Browse Topic: Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC)

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Methodology for Shower Water Management in Electric Car Applications2026-28-0068To be published on 02/12/2026
All automotive vehicles with enclosed compartments must pass the Shower test standard - IS 11865 (2006). One of the most severe and critical areas of water leakage is “Water entry into HVAC opening”. Excess water flow in high-pressure conditions and seepage during long-time low-pressure conditions could potentially have a significant impact on water entry inside the HVAC suction cutout and subsequently into the cabin. The study clearly indicates that for making leak proof HVAC opening (suction interface), it is crucial for the structure of BIW Plenum, Trim Applique and its sealing components to be robust enough to effectively collect and divert the water during shower test condition. This robustness is necessary to ensure leakage prevention thru HVAC cutout in varying rain scenarios during customer usage of the vehicle. A systematic approach is followed for assessing leak tightness of the HVAC area. 1. CFD simulation performed to verify the flow path of water during shower test. It is
Gunasekaran, Mohanraj, NAMANI, Prasad, Ramaraj, Rajasekar, Junankar, Ashish, Raju, Kumar
Development of Multiple level Auto Mode for Climate control in electric vehicles2026-28-0008To be published on 02/12/2026
Electric vehicles, or EVs, are significantly transforming the automotive industry as a cleaner and more environmentally friendly which finds an alternative solution for the vehicles propelled using internal combustion engines. As EV utilize the energy directly from the battery which causes customer or a user to be in panic state as charging infra is not developed well in most of the countries, thus improving vehicle efficiency and driving range requires optimizing energy consumption from battery of EVs. Apart from traction motor load for driving, major supplemental loads in electric car are climate control system, sometimes referred to as HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning). HVAC systems can consume a lot of battery power, especially during severe temperatures, which can drastically reduce the vehicle's range. Range anxiety continues to be an important barrier to the general adoption of EVs, the intelligent climate management systems which helps to reduce HVAC power usage
Mulamalla, Sarveshwar Reddy, SV, Master Eniyan, M, Nisshok, Anugu, Anil, E A, Muhammed, Guturu, Sravankumar
Real-time range optimization for selected destinations by Dynamic Energy Management Strategy (DEMS) in BEV’s2026-26-0168To be published on 01/16/2026
The automotive industry has undergone significant transformation with the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). However, to tackle range anxiety, the focus has shifted to energy management strategies for optimal range under different driving conditions. Developing an optimal energy management algorithm is crucial for overcoming optimal range and gaining a competitive edge in the market. This paper introduces a Dynamic Energy Management Strategy (DEMS) for electric vehicles (EVs), designed to optimize battery usage and extend driving range. Utilizing vehicle digital twin model, DEMS estimates energy consumption across Eco, Normal, and Sports driving modes by analyzing vehicle velocity profiles and pedal inputs. By calculating actual battery consumption and pinpointing excess power usage, DEMS operates in a closed loop to periodically assess the power gap based on real-time vehicle conditions, including HV components like the Electric Drive system, DCDC, E-compressor and E-Heater; and
Dey, Supriyo, Venugopal, Karthick Babu, Penta, Amar, Kumar, Rohit, Arya, Harshita
Quantifying the Energy Consumption of HVAC Operation and Its Impact on the Range of Electric Buses Across Diverse Climatic Conditions2026-26-0204To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric buses (e-buses) are essential to sustainable public transport, but their real-world efficiency and range are heavily affected by auxiliary systems, particularly the Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system. This study investigates how ambient temperature variations and HVAC loads influence energy consumption, range, and efficiency in e-buses operating under diverse climatic conditions. The methodology combines field data collection from urban e-buses across seasons—including extreme summer and winter—with controlled lab testing. Field measurements included ambient temperature, HVAC demand, vehicle speed, state of charge (SOC) variation, and energy consumption. These inputs were used to develop real-world duty cycles, replicating actual thermal loads, passenger profiles, idling periods, and driving patterns. In the lab, these cycles were simulated using a chassis dynamometer and environmental chamber, with HVAC systems tested at controlled ambient temperatures
Vishe, Prashant, Dalela, Saurabh, Saraswat, Shubham, Joshi, Madhusudan
Improve the electric vehicle range by using the climate control setting in economy mode at hot climatic conditions2026-26-0172To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) have surged in popularity in recent years due to their environmental benefits. The influence of range on air conditioning (AC) power consumption is a critical concern for electric vehicle (EV) owners, particularly in warmer climates. Overcoming obstacles such as a limited vehicle range is necessary for the increased use of electric-powered automobiles. Cabin heating and cooling demand for climate control consumes more energy from the main battery and has been revealed to significantly reduce vehicle range. During peak cooling or heating, the overall power consumption of the AC system takes almost 50% of the energy used for traction. The average reduction in driving range caused by air conditioning (heating and cooling) approximates 33%. The energy usage of an electric vehicle can be considerably decreased by switching the climate control setting to economy mode. The AC system will operate more effectively, enabling the vehicle to save energy and extend its range
Mulamalla, Sarveshwar Reddy, Anugu, Anil, E A, Muhammed, Ummiti, Kumar, M, Nisshok, Choudhary, Ankit
Vehicle interior material emissions and contributions in passenger vehicle cabin air quality2026-26-0287To be published on 01/16/2026
Polymer compounds used in the manufacturing of automotive interiors are formulated with various kind of additives, pigments, fillers, and resins. These compounded polymers are prone to the emission of chemicals called volatile organic compound (VOC) over a period of usage, temperature exposure etc. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short term adverse health effects like nausea, headache, vomiting, and long-term adverse health effects like cancer, even death if beyond the permissible limits. Studies indicates the concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher in indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors and hence these chemical emissions are required to be controlled within the defined limits. This paper is focused on the identification part and material, evaluation against the recommended test (Odor/Fogging/VOC/Carbonyl compound emissions) and development of materials used inside the car cabin. This study further provides the guidelines for the
