at around 30%~40% load, this working condition can not only effectively cool the battery to maintain its temperature within the range of 15°C~20°C in most cases but also control the temperature difference in the T4-T11 region within 5.5°C. Under such operating conditions, the system exhibits excellent cooling performance and temperature uniformity.
Chen, Sijian, Huo, Guojun, Chen, Jiyong, Wei, Shaoliang, Zhang, Guihao, Zhang, Jinglong, Ju, Xinze, Yang, Xiaoxia
Performance Evaluation of a Novel Coolant Channel Configuration for Liquid Based Battery Thermal Management in Electric Vehicles2026-28-00422/12/2026
The performance and longevity of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) are critically dependent on effective thermal management. As internal heat generation during charge and discharge cycles can lead to uneven temperature distribution, exceeding optimal operating limits (25 - 40°C) can significantly degrade battery performance and lifespan. This study presents a performance evaluation of a novel liquid-based Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) featuring a dual-directional coolant channel configuration designed to enhance thermal uniformity and heat dissipation. The proposed configuration combines horizontal and vertical coolant passages in an indirect cooling layout to address the limitations of conventional serpentine-type channels. A comprehensive thermal analysis was carried out under realistic loading conditions using three coolant types: water, ethylene glycol- based G48, and graphene-enhanced water nanofluids. These were evaluated for thermal conductivity, heat transfer efficiency, and effectiveness in minimizing temperature gradients. Graphene nanofluids exhibited superior performance due to their high thermal conductivity and enhanced convective heat transfer capabilities. Additionally, the effect of varying coolant flow rates was analyzed to simulate different operating scenarios. While increasing flow rates improved cooling effectiveness, the study also identified a threshold beyond which performance gains diminished. The novel dual-channel design demonstrated significant improvements over traditional serpentine configurations, including a notable reduction in maximum cell temperatures and enhanced temperature uniformity across the battery pack. This improvement is critical in reducing hotspots and extending battery health. The dual- directional flow facilitates more efficient convective heat transfer, offering a promising advancement in BTMS design. The integration of advanced nanofluid coolants with an innovative channel configuration pave the way for the development of more efficient, reliable, and thermally stable battery systems in next-generation electric mobility.
Selvan, Arul Mozhi, Periyasamy, Muthukumar, R, Thiruppathi, Prasad S, Hari, Raghav, R, Boddu, Sriram Pydi Aditya
Wetting Prediction of Power Train Components under the Influence Moving Components using Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics2026-26-03841/16/2026
Passenger cars are subjected to extensive conditions ranging from driving through wet roads, water puddles, icy roads, and rain. This can affect the performance of different parts over time, one such aspect is the vehicle corrosion, whose impact is felt on a wide spectrum from aesthetics to safety due to loss of material. The general condition for corrosion mainly requires electrolyte to be present on the metal surface, which is transported through self-soiling and foreign soiling. Vehicle soiling is an important aspect for vehicle design. Amongst the many aspects of vehicle soiling, one important aspect is the prediction of water accumulation that enables prediction of corrosion sensitive regions in the vehicle. Power train components like Engine, transmission and corresponding wiring harness are at highest risk of water-wetting, As the vehicle drives through the water puddle the components are not just wet by the direct inflow of water but also by water being splashed by moving components like belt and pulley mechanism and fan which is part of radiator system. So far, the current numerical methods address soiling without considering moving parts in power train, however there is a need to understand the impact of moving components to accurately to better understand the high corrosion probable areas. This paper describes the process to include moving components and its impact on wetting of critical power train components. The presented work involves coupling of Blender® to model belt and pulley mechanism with SPH software PreonLab. A comparison between effects of with and without the moving parts is presented. The results show 80% deviation for Engine Wetting time inferring that to predict the hotspots in powertrain components it is important to accurately model the moving components.
