Browse Topic: Flight control systems
ABSTRACT This study investigates the fault tolerance of a large-scale coaxial quadrotor Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) under motor failure through high-fidelity software-in-the-loop (SIL) simulations using PX4-Gazebo environment. The objective is to evaluate the vehicle's ability to maintain flight stability and complete critical missions under various propulsion failure scenarios, without the control system being explicitly aware of which motors have failed. Four motor failure cases-single, two adjacent, two diagonally opposite, and three distributed motor failures-were introduced during takeoff, hover, cruise, and hover under crosswind missions. Results show that the eVTOL maintained controllability and mission completion under all scenarios, with increasing levels of performance degradation under more severe failures. Notably, considerable yaw instabilities of about 10 degrees occurred under two diagonally opposite motor failures. The highest thrust demands after
ABSTRACT Future military missions for Agile Combat Employment (ACE) and next generation Special Operations Forces need an aircraft with effective hover and the ability to operate in transonic cruise. Hover requires significant power that can only be mitigated by larger diameter rotors, but large diameter rotors become a detriment to achieving transonic flight. The stop-fold rotor configuration can “make the rotor disappear” in cruise and stands out as the most viable option for meeting these next-generation air vehicle requirements. This paper discusses the progress Bell has made in developing enabling technologies for a practical and scalable high-speed VTOL (HSVTOL) based on the stop-fold configuration. To this end, a unique Track-Guided Test Vehicle (TGTV) was developed at Bell and tested at the 10-mile High Speed Test Track at Holloman Air Force Base. The test vehicle integrates all subsystems required to demonstrate the key technologies in a representative environment, including
ABSTRACT U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command (DEVCOM), Aviation & Missile Center (AvMC) developed a Digital Backbone for the Rotorcraft Applied Systems Concepts Airborne Lab (RASCAL-X) UH-60M for rapid Modular Open Systems Approach (MOSA) mission system integrations. The RASCAL-X Digital Backbone is the cornerstone of a unique experimental flight test capability connecting the experimental research flight control system with the Mission Systems Flying Testbed (MSFTB) and other mission system components. The Digital Backbone with MSFTB provides a suite of capabilities to integrate, assess, and flight test Mission Systems Under Test. The RASCAL-X Digital Backbone supports many of the physical aspects of mission system integration by providing Nodal Points with provisioning for power, data, and connectivity. Numerous challenges in Digital Backbone design, fabrication and installation were successfully addressed and solved during the development effort. The RASCAL-X Digital
ABSTRACT Air data measurement and calibration are fundamental components in the pursuit of accurate and reliable aerodynamic assessments. The systematic collection of essential data regarding air properties are important for evaluating aircraft performance under various conditions and configurations. The scope is to achieve a comprehensive understanding of airflow characteristics, which is fundamental for design improvements and operational strategies, contributing to safer and more efficient flight operations in a several range of scenarios. This type of data measurement is even more challenging for the AW609 Tiltrotor which combines vertical take-off technology capabilities with the fixed-wing flight efficiency. The activity starts from known pitot-static system calibration methodologies for conventional applications and shows what were the difficulties encountered in a non-conventional Tiltrotor approach. The paper goes through the presentation of the original Pitot-Static and Air
ABSTRACT Complex vertical takeoff and landing configurations that transition between vertical and forward flight modes necessitate advanced flight control systems to substantially reduce pilot workload. Prior work demonstrated the Trajectory Control System, a flight control architecture that enables such Simplified Vehicle Operations. However, there may also be scenarios or applications that require more aggressive maneuvering with rates and attitudes that exceed the nominal envelope. This paper demonstrates a flight control architecture with a middle-loop that harmonizes the Trajectory Control System with a Tactical Maneuvering System that enables more aggressive maneuvering, with seamless in-flight transitions between the two. In both cases, the middle-loop is linked with an explicit model-following inner-loop control system. Flight test results for the Trajectory Control System and maneuver simulation results for the Tactical Maneuvering System are shown for a subscale tilt-wing
ABSTRACT This paper outlines observations from an FAA-sponsored research project that examined aviation Fly-By-Wire (FBW) accidents. The goal was to identify risk areas that will help guide a focus for FAA certification testing. Part of this study specifically focused on current powered-lift tiltrotors, identifying six general categories of causal factors for accidents, which will be discussed in detail regarding how they influenced flight control designs. The results of this survey, along with extrapolation to current designs, will be discussed and will illustrate why manufacturers are moving toward state-based flight control designs. In a state-based flight control scheme, the pilot does not have direct control over aircraft attitudes and motor tilt angles. Instead, the pilot requests a speed and or flight path with inceptor input, and the commanded attitudes and motor tilts are scheduled by the flight control computer. Additionally, recent lessons learned from electric Vertical
ABSTRACT This paper describes an ongoing aircraft system identification effort for an industry prototype electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) vehicle. Building on previous eVTOL aircraft system identification developments in windtunnel testing and flight simulations, an approach to modeling from flight-test data is formulated for the AIBOT 500 aircraft. The full system identification process is presented, including the experiment design, flight data collection, and model identification steps. Orthogonal phase-optimized multisine programmed test inputs are integrated into the flight control system and are applied to each control surface and propulsor simultaneously to efficiently collect informative flight data for model identification. Initial modeling results are given in hover, where an aero-propulsive model is identified using the equation-error method in the frequency domain. The presented results demonstrate the utility of the modeling approach and are compared to