Shukla, Sandeep Kumar, Balaji, K V, Varatharajan, Senthilkumaran
Innovative Inverted Cross Car Beam Design for Optimized Packaging of Advanced Driver Assistance Technologies in Global Vehicles.2026-26-0051To be published on 01/16/2026
• Objective This paper proposes an innovative inverted cross car beam design optimized for packaging advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) technologies, including Augmented Reality Head-Up Display (AR-HUD) systems, within premium vehicle instrument panels. The study emphasizes the use of lightweight steel structures bracketry's and advanced joinery techniques to address challenges such as NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness), durability, and BSR (Buzz, Squeak, and Rattle) while maintaining structural integrity and luxury aesthetics. By focusing on alignment precision, vibration damping, and efficient space utilization, the design supports the seamless integration of ADAS components, enabling the development of future-ready global EV vehicles with high-performance premium interiors. • Novelty This paper introduces a groundbreaking U-shaped steel tube cross car beam design that addresses the growing demands of ADAS integration, such as AR-HUD, steering column, HVAC systems, and ECUs
Mahajan, Ajay Senu, Regatte, Ganesh, Nagarjuna, Kamisetti, Sahoo, Sandeep, Udugu, Kumaraswamy, JC, Sudheera
A Method of Precooling of EV Vehicle from Grid connected aux supply/Charger to reduce peak power demand of HVAC system when vehicle is allotted for passenger operation using cloud based infrastructure2026-26-0056To be published on 01/16/2026
This paper explains the method of precooling of electric vehicle from grid connected charger reduce load on HVAC and improve the range. HVAC systems are integral part of a commercial EV bus. With the rise of ambient temperatures during various seasons, the load on HVAC System is increasing. Once an Electric vehicle is released from a depot for service, with an initial soaked up ambient vehicle, the HVAC system demands peak power for cooling the interiors which consumes a lot of battery power thus affecting the range. That cause the additional energy consumption required for precooling, which cannot be estimated as it is highly dependent on ambient temperature and range of the vehicle is also dependent on HVAC consumption during summer and peak loads. This paper is proposing a method that uses a special precooling mode which is activated depending on the selection of the vehicle route based on backend application running on cloud. The Application in the cloud checks if the vehicle is
Ganguly, Sutanu, Shukla, Amisha, Jain, Sarika, Patil, Rohan, Sahu, Pritish, Yadav, Ankit, Marskole, Deepa, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
Cabin Heat-up Thermal Assessment for Human Comfort in Passenger Car2026-26-0408To be published on 01/16/2026
The HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air conditioning) system is designed to fulfil the thermal comfort requirement inside vehicle cabin. Thermal comfort is significantly subjective which predominantly dependent on occupant’s physiological condition. Vehicle AC performance is evaluated by air flow and local temperature thus, thermal comfort assessment is carried out by mapping of velocity and temperature at various places inside cabin. There is need to have Simulation methodology for heating cabin during cold climate to assess ventilation system effectiveness. Thermal comfort modelling involves human manikin, complex cabin material along with environmental condition in expensive transient simulation. Present study employed with LBM (Lattice-Boltzmann Method) based PowerFLOW solver coupled with finite element based PowerTHERM solver to simulate the cold soaking and heating up of cabin. Thermal comfort is subjective to human physiological modelling thus in-built Berkeley human comfort
Baghel, Devesh Kumar, Kandekar, Ambadas, Kumar, Ravi, Dimble, Nilesh
Cabin modelling approach in 1D simulation for studying the impact of partial recirculation in warmup for BEV at extreme cold ambient conditions2026-26-0450To be published on 01/16/2026
The inclusion of the cabin in HVAC simulations gained more importance with the introduction of BEV’s. Thermal management and efficiency being in the forefront, exploration for the possible opportunities to reduce the energy consumption for meeting the comfort of passengers gained importance. The energy consumed by the Electric coolant or air heaters for heating the cabin at extreme cold ambient temperatures to deliver similar comfort to that of an ICE version is 2 to 3 times that of the energy required for cooling the cabin in a high ambient condition. Even during the sizing of HVAC system, if traditional method of ambient or fresh air conditions is considered for calculating the requirements, the result is we would require a product which will have unrealistic performance demand. Hence to explore different possibilities for studying the system, usage of recirculation air was considered as one of the options. This paper talks about the approach followed in creating the cabin model in
Veerla, Eswar, Subramanian, Karthik
A Performance-driven Numerical Approach for Optimizing the Plenum Opening Area of Cowl Box2026-26-0461To be published on 01/16/2026
There is a scarcity of research in literature regarding the determination of Plenum Opening Area of cowl box. The area of the plenum opening in the cowl box significantly affects the airflow rate in fresh airflow modes, such as face and defrost modes, as well as issues related to water ingress. Primarily, the size of the plenum opening is determined by the necessary HVAC airflow rate. This study aims to investigate how the plenum opening area impacts both airflow discharge and the water ingress issue in the HVAC module. A novel approach is introduced in this research to determine the optimal plenum opening area of the cowl box, taking into account both airflow rate and water ingress concerns. The ANSYS FLUENT software is utilized to analyze airflow discharge in both face and defrost modes, while the SPH (Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics) based Preonlab tool is employed for water ingress analysis. Airflow discharge is evaluated for various plenum opening sizes in both modes, and the area
Baskar, Subramaniyan, Mahesh, A, Gopinathan, Nagarajan
Study of real time impact on automotive cabin Air Quality due to the ambient air pollution in the severely polluted city2026-26-0531To be published on 01/16/2026