Shukrey, Sarthak, Pattankar, Rohan, Yenugu, Srinivasa
Impact of Density in Simulation Model for Extreme Cold Ambient Conditions2026-26-03881/16/2026
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) necessitate highly efficient thermal management strategies, as cabin heating directly consumes energy from the finite traction battery, potentially reducing driving range significantly. Early-stage design evaluations of warmup performance commonly rely on one-dimensional (1D) simulations due to their computational speed and efficiency. The accuracy and predictive capability of these models are critically dependent on how well they represent blower operation and account for temperature-induced variations in air density. This fidelity is essential because engineers depend on warmup simulations to set HVAC targets that will deliver real-world comfort and defrost performance within stringent range constraints. Earlier, warmup simulations employed a Constant Mass Flow (CMF) approach, which simplifies computations by assuming a fixed air density at a standard reference temperature. However, this approach contrasts with real-world blower behavior, where volumetric airflow remains relatively stable and air density changes dynamically with temperature. This study examines and compares four distinct modeling scenarios using a unified 1D simulation methodology. Case 1 utilizes the earlier CMF approach, maintaining constant density at standard reference temperature. In contrast, Cases 2–4 adopt a Constant Volume Flow (CVF) strategy, allowing density to vary with temperature to emulate real blower performance more accurately. Density calculations are based respectively on: (a) heater-inlet temperature, (b) the arithmetic mean of heater-inlet and heater-outlet temperatures, and (c) heater-outlet temperature. To isolate the effects of these modeling paradigms, all other boundary conditions, heat-source profiles, and control logics remain identical across scenarios. Simulation outputs are systematically compared against vehicle test data, with the delta difference (ΔT) in heater-out air temperature continuously monitored and summarized through graphs and error metrics. This comprehensive validation underscores the robustness and applicability of the presented 1D simulation framework for BEV cabin warmup analysis.
Subramanian, Karthik
Optimization of a Positive Displacement Type Supercharger Using Response Surface Modeling (RSM)2026-26-04291/16/2026
Air suction in a naturally aspirated engine is a crucial influencing parameter to dictate the specific fuel consumption and emissions. For a multi-cylinder engine, a turbocharger can well address this issue. However, due to the lack of availability of continuous exhaust energy pulses, in a single or two-cylinder engine, the usage of turbocharger is not recommended. A supercharger solution comes handy in this regard for a single or two-cylinder engine. In this exercise, we explore the possibility of the usage of a positive displacement type supercharger, to enhance the air flow rate of a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, diesel engine for genset application, operating at 1500 rpm. The supercharger parametric 3D CAD model has been prepared in Creo, with three design parameters i.e. (a) Generating radius, (b) depth of blower and (c) clearance between lobes & lobe and casing. The optimum roots blower design is expected to fulfil the target boost pressure, power consumption and hydraulic efficiency requirements. The baseline DoE using Sobol algorithm generates 28 designs, which has been simulated using the Ansys CFX software via modeFRONTIER process automation. A sensitivity analysis of the input variables on the response variables establishes that generating radius is the most dominant parameter influencing the pressure, efficiency and power consumption. A detailed Response Surface analysis using 12 different algorithms showed that, Anisotropic Kriging captures the pressure variable accurately, while Gaussian Process captures the efficiency and power consumption with the best accuracy as per R-squared comparison. A virtual optimization conducted using the favorite RSMs using the MOGA algorithm generated an optimum roots blower design which complies all the constraints for pressure, efficiency and power. RSM optimized design is further validated in the CFX software, and the results for response variables are accurate within 6% error margin.