ABSTRACT The transition phase of eVTOL aircraft poses a challenge in balancing energy efficiency and stability. This study presents the development and evaluation of an automatic flight control system for eVTOL transition phases, focusing on minimizing energy consumption while ensuring robust performance. The control architecture implements a hybrid response type combining Translational Rate Command below 5 knots and Acceleration Command Speed Hold above 5 knots, with control allocation dynamically adjusted based on airspeed and rotor shaft angle. Stability analysis reveals surge mode instability at high shaft angles due to negative speed stability derivatives, stabilized through carefully tuned feedback control. The system demonstrates Level 1 handling qualities against bandwidth, quickness, and disturbance rejection criteria when evaluated against MIL-DTL-32742 and MIL-STD-1797B standards. Simulation results verify the control system's ability to maintain precise acceleration
ABSTRACT A robust velocity stability augmentation system was developed for the CoAX 600/2D coaxial-rotor helicopter to enable safe testing of a fly-by-wire system on an optionally piloted variant of the aircraft, developed by Piasecki Aircraft Corporation. The control law design and subsequent stability analysis were based on a validated nonlinear model of the CoAX 600 rotorcraft. A subset of helicopter handling qualities were evaluated through both analytical methods and piloted simulations, conducted with and without the stability augmentation system. Additionally, flight test data contributed to the analysis, albeit to a limited extent.
ABSTRACT This paper presents the development and implementation of a complete flight control architecture for a 200kg-class tilt-wing eVTOL aircraft, designed and tested by Dufour Aerospace. The system enables fully automated flight across all regimes, including hover, transition, and cruise. A modular control architecture is described, incorporating a unified vehicle controller, envelope protection, and a guidance system. The control design leverages classical and modern techniques, including model-based synthesis, control allocation, and gain scheduling. A structured software development and validation pipeline is outlined, combining simulation, software- and hardware- in-the-loop testing, and flight testing on both subscale and full-scale platforms. Results from recent autonomous flight trials of the Aero2 aircraft demonstrate precise trajectory tracking and robust performance. The presented approach highlights the feasibility of rapid development cycles while maintaining high
ABSTRACT This paper describes the dynamic modeling and flight control software development efforts for a subscale tiltrotor electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft built at NASA Langley Research Center. The vehicle, referred to as the Research Aircraft for eVTOL Enabling techNologies (RAVEN) SubscaleWind-Tunnel and Flight Test (SWFT) model, serves as a flight dynamics and controls research testbed to foster advances in eVTOL aircraft technology. After fabricating the vehicle, wind-tunnel testing was conducted to identify a high-fidelity aero-propulsive model for use in a flight dynamics simulation enabling flight control system development. The RAVEN-SWFT aircraft subsequently underwent flight-test risk reduction steps and then free flight testing employing custom research flight control software. The flight control software, which can be efficiently updated and tested on the vehicle, includes a robust model-based control algorithm and an extensive programmed test input
ABSTRACT In April of 2024, Sikorsky flight tested an open loop Higher Harmonic Control system on an S-97® helicopter. The S-97® helicopter is a prototype aircraft, based on Sikorsky's X2 Technology™, that first flew in May 2015. It has contra-rotating, stiff in-plane main rotors with fly-by-wire controls, and a pusher propeller. This paper describes the HHC design, how it was implemented on the aircraft, how it was tested, and what the test results were.
ABSTRACT Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) vehicles undergoing advanced air mobility (AAM) operations feature increasingly autonomous systems (IAS) with non-traditional role allocations. Ensuring the safety of these operations and their novel human–machine teaming (HMT) paradigms requires an appropriate body of knowledge created through relevant, reproducible research. In this paper, we briefly examine the meaning of teaming; current regulation, standards, and guidance; and the knowledge required to build resilient HMTs before turning our attention to how this knowledge is being created by recent research and what conclusions or recommendations can be made. We identify the need for further research into the holistic performance of HMTs, the effect of novel allocations of roles between humans and machines, the ability of humans to provide resilience to unforeseen dangers when acting as a part of these teams; and the characteristics required for clear, timely, and accurate
ABSTRACT Flight test students must explore a wide range of helicopter dynamic responses to learn how to assess conditions ranging from good conditions operation to those approaching, or even experiencing, loss of control. To introduce this evaluation process, the Flight Test and Research Institute (IPEV) implemented a helicopter flight dynamics model. This model is stitched in the x-body velocity (u) and y-body velocity (v) to achieve more accurate simulation, combined with a Variable Stability Augmentation System to assess different conditions prior to experiencing them in real flight. The use of robust control, where a fixed controller is applied to flight control systems under various operating conditions, presents an alternative to the traditional gain scheduling technique commonly used in aeronautical systems. This paper explores the potential to reduce controller design complexity while evaluating the impact on the helicopter’s full flight envelope through quantitative analysis
This article provides a comprehensive review of existing literature on AI-based functions and verification methods within vehicular systems. Initially, the introduction of these AI-based functions in these systems is outlined. Subsequently, the focus shifts to synthetic environments and their pivotal role in the verification process of AI-based vehicle functions. The algorithms used within the AI-based functions focus primarily on the paradigm of deep learning. We investigate the constituent components of these synthetic environments and the intricate relationships with vehicle systems in the verification and validation domain of the system. In the following, alternative approaches are discussed, serving as complementary methods for verification without direct involvement in synthetic environment development. These approaches include data-oriented methodologies employing statistical techniques and AI-centric strategies focusing solely on the core deep learning algorithm.