This study investigates the concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 inside an automobile under real-world driving conditions in Delhi, one of the most polluted cities globally. India faces severe air pollution challenges in many cities, including Delhi, which are consistently ranking among the most polluted cities in the world. Major contributors to this pollution include vehicular emissions, industrial activities, construction dust, and biomass burning. Exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 has been linked to numerous adverse health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, aggravated asthma, decreased lung function, and premature mortality. PM2.5 particles, being smaller, can penetrate deeper into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, causing more severe health issues. In big cities like Delhi, long driving times exacerbate exposure to these pollutants, as commuters spend extended periods in traffic. Measurements were taken both inside and outside the vehicle to assess the real
Gupta, Rajat, Pimpalkar, Ankit, Patel, Abhishek, Kumar, Shubham, Joshi, Rishi, Kumar, Mukesh
Establishing a High-Pressure Direct Injection Hydrogen Engine Test Facility with Integrated Ammonia Fuel Capability: Technical Considerations, Safety Framework, and Best Practices2026-26-0267To be published on 01/16/2026
The transition toward zero-carbon propulsion technologies has highlighted the urgent need for specialized test infrastructure to support hydrogen and alternative fuel research. This paper presents the conceptualization, design, and operation of a High-Pressure Direct Injection (HPDI) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2 ICE) test facility with integrated ammonia fuel testing capability, marking a significant advancement in India’s sustainable automotive research efforts. Drawing from practical experience, it outlines crucial technical specifications, safety protocols, and best practices for establishing robust, adaptable, and secure testing environments. Addressing the industry’s need for dedicated infrastructure, it is engineered for adaptability across various engine types—including heavy-duty, light-duty, and multi-utility vehicles—while aligning with global technical standards. Key technical considerations include the use of a transient dynamometer that features an advanced
Dhyani, Vipin, Kurien, Caneon, Subramanian, Balaji, Khandai, Chinmayananda, Muralidharan, M
Driving Thermal Intelligence – Pioneering Digital Twin-Driven Hardware-In-Loop for Smart Climate Control Modules2026-26-0380To be published on 01/16/2026
The automotive industry is undergoing a transformative shift from hardware-driven vehicle development to software-centric, model-based validation practices. At the heart of this evolution is the demand for smarter, more adaptive cabin climate management systems. The Climate Control Module (CCM) a critical embedded ECU—regulates the vehicle’s Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) functionality based on a fusion of passenger inputs and environmental sensor data. Traditionally, validation of such systems relied heavily on manual testing within climatic chambers or through in-vehicle trials using physical interfaces like the Climate Control Head (CCH) and the Infotainment Head Unit (HU). These legacy methods are increasingly inadequate in addressing rapid development cycles, high functional complexity, and stringent safety and quality standards. This paper introduces a Digital Twin-enabled Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) testing methodology using advanced real-time controllers to
More, Shweta, Shinde, Vivek, Turankar, Darshana, Patel, Dafiya, Gosavi, Santosh, Ghanwat, Hemant
Analysis of Energy Consumption for Heating City Electric Buses and Ways to Reduce It2026-26-0156To be published on 01/16/2026
For regions with cold climates, the driving range of electric buses becomes a significant obstacle to the broader adoption of this type of transport. The increased energy consumption affects not only the range of autonomous operation but also the lifespan of battery packs, the scheduling of bus departures, and the load on the charging infrastructure. In this context, finding ways to reduce the energy consumption of the climate control system is an actual issue. The aim of the presented research is to experimentally and computationally determine the energy consumption for heating the driver's cabin and passenger compartment of an electric bus during the autumn-winter operation period, as well as to identify and analyze ways to reduce this energy consumption. To determine the air temperature in the passenger compartment, a mathematical model based on heat balance equations was used. This model was validated using data from real-world tests. The research was conducted at a proving ground
Kozlov, Andrey, Terenchenko, Alexey, Stryapunin, Alexander
Assessment of emissions behaviour of Volatile compounds from polymeric materials used in automobile interiors2026-26-0222To be published on 01/16/2026
There is an increasing trend of using polymeric materials in the vehicle interior compartment. While the polymers provide benefits in terms of flexibility in profiling, lighter weight and aesthetics but one of the challenges with the polymers is emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during their usage and particularly at a temperature prevailing in the vehicle cabin. VOCs adversely impact the vehicle interior air quality and can pose a risk to occupants’ health. However, there is a lack of information on volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from automotive interior materials. There are two types of methods, a whole vehicle chamber method (ISO 12219-1) and a bag method (ISO 12219-2) for evaluation of VOCs emissions from materials used in vehicle interior parts. ISO 12219-2 method describes quantitative testing of VOCs and semi-VOCs. This test method is quick and cost effective for analysis of materials for quick emission checks and can prove to be very effective in
PAtil, Yamini Jitendra, Thipse, Sukrut, Bawase, Moqtik
Research on Adaptation and Reliability Testing Methods for Electric Vehicles under Southeast Asian Climatic Conditions2025-99-024012/23/2025
This paper explores the adaptability and reliability testing methods of electric vehicles under the unique high-temperature and high-humidity climate conditions in Southeast Asia. The focus of the research here is on five key performance evaluation contents, namely reliability driving test, charging performance test, range assessment, air conditioning cooling efficiency, and in-vehicle air quality monitoring. Relying on a meticulously designed experimental plan, standardized testing procedures, and comprehensive data analysis, this paper assesses the performance of electric vehicles under extreme environmental conditions. The research results show that the climate in Southeast Asia poses significant challenges to the battery systems, powertrains, and thermal management systems of electric vehicles. Based on empirical results, some improvement suggestions are made to support the deployment and application of electric vehicles in this region.