Satre, Santosh Dadasaheb, Mukherjee, Nalini, Rajput, Surendra, Nene, Devendra
Machine Learning Based Indirect Engine Oil Deterioration Monitoring System2026-26-06561/16/2026
Maximizing vehicle uptime and reducing maintenance costs are critical objectives in modern automotive systems, making efficient resource utilization a top priority. One of the key factors is engine oil life or degradation, which directly affects the engine performance, longevity, and overall vehicle efficiency/fuel economy. Most vehicles tracks engine oil life solely on a fixed mileage interval while few uses dedicated sensor, which is costly and requires service and maintenance. As the engine oil degrades, it reduces Oil Total Acid Number (TAN) increases while Oil Total Base Number (TBN) decreases. It is recommended that maximum usable life of the engine oil is up to the crossover point between oil TAN and TBN (as the engine oil degrades). Vehicle driving pattern governs the occurrence of crossover points with respect to vehicle mileage. Based on this fundamental concept, an XG-Boost machine-learning algorithm is trained using vehicle Controller Area Network (CAN) channels and varying oil TAN and TBN parameters, derived from the vehicle-level measurement data available for the entire life cycle of engine oil in operating condition. The developed model based on CAN channels like engine rpm, engine torque, gear position, engine power, coolant temperature and odometer readings accurately predicts engine oil TAN and TBN parameter. The cross over point of TAN & TBN is accurately forecasted as seen in correlation results. An interactive user interface is designed and developed to display the deterioration in terms of remaining useful life of the oil to customers in vehicle driving condition.
Dusane, Mangesh, Tade, Vilas, Iqbal, Shoaib
Evaluating Thermal Control Strategies to Improve Electric Vehicle Range Using GT Suite2026-26-03621/16/2026
This study focuses on enhancing energy efficiency in electric vehicle (EV) thermal management systems through the development and optimization of control logic. A full vehicle thermal management system (VTMS) was modeled using GT-Suite software, incorporating subsystems such as the high voltage battery (HVB), Electric powertrain (EPT), and an 8-zone cabin. Thermal models were validated with experimental data to ensure accurate representation of key dynamics, including coolant to cell heat transfer, cell-to-ambient heat dissipation, and internal heat generation. Control strategies were devised for Active Grille Shutter (AGS) and radiator fan operations, targeting both cabin cooling and EPT thermal regulation. Energy consumption was optimized by balancing aerodynamic drag, fan power, and compressor power across various driving conditions. A novel series cooling logic was also developed to improve HVB thermal management during mild ambient conditions. Simulation results demonstrate significant energy savings while maintaining desired thermal performance, showcasing a systematic approach to sustainable EV thermal management
Chothave, Abhijeet, Kumar, Dipesh, Gummadi, Gopakishore, Khan, Parvej, Thiyagarajan, Rajesh, Pandey, Rishabh, S, Ananth, Anugu, Anil, Mulamalla, Sarveshwar, Gangwar, Adarsh
A Fluid-Structure- Interaction based Methodology to Evaluate Aero-Thermal Performance of Deformable Air Guides2026-26-03641/16/2026
The present work demonstrates a Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) based methodology that couples a Finite Volume Method (FVM) and Finite Element Method (FEM) based tools to estimate air guide deformation, thereby predicting accurate aerothermal performance. The method starts with a digital assembly step where the assembly shape and the induced stress due to assembly is predicted. A full vehicle Aerodynamic simulation is performed to extract the surface pressure on the air guide which is then used to estimate the extent of deformation of the air guides. Based on the extent a subsequent Aerodynamic simulation may be carried out to predict thermal efficiency. Comparison against pressure data and deflection data extracted from the wind tunnel experiments of vehicles has shown reasonable match demonstrating the accuracy and usefulness of the method.