Wang, Weijie, Deng, Tianhao, Wu, Yilong, Zang, Haonan
Alternative to PFAS Ban: Impact on the Systems and Implementation Challenges2025-36-010212/18/2025
In early of 2023 the European Union began the process of banning the so-called Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, with a total elimination forecast for 2035. Currently, the refrigerant gas used by automakers is the R1234yf, a substitute for the R134a as a refrigerant with zero degree of ozone layer destruction, developed to meet the European directive 2006/40/EC that came into force in 2011. It requires all new car platforms for sale on the continent to use a refrigerant in their air-conditioning system with a Global Warming Potential below 150. The alternatives studies for the replacement of R1234yf are R744 (CO2) and R290 (Propane). The first is characterized by being a non-flammable gas and has a working pressure of 6 to 12 times higher than the current one. The second has the characteristic of having working pressure similar to R1234yf, but it is a highly flammable gas. This work focuses on the analysis of the two alternative gases to R1234yf, exploring their characteristics
Ariza, Valquíria Rezende, Erberelli, Diego Pivatto, Silva, Pedro Henrique Moraes da, Miyauchi, Edison Tsutomu
Refrigerants Selection for Automotive Air Conditioning System in Tropical Climates2025-36-014312/18/2025
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Oliveira Dias, Vinícius José de, Barbieri, Paulo Eduardo Lopes, Moreira, Thiago Augusto Araújo, Santos, Alex Henrique, Freitas Paulino, Tiago de
Automotive Refrigerant Recovery/Recycling/Recharging Equipment Intended for Use with Both R-1234yf and R-134aJ3030_202512 (Current)12/15/2025
The purpose of this SAE Standard is to establish the specific minimum equipment requirements for recovery/recycling/recharge equipment intended for use with both R-1234yf and R-134a in a common refrigerant circuit that has been directly removed from, and is intended for reuse in, mobile air-conditioning (A/C) systems. This document does not apply to equipment used for R-1234yf and R-134a having a common enclosure with separate circuits for each refrigerant, although some amount of separate circuitry for each refrigerant could be used.
Interior Climate Control Service Committee
Building a Good Indoor Climate with Sustainable Building ComponentsTBMG-5430512/01/2025
Whether it’s the meeting room of an office building, the exhibition room of a museum or the waiting area of a government office, many people gather in such places, and quickly the air becomes thick. This is partly due to the increased humidity. Ventilation systems are commonly used in office and administrative buildings to dehumidify rooms and ensure a comfortable atmosphere. Mechanical dehumidification works reliably, but it costs energy and — depending on the electricity used — has a negative climate impact.
Prediction of Compressor Torque due to Swash Angle Change by Using Multi Body Simulation2025-28-040110/30/2025
Compressor is one of rotating component in AC system and function of the compressor is to increase the pressure of refrigerant and circulate the refrigerant across the system. Swash plate compressor is generally used in automotive AC application due to its light weight and compact size. Torque required to operate the compressor is very important and Compressor torque for specific capacity need to be evaluated based on simulation result. For this, simulation tools are effectively used. Modeling and simulation are the key enablers to improve the design and development process. They are extensively used throughout the development cycle. MBD based simulation is more commonly used which gives better understanding of the movement of kinematic part. Reaction forces from the result will help in providing information for the CAE analysis. Many parameters like reaction forces, torque and power varying with shaft angle of rotation is predicted using MBD and result is analyzed. Rigid and Flexible
Parayil, Paulson
Design and Analysis on Integrated Thermal Management Solution for Electric Vehicles2025-28-041810/30/2025
Thermal Management System (TMS) for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) incorporates maintaining optimum temperature for cabin, battery and e-powertrain subsystems under different charging and discharging conditions at various ambient temperatures. Current methods of thermal management are inefficient, complex and lead to wastage of energy and battery capacity loss due to inability of energy transfer between subsystems. In this paper, the energy consumption of an electric vehicle's thermal management system is reduced by a novel approach for integration of various subsystems. Integrated Thermal Management System (ITMS) integrates air conditioning system, battery thermal management and e-powertrain system. Characteristics of existing integration strategies are studied, compared, and classified based on their energy efficiency for different operating conditions. A new integrated system is proposed with a heat pump system for cabin and waste heat recovery from e-powertrain. Various cooling
K, Muthukrishnan, S, Saikrishna, Mahobia, Tanmay, Vijayaraj, Jayanth Murali
IHX Technology and Its Effectiveness in Automotive AC Performance2025-28-043010/30/2025
The Internal Heat Exchanger (IHX) is an important component in modern car air conditioning (AC) systems, particularly in AC lines. It increases cooling efficiency by transferring heat from the high-pressure liquid refrigerant to the low-pressure vapor. By using this technology, refrigerant sub-cooling and superheating improve, resulting in higher cooling performance, lower energy usage, and less strain on the compressor. It improves vehicle fuel economy and a longer lifespan of AC components. Also, IHX prevents liquid refrigerant from entering the compressor, reducing the danger of damage and increasing system reliability. This optimization helps to maintain consistent refrigerant flow, reduces energy consumption, and improves the overall Coefficient of Performance (COP). The implementation of an IHX technology in AC lines results in more compact, streamlined system designs, which allow for better temperature management, faster response times, and lower cooling loads. An IHX can boost
Dudeja, Kailash, Singh, Saniya
Performance Investigation of Air Conditioning System in Electric Vehicle by Fault Detection and Diagnosis2025-28-035310/30/2025
The study emphasizes on detection of different faults and refrigerant leakage as well as performance investigation of automobile air conditioning system for an electric vehicle by varying various operating conditions. A refrigerant leak in an EV isn't just an inconvenience; it's a potential threat to vehicle range and usability, lifespan and health of the expensive battery pack, overall vehicle performance, passenger safety and comfort, component longevity (motor, power electronics), environmental responsibility. Due to the refrigerant leakage, the cooling system performance degrades, and components tend to fail. Because of that this study is focusing on deriving an algorithm to have an early detection of fault and leakage in the vehicle. The performance of the system is predicted for actual conditions of operation encountered by the automobile air conditioning system. The objective of the present work includes predicting the causes and effects of refrigerant leakage in AC system of