Gadasu, Ravishastri, Choudhury, Satyajit, Umesh, Acharya Vaibhav, Kumar, Saravanan, Yenugu, Srinivasa, Zander, Daniel, Beesetti, Siva, Hattarke, Mallikarjun
Advanced Thermal Management for High-Tonnage EVs: Increasing Coolant Flow and Reducing Energy Losses2026-26-01961/16/2026
With the increasing tonnage of electric heavy commercial vehicles, there is a growing demand for higher power and torque-rated traction motors. As motor ratings increase, efficient cooling of the EV powertrain system becomes critical to maintaining optimal performance. Higher heat loads from traction motors and inverters pose significant challenges, necessitating an innovative cooling strategy to enhance system efficiency, sustainability, and reliability. Battery-electric heavy commercial vehicles face substantial cooling challenges due to the high-pressure drop characteristics of conventional traction system cooling architectures. These limitations restrict coolant flow through key powertrain components and the radiator, reducing heat dissipation efficiency and constraining the operating ambient temperature range. Inefficient cooling also leads to increased energy consumption, impacting the overall sustainability of electric mobility solutions. This paper presents a novel approach of optimizing coolant flow by reconfiguring the traction system layout and redesigning the coolant flow paths. These enhancements increase coolant flow by 100–200% compared to conventional systems, allowing the coolant pump to operate within its peak efficiency range. As a result, pumping power consumption is reduced by at least 33%, minimizing parasitic losses, improving vehicle range, and supporting green mobility initiatives by reducing energy waste. The increased coolant flow through the radiator enhances the tube-side heat transfer coefficient, significantly improving radiator heat dissipation and allowing for higher ambient temperature operation. Additionally, the optimized cooling system enables lower fan speeds, reducing both power consumption and cooling fan noise. This verified thermal management strategy, successfully implemented in production-ready heavy-duty electric vehicles, has effectively prevented traction propulsion motor power de-rating, leading to improved vehicle performance, energy efficiency, and long-term sustainability. Furthermore, a unique control strategy has been developed to dynamically regulate coolant pump and radiator fan operation by continues monitoring of each aggregate device temperatures. This optimized thermal management system ensures robust and efficient cooling.
Dixit, Sameer, Patil, Bhushan, Ghosh, Sandeep
Low Idle Boom Noise Reduction on Light Weight Agricultural Cabin Tractor2026-26-01001/16/2026
In last two decades, Farm customer expectation on cabin comfort has been increased multifold. To provide the best-in-class customer experience in terms of comfort without adding cost and weight is bigger challenge for all NVH Engineers. It is evident from literature survey that cabin tractors with better comfort is well accepted by customers in US and European Market. Apart from engine excitation, customer has become more sensitive to customer-actuated-accessory noises due to overall reduction in cabin noise in last 2 decades. This paper presents the study conducted on HVAC blower noise in 30HP cabin tractor. Tactile vibrations and cabin noise is not acceptable when AC is switched on due to low frequency modulating nature in frequency range of ~65Hz and 130Hz. The investigation is carried out systematically considering each component of Source-Path-Receiver model. HVAC blower unit as source is diagnosed in detail to understand root cause. Strong dominance of first order of blower been observed on tactile vibrations and cabin noise. Blower unbalance is identified major cause of excitation. Effect of blower rpm on tactile vibration and boom noise is studied. Structural transfer paths were investigated in terms of stiffness & damping of radiating panels. Use of isolation strategy for blower is also explored for reduction in OEL (Operator Ear Level) noise. The damping of blower housing casing has shown contribution of 2-3 dB (A) at OEL noise. Both improvement in reduction of blower 1st order excitation and isolation strategy has shown to reduce low idle cabin noise by 10-15 dB (A) at 63Hz while operating at blower speed-3. Design NVH contenting modal frequency criteria for transfer paths, selection of blower speed is discussed to avoid similar issues in future.
K, Somasundaram, Chavan, Amit
Simulation Based Approach to Optimize Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal System2026-26-03761/16/2026
The performance and longevity of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles are significantly influenced by the cell temperature. Hence, efficient thermal management techniques are essential for battery packs. Simulation based optimization approaches improves the efficiency of the battery pack thermal management during the early stage of product development. In this paper, a simulation-based methodology has been introduced to increase the heat transfer from/to coolant via cooling plate as well as to reduce the heat transfer from/to the external environment. The heat transfer coefficient between cooling plate and coolant needs to be enhanced to achieve efficient heat transfer through cooling plate, without exceeding the coolant pressure drop the target limit. A one-dimensional simulation methodology described in this work analyzed numerous design of experiments for coolant layout without performing CAD iteration loops and optimized the cooling channel width, height and number of channels to maximize the heat transfer coefficients within the pressure drop target. A reduction of 30% in pressure drop and 36% energy saving in coolant pump along with 10% enhancement in heat transfer effectiveness has been achieved with this method. This study also evaluated the sensitivity of each housing surface in heat transfer to external ambient. Simulation results provided recommendations for thermal insulation at minimum number of surfaces with thermal conductivity and thickness guidelines which gives maximum effectiveness at minimum material addition and cost. In the final part of this work, both the solutions have been integrated into the battery pack and compared with the baseline for energy consumption. A standstill parking condition at different low ambient conditions for different durations has been considered and energy consumption for pre-heater circuits has been evaluated. Results show that the energy consumption for pre-heater circuits was reduced by at least 31% to a maximum of 84% for the parking duration of 48 hours and 8 hours cases respectively. Thus, the simulation based integrated approach of two solutions helps to design energy efficient battery thermal systems during the design stage for Electric vehicles.