Bezbaruah, Puja, Yadav, Ankit, Pilakkattu, Deepak
Maximizing Range with Advanced Air Conditioning Optimization and Energy Management2025-28-036410/30/2025
Widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is hindered by "range anxiety," a major concern for consumers. A primary contributor to this issue is the significant energy consumption of the Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system, which can account for 15-40% of a vehicle's total energy demand, directly reducing its practical driving range. Using the 1D simulation tool GT-SUITE, this research provides a comparative analysis of two distinct HVAC architectures: a conventional air-cooled condenser (ACC) and a proposed liquid-cooled condenser (LCC). The performance of both hardware systems was evaluated under two control strategies a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller and a basic On/Off controller—to identify the optimal configuration. The results advocate that optimizing the system's architecture and control logic yields a substantial improvement in the Coefficient of Performance (COP) ranging from 47% to 128% compared to the baseline ACC/On-Off configuration, with a
T R, Rakshith, Yadav, Ankit
Enhancing Cabin Air Quality: Challenges, Impact and Advanced Climate Control Solutions2025-28-043310/30/2025
Cabin air quality plays a crucial role in ensuring passenger comfort, health and driving experience. There have been growing concerns over poor cabin air quality resulting from multiple factors, including infiltration of external pollutants such as particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, emissions from vehicle interior materials, microbial contamination and inadequate ventilation. Therefore, maintaining optimal air quality inside vehicle cabin has become a critical aspect of vehicle climate control systems. Additionally, high humidity levels inside the cabin contribute to mold growth and fogging of windows, further compromising both air quality and visibility. This review explores such factors contributing to poor cabin air quality, where the severity of these issues ranges from mild discomfort and allergic reactions to long-term respiratory ailments. To mitigate these challenges, automotive manufacturers and researchers have implemented various air purification and filtration
Sharma, Shrutika
CFD Simulation Techniques for Optimizing Operating Torque in HVAC Kinematics2025-28-036910/30/2025
This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the methodology employed in leveraging CFD for optimizing HVAC kinematics, focusing on reducing the operating torque by improvising the flap geometry. The aim here is to utilize the CFD simulation in order to predict the torque generated on the actuator motor connected to the flap when the flap is placed in high speed airflow and based on this value work out an optimized geometry of the flap, since its geometry plays a significant role when it comes to determining the torque values. Different flap geometry imparts different torque on motor. This torque is generated because of the force acting on the flap which is acting as a buffer in the path of airflow. The torque generated should be less than the stall torque of the actuator motor in order for smooth performance/movement of the flap. Initial geometry of the flap generated a torque of around 82.5 Ncm which was much higher than the recommendation limit. So in order to bring these torque
Madaan, Ashish, Kumar, Ravi, Behera, Suresh, Chauhan, Arpit
A Strategic TQM Approach to Enhance Passenger Cabin Comfort Using T-Matrix2025-28-042310/30/2025
This study demonstrates the application of the T-Matrix, a Total Quality Management (TQM) tool to improve thermal comfort in automotive climate control systems. Focusing on the commonly reported customer issue of insufficient cabin cooling, particularly relevant in hot and congested Indian driving conditions, the research systematically investigates 36 failure modes identified across the product lifecycle, from early design through production and post-sale customer usage. Root causes are first categorized using an Ishikawa diagram and then mapped using the T-Matrix across three critical stages: problem creation, expected detection, and actual detection. This integrated approach reveals process blind spots where existing validation and inspection systems fail to catch known risks, particularly in rear-seat airflow performance and component variability from suppliers. By applying this TQM methodology, the study identifies targeted improvement actions such as improved thermal targets
Jaiswara, Prashant, Kulkarni, Shridhar, Deshmukh, Ganesh, Nayakawadi, Uttam, Joshi, Gaurav, Shah, Geet, Jaybhay, Sambhaji
Simulation-Driven Improvement of Temperature Linearity in Dual Layer HVAC Systems2025-28-038810/30/2025
The Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) industry is rapidly growing, particularly in the automotive sector since they are integral to maintaining passenger comfort in vehicles by regulating the internal temperature. This growth has led to an increased demand for highly optimized and efficient HVAC systems for a uniform temperature distribution in vehicles. However, achieving this in the cabin remains a challenge due to the complex airflow dynamics within the HVAC system. A critical factor in ensuring uniform temperature distribution for year-round performance is maintaining temperature linearity within specified limits, which is essential for user comfort. Temperature linearity refers to the temperature differential between duct outlets when air is distributed through multiple vents, such as those aimed at the face and feet. This differential typically ranges from 15°C to 20°C, varying based on customer and manufacturer specifications. The flap angle significantly
Madaan, Ashish, Kumar, Ravi, Dangwal, Raj
Impact of Air Pressure Load on HVAC Kinematic Mechanism2025-28-036810/30/2025
In Automobile AC system, HVAC is one of major component as it controls the air flow and air distribution based on cabin requirement. HVAC kinematics mechanism is used for controlling the air flow based on passenger requirement inside the cabin. The air flow movement inside HVAC has a severe impact on servo motor/cable torque which is controlling the mechanism. Simulation driven design method is widely used in world due to highly competitive automotive industry. Launching the product at the market within short span of time, with good quality and less cost is more challenging. Hence CAE/MBD based approach is more significant as it will reduce number of prototypes as well as the cost of testing. The objective of the analysis is to predict the HVAC servomotor torque required to operate the HAVC linkages under operating conditions. The air pressure load will have significant impact on damper face which will cause torque at CAM as well as servo lever center. The torque values at servo lever
Parayil, Paulson
Integrated Topology, Shape and Size Optimization-Application in Automotive Design and Manufacturing2025-28-037510/30/2025
CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) optimization plays a pivotal role in various industries to gain a competitive edge. CAE optimization is essential in several industries, such as automotive, aerospace and consumer electronics, etc., concentrating on enhancing component structural design. The process helps in addressing complex design challenges, including weight reduction, material usage efficiency and operational effectiveness. This paper presents applications for an integrated form shape, size and topology optimization approach of structural systems by using CAE tools. For the present study, CAD (Computer Aided Design) was prepared using CATIA V5 followed by meshing in Hyper-mesh 2022.3 version software. Optistruct was used as a solver tool. Modal analysis was performed to extract the natural frequencies of vibration and respective mode shapes. According to the results of the frequency response function study performed on the automobile air conditioning condenser, based on low-stress
Mehra, Akanksha, Parayil, Paulson
Noise Mitigation Techniques Off-Highway Vehicle HVAC Unit2025-28-037810/30/2025
Noise generated by a vehicle’s HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) system can significantly affect passenger comfort and the overall driving experience. One of the main causes of this noise is resonance, which happens when the operating speed of rotating parts, such as fans or compressors, matches the natural frequency of the ducts or housing. This leads to unwanted noise inside the cabin. A Campbell diagram provides a systematic approach to identifying and analyzing resonance issues. By plotting natural frequencies of system components against their operating speeds, Test engineers can determine the specific points where resonance occurs. Once these points are known, design changes can be made to avoid them—for example, adjusting the blower speed, modifying duct stiffness, or adding damping materials such as foam. In our study, resonance was observed in the HVAC duct at a specific blower speed on the Campbell diagram. To address this, we opted to optimize the duct design
Trivedi, Arpita, Kumar, Ravi, Madaan, Ashish, Shrivastava, Pawan
Attribute Optimization of Multi-Zone Climate Control System for Indian Applications2025-28-042410/30/2025
Single-zone cabin climate control systems have been standard for decades in passenger cars. Looking at the technology trend, which is transitioning from single-zone to multi-zone automatic control systems, it is now possible to provide zonal comfort tailored to the individual requirements of each passenger. In current single-zone climate control systems, maintaining the cabin temperature as stated by the passenger has been straightforward and can be achieved with slight calibration efforts using the present set of parameters and sensors until now. In this work, a multi-zone climate system highlighting the importance of individual calibration parameters in improving cabin comfort when transitioning from a single-zone to a multi-zone climate control system is proposed. As multi-zone climate systems are based on passenger set temperature requests for individual zonal comfort, appropriate controller fine-tuning is challenging when an input is taken from various sensed parameters, including
Varma, Mohit, Swarnkar, Sumit Kumar, BHOSALE, KRISHNA, Patil, Prashant, Sardesai, Suresh
A Novel Approach to Enhance Compressor Life in Passenger Vehicle MAC Systems2025-28-040910/30/2025
Compressor durability is a critical factor for ensuring the long-term reliability of Mobile Air Conditioning (MAC) systems in passenger vehicles. This study presents a software based strategy for enhancing compressor life using Smart Fully Automatic Temperature Control (FATC), requiring no additional hardware. The proposed approach leverages existing inputs from the FATC and Engine Management System (EMS) to intelligently manage compressor operation, with a focus on addressing challenges related to prolonged non-usage. In extended inactivity scenarios such as during cold weather, vehicle exportation, storage, or breakdowns, lubrication oil tends to settle in the compressor sump, leaving internal parts dry. Sudden reactivation at high engine speeds under such conditions can cause increased friction, wear and even compressor seizure. To mitigate this, an intelligent reactivation protocol has been developed and integrated into the Climate Control Module (CCM). This protocol continuously
Deshmukh, Ganesh, Chotaliya, Bhavy, Kulkarni, Shridhar, KHAIRE, DATTATRAY, Jaybhay, Sambhaji, Joshi, Gaurav, Shah, Geet
Study of Impact of Bumper Opening, Radiator Fan Capacity and Shroud Sealing on the Cabin Cooling Performance and MAC Power Consumption in ICE Vehicle2025-28-039210/30/2025
In automotive systems, efficient thermal management is essential for refining vehicle performance, enhancing passenger comfort, and reducing MAC Power Consumption. The performance of an air conditioning system is linked to the performance of its condenser, which in turn depends on critical parameters such as the opening area, radiator fan ability and shroud design sealing. The opening area decides the airflow rate through the condenser, directly affecting the heat exchange efficiency. A larger opening area typically allows for greater airflow, enhancing the condenser's ability to dissipate heat. The shroud, which guides the airflow through the condenser, plays a vital role in minimizing warm air recirculation. An optimally designed shroud can significantly improve the condenser's thermal performance by directing the airflow more effectively. Higher fan capacity can increase the airflow through the condenser, improving heat transfer rates. However, it is essential to balance fan
Nayak, Akash, lingampelly, Rajaprasad, Neupane, Manoj, Mittal, Sachin, Kumar, Mukesh, Umbarkar, Shriganesh
Design Strategies for Integrating a Quieter Refrigeration Handling System in Automotive HVAC2025-28-043210/30/2025
In both internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric vehicles, Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems have become significant contributors to in-cabin noise. Although significant efforts have been made across the industry to reduce noise from airflow handling systems, especially blower noise. Nowadays, original equipment manufacture’s (OEMs) are increasingly focusing on mitigating noise generated by refrigeration handling systems. Since the integration of refrigeration components is vital for the overall Noise Vibrations and Harshness (NVH) refinement of a vehicle, analysing the impact of each HVAC component during vehicle-level integration is essential. This study focused on optimizing the NVH performance of key refrigeration components, including the AC compressor, thermal expansion valve (TXV), suction pipe, and discharge line. The research began with a theoretical investigation of the primary noise and vibration sources, particularly the compressor and TXV
Titave, Uttam Vasant, Kalsule, Shrikant, Naidu, Sudhakara
Automated Air Filter Clog Detection in Passenger Vehicles- Enhancing Cabin Air Quality2025-28-042010/30/2025
Air filters are critical to vehicle Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems, ensuring cabin air quality by trapping dust particles that accumulate over time. However, conventional clogging diagnostics—such as physics-based simulations, empirical models or manual inspection—are often too complex or impractical for in-vehicle deployment. To address this, we present a simple and practical diagnostic approach for real-time detection of cabin filter clogging by continuously monitoring the pressure drop across the filter–evaporator assembly at five blower speed settings. Baseline pressure drop values were established for a clean filter in a production-spec Passenger car and the clogged filter threshold was defined by a 10% reduction in airflow. This corresponded to calibrated pressure drop values of 83, 108, 169, 212 and 256 Pa for blower speeds 1 to 5, respectively. These thresholds were programmed into the vehicle’s climate control ECU. During operation, when the measured