U, Reghunath, P S, Shebin
Evaluation of Intercooler Effectiveness with No Fan, Single Fan, and Dual Fan: A Simulation and Experimental Study2026-26-05791/16/2026
Turbochargers play a crucial role in modern engines by increasing power output and fuel efficiency through intake air compression, thereby improving volumetric efficiency by allowing more air mass into the combustion chamber. However, this process also raises the intake air temperature, which can reduce charge density, lead to detonation, and create emissions challenges—such as smoke limits in diesel engines and knock in gasoline spark-ignited (GSL) engines. To mitigate this, intercoolers are used to cool the compressed air. Due to packaging constraints, intercoolers are typically long and boxy, limiting their effectiveness, especially at low vehicle speeds where ram air flow is minimal. This study investigates the use of auxiliary fans to enhance intercooler performance. Two methodologies were adopted: 1D simulation using GT-Suite and experimental testing on a vehicle under different fan configurations—no fan, single fan, and dual fans (positioned near the intercooler inlet and outlet). Results indicated that auxiliary fans significantly enhance heat transfer at low speeds, with dual fans offering the highest improvement—up to 8–13% greater efficiency during hill climb conditions compared to no fan. At high speeds, benefits were negligible (<1%) due to sufficient natural airflow. These results support the application of intercooler fans for improved thermal management under low-speed, high-load conditions.
Patra, Somnath, Hibare, Nikhil, Ganesan, Thanigaivel, Gharte, Jignesh Rajendra
NVH Refinement on the Agriculture Tractor using Coupled Test and Simulation Approach2026-26-03161/16/2026
The Indian farmers choice of agriculture tractor brand is driven by the ease of operation and fuel efficiency. However, the customer preference for operator comfort is driving many tractor OEMs for improvement in noise and vibration at the operator location. Also, the compliance to CMVR regulation for noise at operator ear location and vibration at operator touch point location are mandatory for all the tractors in India. NVH refinement development of the tractor plays a critical role in achieving the regulated noise level and improved tactile vibration In presented work, the airborne sources such as exhaust tail pipe, intake snorkel and cooling fan are quantified by at tractor level through elimination method. The detailed engine level testing in engine noise test cell (hemi anechoic chamber) is carried out to estimate the contribution of engine components to overall noise. The outcome of Noise source identification (NSI) has revealed silencer, timing gear cover and oil sump to be highest ranked sources in descending order. The silencer design using FEM/BEM tools is carried out which had yielded noise reduction up to 4 dB at Full load. Also, operational deflection shape of complete chassis system is carried out to identify the structural weakness. Improvement in engine primary balancing and structural changes has yielded up to 60% reduction in operator touch point vibration.