Raj, Rohit, Mohite, Yashwant, Naik, Niranjan, Ghate, Pravin
A Method to Enhance Cabin Air Quality with Energy Efficiency in parallel for AC System in Electric Vehicle2025-28-042810/30/2025
During air conditioning operation in automobiles (ICE and EVs), cabin air is predominantly recirculated to reduce heating and cooling loads of occupant space. However, prolonged recirculation of air leads to deteriorated cabin air quality. Simply introducing fresh air to improve air quality is inefficient, as external air conditions are unpredictable and may negatively affect energy consumption as well as cabin interior air quality. Moreover, even in recirculation mode under low ambient conditions where de-humidified air is available outside, energy usage increases due to the dual operation of the electric compressor (e-Compressor) and the Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) heater especially in case of Electric Vehicle. In this dual-mode scenario, the e-Compressor maintains a low evaporator temperature for effective air dehumidification, while the PTC heater supplies sensible heating to achieve the desired cabin comfort. In case of ICE vehicle the heater is coolant based and free
Kumar, Sunny, Venu, Santosh, Raj, Shivam, Khan, Farhan
Study of Possibility of Deletion of Side Demister by Optimization of Nozzle Defroster Shape to Secure the Outside Rear View Mirror Visibility2025-28-038310/30/2025
Efficient clearing of frost formed on automotive side window glass during cold conditions is crucial for maintaining visibility and ensuring passenger safety. Conventional systems often employ dedicated side demisters, which increase system complexity, production costs and vehicle weight. This study explores an alternative approach to defrosting side window glass by optimizing airflow from the defroster, thus eliminating the need for separate side demisters. The Study leverages optimized airflow dynamics and strategic design of defroster to direct a portion of the air towards the side glass. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations and actual Tests to analyze the airflow patterns, temperature gradients, and defrosting efficiency of this configuration. Results indicate that the front defroster airflow can effectively clear frost from the side windows, achieving comparable performance to conventional side demisters. Key design parameters, including defroster geometry and airflow
Kushwaha, Mayank, Bhangale, Shekhar, Mittal, Sachin, Kumar, Mukesh, Umbarkar, Shriganesh
A Smart Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Evaluate Thermal Insulation Impact on Automobile Mobile Air Conditioning System Performance2025-28-042510/30/2025
Automotive mobile air conditioning (MAC) systems rely on effective thermal insulation to maintain cabin comfort and energy efficiency. However, insulation materials degrade over time due to thermal cycling and environmental exposure, impacting overall system performance. This study investigates the effects of reducing insulation material density (GSM) in critical areas such as the engine firewall, plenum, roof and door panels on MAC system efficiency. A multi-disciplinary approach combining basic engineering calculations, frontloading CAE simulations and targeted experimental testing was employed. Initial calculations provided directional input for cabin heat load analysis, guiding early-stage design decisions. Simulation models were used to predict the impact of insulation reduction on cooling performance, energy consumption and component durability, reducing reliance on iterative physical testing. Experimental validation was then conducted selectively, focusing on critical areas to
Kulkarni, Shridhar, Deshmukh, Ganesh, Joshi, Gaurav, Nayakawadi, Uttam, Shah, Geet, Jaybhay, Sambhaji
Risk Assessment of Delayed MAC Compressor Engagement on Occupant Thermal Comfort2025-28-039910/30/2025
Mobile air conditioning (MAC) systems play a critical role in ensuring occupant thermal comfort, particularly under extreme ambient conditions. Any delay in compressor engagement directly affects cabin cooldown performance, impacting both perceived and measured comfort levels. This study assesses the thermal comfort risks associated with compressor engagement delays of 6.5 seconds and 13 seconds under varying ambient conditions. A comprehensive frontloading approach was employed, integrating 1D CAE simulations with objective and subjective experimental testing. Initial simulations provided insights into transient cabin heat load behavior and air distribution effectiveness, enabling efficient test case selection. Physical testing was conducted in a controlled climatic chamber under severe (>40°C) ambient condition, replicating real-world scenarios. Objective metrics, including cabin air temperature, vent temperature and cooldown rates, were measured to quantify thermal performance
Kulkarni, Shridhar, Deshmukh, Ganesh, Joshi, Gaurav, Shah, Geet, Jaybhay, Sambhaji
Determination of Optimum Refrigerant Charge Quantity in ICEVs and EV Using 1D CAE2025-28-038410/30/2025
In both Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) and Electric Vehicles (EVs), the refrigerant charge is essential for efficient climate control and energy consumption. An accurate refrigerant charge allows the system to regulate cabin temperature effectively and optimizing energy use. In ICEVs, this prevents the wastage of engine power. In EVs, it preserves battery life by minimizing energy drain by the climate control systems. Undercharging or Overcharging has adverse effects on the Heat Ventilation Air-Conditioning (HVAC) systems and the energy usage associated with it. Undercharging leads to poor cabin cooling which reduces heat absorption by refrigerant whereas overcharging leads to higher energy consumption by compressor, and potential damage to components, which can lead to wear, leaks, and system failures. Hence it is crucial to use optimum refrigerant charge quantity in Mobile Air-Conditioning (MAC) system both in ICEVs and EVs. Previous work on refrigerant charge
Shah, Geet, Jaiswara, Prashant, Kulkarni, Shridhar, Jaybhay, Sambhaji, vangala, Sai krishna, M, Chandru
Research on the Control Method of Electric Vehicle Air-Conditioning System Based on Human Thermal Comfort2025-01-506510/02/2025
For electric vehicles (EVs), the automotive air-conditioning system is the most energy-consuming auxiliary system and the key to the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment. How to reduce the energy consumption of EVs’ air-conditioning system and improve passenger comfort is one of the focuses of EVs’ air-conditioning system research. This article proposes a method to integrate the passenger cabin thermal comfort into the control of electric vehicle air-conditioning system. A coupled thermal model of the passenger compartment, air-conditioning system and battery thermal management system of EVs is established for the control of the air-conditioning system, and the effects of the air supply parameters of the air-conditioning system and the zonal air supply control strategy of the air-conditioning system on the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment are analyzed. Based on this coupled thermal model, an air-conditioning control strategy is established with the thermal comfort