Gaikwad, Atul Annasaheb, Harishchandra Walke, Nagesh, Yadav, Prasad S, Bankar, Harshal
Cabin Modelling Approach in 1D Simulation for Studying the Impact of Partial Recirculation in Warmup for BEV at Extreme Cold Ambient Conditions2026-26-04501/16/2026
The inclusion of the cabin in HVAC simulations gained more importance with the introduction of BEV’s. Thermal management and efficiency being in the forefront, exploration for the possible opportunities to reduce the energy consumption for meeting the comfort of passengers gained importance. The energy consumed by the Electric coolant or air heaters for heating the cabin at extreme cold ambient temperatures to deliver similar comfort to that of an ICE version is 2 to 3 times that of the energy required for cooling the cabin in a high ambient condition. Even during the sizing of HVAC system, if traditional method of ambient or fresh air conditions is considered for calculating the requirements, the result is we would require a product which will have unrealistic performance demand. Hence to explore different possibilities for studying the system, usage of recirculation air was considered as one of the options. This paper talks about the approach followed in creating the cabin model in 1D simulation using AMESIM and using it effectively for studying the impact in the performance of the system at various recirculation conditions. The cabin model is discretized into various rows, and the floor part of the model is considered as a separate volume. The model is optimized for both the recirculation air temperature and the cabin air temperature. The recirculation air is then mixed with fresh air according to the required percentage using an air mixture before using it as the inlet condition of the heater core. The model performance is also verified with multiple vehicle test data, proving the robustness in the modelling approach and accuracy in prediction.
Veerla, Eswar, Subramanian, Karthik
Nexifi11D: A Comprehensive Multidimensional Framework for Futuristic Manufacturing Ecosystems2026-26-02821/16/2026
This paper presents Nexifi11D, a simulation-driven, real-time Digital Twin framework that models and demonstrates eleven critical dimensions of a futuristic manufacturing ecosystem. Developed using Unity for 3D simulation, Python for orchestration and AI inference, Prometheus for real-time metric capture, and Grafana for dynamic visualization, the system functions both as a live testbed and a scalable industrial prototype. To handle the complexity of real-world manufacturing data, the current model uses simulation to emulate dynamic shopfloor scenarios; however, it is architected for direct integration with physical assets via industry-standard edge protocols such as MQTT, OPC UA, and RESTful APIs. This enables seamless bi-directional data flow between the factory floor and the digital environment. Nexifi11D implements 3D spatial modeling of multi-type motor flow across machines and conveyors; 4D machine state transitions (idle, processing, waiting, downtime); 5D operational cost breakdowns covering electricity, tooling, labour, coolant, and depreciation; 6D AI/ML-based failure prediction using temperature and pressure inputs; 7D predictive downtime triggers based on learned thresholds; 8D sustainability analytics measuring CO₂ emissions per motor; 9D workforce optimization via virtual shift scheduling and fatigue simulation; 10D supply chain resilience through simulated part delays and buffer modeling; and 11D risk and quality management using defect simulation and risk scoring. All data are generated live and visualized through Grafana dashboards, enabling real-time monitoring of OEE, energy use, defects, and AI-based alerts. Nexifi11D establishes a unified, cyber-physical platform for intelligent, sustainable, and predictive manufacturing, making multidimensional factory optimization practically demonstrable within one connected environment.
Kumar, Rahul, Singh, Randhir
Thermal System Design of Inter-City Fuel Cell Electric Bus2026-26-04271/16/2026
In current scenario, demand for alternate energy is increasing due to depletion of fossil fuels and countries working to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Hydrogen being a cleaner fuel, many OEMs across the world started to work on various strategies like hydrogen combustion engine and fuel cell. Passenger vehicles like buses are at the lookout for fuel cell technology at faster rate than other commercial vehicles. In fuel cell vehicles, cooling system design is critical & complex since it includes fuel cell cooling, Power electronics cooling & battery cooling. In this paper, cooling system design of a Fuel cell electric bus for inter-city application is demonstrated. Radiators and Fans are designed considering overall heat rejection and Coolant inlet temperature requirements of components. Cooling system circuit and pump is decided to meet the coolant flow rate targets. Flow simulation and thermal simulation done with the help of simulation models built using software KULI to predict coolant flow rate and temperature across each component. Fuel cell circuits, Power electronic circuits, Battery circuits modelled in KULI with all components in the circuit. KULI predicted results signifies good co-relation with actual results.
M S, Vignesh, Kiran, Nalavadath
Development of Flex Fuel Engine for Indian Market2026-26-01171/16/2026
This paper presents the methodology and outcomes of modifying a 1.2L naturally aspirated (NA) engine to enable flex-fuel compatibility, targeting optimal performance with ethanol blends ranging from E20 to E100. Ethanol is being increasingly promoted due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to provide an additional source of income for farmers. As per the road map for Ethanol blending released by Govt. of India, there has been continuous increase in blending of ethanol in gasoline. An initial target of 20% ethanol blending in gasoline by April 2025 has already been achieved. This work is in alignment with the broader push for development of flex-fuel vehicles, which necessitates engine adaptations capable of operating on varying ethanol blends. The primary objective was to upgrade the engine, which can give optimum performance with both lower range of ethanol blends starting from E20 as per IS 17021:2018 standard till higher blends of up to E100 as per IS 17821:2022. The engine upgrade included several key modifications such as material upgradation of components directly coming in contact with fuel for ethanol resistance, optimization of the compression ratio, introduction of heated fuel rail system for cold start and redesign of intake camshaft to ensure compatibility and performance with ethanol-blended fuels. Additionally, the engine management system (EMS) was recalibrated with dedicated maps tailored to various ethanol blend levels, enabling efficient and reliable operation across a wide range of fuel compositions
Tyagarajan, Sethuramalingam, Pise, Chetan, Kavekar, Pratap, Agarwal, Nishant Kumar
Accelerating EV Thermal Controller Development Using Rapid Control Prototyping on Speedgoat2026-26-06851/16/2026
In the era of Software Defined Vehicles, the complexity and requirements of automotive systems have increased knowingly. EV Thermal management systems have become more complicated while having multiple functions and control strategies within software frameworks. This shift creates new challenges like increased development efforts and long lead time in creating an efficient thermal management system for Electric Vehicles (EV’s) due to battery charging and discharging cycles. For solving these challenges in the early stages of development makes it even more challenging due to the unavailability of key components such as fully developed ECU hardware, High voltage battery pack and the motor. To address this, a novel framework has been designed that combines virtual simulation with physical emulation at the same time, enabling the testing and validation of thermal control strategies without fully matured system and the ECU hardware. The framework uses the Speedgoat QNX machine as the central controller which hosts the control logics and electro-thermal models developed in Simulink and Simscape. Speedgoat is physically connected to a non-functional vehicle equipped with key thermal components such as a radiator cooling fan, AC compressor, HVAC blower, active grille shutters (AGS), valves etc. The heat load for different conditions is emulated using heater carts and vehicle itself. The entire system is designed to be mobile, allowing it to be placed inside a climatic chamber. By controlling all the components through Speedgoat and offering an interactive calibration interface for real time calibration, this framework bridges the gap between simulation and physical testing. It helps in accelerating controls development, optimizes thermal control strategies, ensures energy efficiency, reliability, and cost effectiveness in system design.
Chothave, Abhijeet, S, Bharathan, S, Ananth, Gangwar, Adarsh, Khan, Parvej, Gummadi, Gopakishore, Kumar, Dipesh
Experimental Evaluation of HCV Cooling Module Assembly Using 7-Actuator Multiaxial Vibration Testing2026-26-05301/16/2026
This paper presents an innovative in-lab accelerated testing approach for chassis-mounted components, with a particular focus on the cooling module of commercial vehicles. The proposed method simulates real-time data acquired from field operations and replicates all critical chassis modes, including torsion. Additionally, real-time coolant circulation at specified pressure and temperature maintenance are feasible during durability testing, enhancing the realism of the test environment. The cooling modules, comprising the radiator, intercooler, and charge air cooler (CAC), often experience failures due to various multi-axial inputs and chassis modes. This paper introduces an innovative methodology for replicating field conditions in the lab, utilizing seven servo-hydraulic actuators to simulate multi-axial inputs. The accuracy of in-lab simulation for the acceleration levels at input and response locations of the cooling module exceeds 90%. This makes it a preferred choice for test engineers to simulate field failures or validate designs well in advance of final production, thereby avoiding issues at later stages of vehicle launch. This innovative approach offers flexibility to accelerate the test duration while ensuring the retention of over 90% of the damage observed in real-world conditions. By utilizing the same chassis frame and mounting locations, the test maintains consistent boundary conditions, providing reliable and accurate results. This method significantly enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of testing processes for commercial vehicle components, ensuring robust and reliable performance. [4]
V Dhage, Yogesh, Satale, Sunil
Cooling System Metallic Caps and Filler NecksJ164_202512 (Current)12/1/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice was developed primarily for passenger car and truck applications but may be used in marine, industrial, and similar applications.