Xu, Xiang, Yan, FuWu, Wang, Wei, Liu, Shuqi, Wang, Yuan
Effect of Pressure Losses and Reynolds Number on Active Grille Shutter Characteristics and Its Prediction2025-01-505909/10/2025
In the present article it is investigated why active grille shutters (AGS) can have very different aerodynamic characteristics, ranging from progressive to strongly degressive, and which factors influence them. For this purpose, the authority concept known from the field of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) is referred to. According to this theory, the control characteristics of dampers depend primarily on the ratio of the pressure losses at the fully open damper to the pressure losses of the rest of the system. The adaptation of the concept to the automotive field shows that, in addition to the pressure losses, the geometry of the cooling air ducting plays a decisive role in motor vehicles. The effect of driving speed and fan operation on the characteristic curves is also being investigated. In addition, authority theory can also be used to derive the conditions under which the opening characteristic curve of an AGS provides a good prediction of the real characteristic
Wolf, Thomas
Research on Validation and Research Platform for Automotive Air-Conditioning Control Strategy2025-01-505809/10/2025
In order to improve the efficiency of verification and optimization of control strategies for air-conditioning systems, a thermal management platform is established based on a rapid control prototyping (RCP) approach in the article. The platform is composed of a HVAC hardware bench, a real-time control system, and a control software model. This article describes the overall architecture of the platform, the control strategy, and an efficient method for development and optimization of air-conditioning control strategies. The cooling and heating modes of the air conditioner are tested. The results show that the control strategy can be directly modified via the platform to improve the performance of the whole system. The experimental results show that after modifying the control strategy, the cooling effect of the air conditioner is optimized and the cooling time is reduced by 10.6%. The CLTC cycle is also tested in this work to verify the dynamic control performance of the air
Liu, Shuqi, Yu, Yilong, Wang, Wei, Wang, Yuan, Zhang, Yilun, Xu, Xiang
Effect of PEM Fuel Cell Technology Advancement on the Energy Efficiency of a Heavy-Duty Vehicle2025-24-011109/07/2025
Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) are a promising solution for decarbonizing heavy-duty transport by combining hydrogen fuel cells with battery storage to deliver long range, fast refuelling, and high payload capacity. However, many existing simulation models rely on outdated fuel cell parameters, limiting their ability to reflect recent technological improvements and accurately predict system-level performance. This study addresses this gap by integrating a state-of-the-art, physics-based model of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) into an open-source heavy-duty vehicle simulation framework. The updated model incorporates recent advancements in catalyst design and membrane conductivity, enabling improved representation of electrochemical behavior and real-time compressor control. Model performance was evaluated over a realistic 120 km long-haul drive cycle. Compared to the traditional fuel cell model, the updated system demonstrated up to 20% lower hydrogen
Dursun, Beyza, Johansson, Max, Tunestal, Per, aronsson, Ulf, Eriksson, Lars, Andersson, Oivind
Lifting the Key Functional Figures Concerning Performance and Efficiency for 2nd Gen. H 2 Engines for On- and Off-Highway Installations by Tailored Engineering Measures2025-24-004909/07/2025
To curb global warming and meet stricter greenhouse gas emission standards all over the globe, it is essential to minimize the carbon footprint of applications in the mobility and transport segment. The demands on mobility, transportation and services are constantly increasing in line with worldwide population growth and the corresponding need for economic prosperity. This ongoing trend will lead to a significant increase in energy requirements for mobility-related applications in the upcoming time, despite all efficiency improvements. The timely introduction and accelerated spread of low-carbon/carbon-neutral energy sources is therefore of crucial importance. In addition to the switch to electric propulsion systems, particularly in the light-duty vehicle sector, the use of advanced and optimized hydrogen (H2)-powered internal combustion engines (ICE) represents a parallel, compatible technical option, as these applications will also meet the most stringent requirements in terms of
Koerfer, Thomas, Zimmer, Pascal, Li, Zhengling, Pischinger, Stefan, Lückerath, Moritz
Simulation Based Dynamic Thermal Emulation Unit for Thermal Preconditioning and Emulation of Hardware Components on the Thermal Testbed2025-24-013709/07/2025
Electrification of vehicles plays an important role in the transformation process towards sustainable mobility in the individual and transport sector. As a result, new challenges must be met during the development process regarding the vehicles overall energy management system. A key challenge is the development of thermal management systems to optimize overall vehicle efficiency and to minimize ageing effects of the powertrain components while maintaining passenger comfort. Efficiency and ageing effects are highly dependent on the conditioning state of the powertrain components due to their high thermal sensitivity with simultaneously narrow thermal operating limits. Comfort functions like cabin air conditioning must be fulfilled as well, which must be considered by the thermal management system. To develop innovative solutions for thermal management systems at an early stage of the development process, thermal emulation can be used to substitute hardware components. Therefore
Weimer, Niko, Hohenberg, Günter, Beidl, Christian, Fiore, Luis, Stenger, Erik, Seib, Rico
Thermal Interaction Based on Battery Electrochemical Modeling for In-Wheel Hub Motor Electric Vehicles: A Performance Analysis14-14-03-001607/09/2025
As the adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) continues to rise, analyzing their performance under varying environmental conditions that affect energy consumption has become increasingly important. A critical factor influencing the efficiency of BEVs is the heat loss from the operation and interaction between the vehicle components, such as the battery and motor, and the surrounding temperature. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the thermal interaction in BEVs by integrating hub motor vehicle and battery electrochemical model with environmental factors. It explores how ambient temperature variations influence the performance of EV components, particularly the motors and battery systems, in both hot and cold weather conditions. The simulations also consider the passenger comfort inside the cabin as it investigates the effects of operating the air-conditioning system on overall energy consumption, revealing significant energy consumption shifts during extreme ambient
Abdullah, Mohamed, Zhang, Xi
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