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
Simulative Temperature Determination of an Electric Machine from Test Bench Tests2025-01-052011/25/2025
One of the most important components of an electric vehicle is the drive motor. Induction motors are often used for this purpose. During operation of these motors, power loss occurs, especially at high speeds. This power loss corresponds, among other things, to the sum of winding losses, iron core losses and mechanical losses. The power losses generate heat, which causes the temperature in the rotor and stator to rise. The increase in temperature of the components inside the motor can lead to premature wear and fatigue failure. To prevent overheating, the motors are air- or water-cooled. Water cooling can be achieved, for example, by means of jacket cooling. Here, the heat generated is dissipated directly by forced convection. However, the cooling jacket makes it difficult to determine the temperature inside the motor. Determining these temperatures is necessary to protect the motor from premature fatigue. The temperatures inside the motor during operation are of particular interest for test bench trials. This article presents a thermal transient modelling of a water-cooled electric motor for electric vehicle applications based on test bench experiments. This article presents a thermal transient model of a water-cooled electric motor for electric vehicle applications based on test bench trials. The model provides insights into temperature profiles inside the electric motor, which can be used for testing electric motors on test benches. This allows the effects of changes in test bench parameters to be identified in advance, which is a useful tool for test bench engineers. Using ANSYS Motor CAD software, a simulation is created based on real test bench parameters and a real test program. The electric machine created in the simulation resembles the geometry of the real drive machine on the test bench. The model created is adjusted using the test bench parameters coolant and ambient temperature, speed of the electric machine and surface temperatures. The special feature here is the determination of the surface temperature using thermography. A thermal imaging camera is used to create infrared images of the electric machine during operation, with each pixel corresponding to a temperature measurement point. This allows significantly more temperatures to be recorded than, for example, with thermocouples. The purpose of the work is to use simulation to determine the temperatures inside the machine based on surface temperatures measured using thermography.
Schamberger, Stephanie, Reuss, Hans-Christian
Development of an Accelerated Stress Test for Fuel Cell Freeze Start Durability Validation Using Real-World Driving Data of Light-Duty FCEVs2025-01-052611/25/2025
The reliability and durability of vehicles are crucial for the acceptance of new technologies by customers. Realistic test methods are necessary to validate or ensure the lifespan of vehicles and their components, particularly regarding specific conditions such as freeze start. This article provides an overview of the current state of research on the effects of freeze starts on the degradation of fuel cells. With this knowledge, relevant operating and boundary conditions for potential damage of the fuel cell are identified (e.g. start temperature, duration in subzero operation, dehydration). The field data from the BMW demonstrator fleet of iX5 Hydrogen Next were analyzed to gain insights into realistic freeze start related stress to the fuel cells. The dynamics of heating rates and the influence of the operating strategy are best represented on a Fuel Cell System (FCS). An experimental setup for a stack centered test on a FCS was developed including a climatic chamber and a subzero coolant supply in this study. The identified automotive conditions could be implemented similarly and reproducibly for the stack. In total of 140 freeze starts with the start stack temperatures between - 7 °C and - 18 °C were performed. These test results and the vehicle data were compared, and the limitations of this accelerated stress test are stated. The advantage of this method is the feasibility to validate the lifetime regarding freeze starts within a period of 1-2 month in 24/7 operation. The occurred problems during test development and their solutions are also described, and suggestions for improvement for less damaging freeze starts process are given.
Schwarz, Markus, Albert, Albert, Eichel, Rüdiger-A.
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