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) provides an algorithm aimed to analyze flight control surface actuator movements with the objective to generate duty cycle data applicable to hydraulic actuator dynamic seals.
There are certain situations when landing an Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) aircraft is required to be performed without assistance from GPS data. For example, AAM aircraft flying in an urban environment with tall buildings and narrow canyons may affect the ability of the AAM aircraft to effectively use GPS to access a landing area. Incorporating a vision-based navigation method, NASA Ames has developed a novel Alternative Position, Navigation, and Timing (APNT) solution for AAM aircraft in environments where GPS is not available.
ABSTRACT The integration of automation and autonomy into modern aircraft has significant potential to simplify many piloting tasks. On the other hand, poor integration of automation and autonomy systems with the human crew has sometimes led to unintended consequences. With the goal of improving human-machine integration in piloting tasks, Bell Textron has conducted several autonomy demonstrations in both the simulator and aircraft. The team assessed automated terminal operations, enhanced station keeping, and maneuver tactile limit cueing in a flight simulator. Additionally, the V-280 technology demonstrator conducted autonomous flight profiles to explore these systems in an airborne environment. To mature autonomy systems for integration on future platforms, a Bell 429 was converted into the Aircraft Laboratory for Future Autonomy, completing its first flight last year with fly-by-wire controls at the evaluation pilot station. The influence of Bell autonomy demonstrations on the
ABSTRACT This paper demonstrates the recent success of developing a high-fidelity Co-Simulation (CoSim) technology to enable free-flight full-aircraft maneuvers using closed-loop tightly coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Computational Structural Dynamics (CSD) with full-production aircraft Flight Control Systems (FCS). This new development empowers the previous CFD-CSD maneuver simulation with a digital brain from the production aircraft FCS and enables a true high-fidelity predictive capability with significant improvement in the accuracy of the results, removing its dependency on other analysis as inputs. The newly developed CoSim methodology was correlated with S-97 RAIDER® helicopter flight test maneuvers. This study shows that development and usage of the current state-of-the-art methodology, when carefully validated and applied, can capture the complex rotorcraft physics due to fluid and structure interaction during maneuvering flights with sufficient accuracy to
ABSTRACT The ongoing development of numerous novel vertical takeoff and landing configurations necessitates flight control system design that enables the Simplified Vehicle Operations paradigm. This paper shows flight test results for one subscale lift-plus-cruise and one tilt-wing configuration employing such a flight control system architecture. Pilot inceptor inputs are used to synthesize trajectory commands that are processed by a full-envelope trajectory control system that generates propulsor thrust commands, a wing angle command, and attitude and rate commands for linear quadratic integral and explicit model-following inner-loop control systems. Commonalities and differences in the flight control implementation for the two configurations are highlighted. Results are shown for both configurations subject in manually piloted flights. The flight test results demonstrate that the flight control system designs allow a minimally trained operator to operate the two flight test vehicles
ABSTRACT This paper presents the design framework for an integrated Flight Control System (FCS) of a conceptual electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) vehicle. The aircraft integrates propeller and impeller propulsion systems with tilt deflections. In this paper, the primary FCS based on incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion (INDI) principles, is highlighted, known for its stability and robustness across diverse flight conditions, without encountering disruptive mode switching transients. The paper emphasizes the handling of measurements within the INDI framework, particularly addressing those not directly accessible through sensors. Moreover, an automated gain design tool for the nonlinear controller is introduced, focusing on achieving tuning goals in both time and frequency domains. This involves sequential linearization of the plant model and the implemented controller, facilitating comprehensive analysis to ensure safe and stable performance throughout the mission profile
ABSTRACT This paper presents a real-time closed-loop rotorcraft simulation framework using HeliUM-A, a high-fidelity flight dynamics analysis, and a Simulink®-based flight control system model. Serial optimization and parallel computing techniques are introduced in HeliUM-A to achieve real-time speeds. A customized ordinary differential equation solver with parallel load balancing enables accelerated time marching simulations. Software interfaces are introduced to encapsulate HeliUM-A into a Level-2 S-function Simulink® block. Using standardized Simulink® ports, control inputs, rotor/body states and their time derivatives as well as relevant output quantities are communicated in-memory between Simulink® and HeliUM-A for closed-loop execution. This encapsulation retains the parallel computing improvements in HeliUM-A when executed through MATLAB, Simulink® or through the compiled executable automatically generated by the Simulink Coder. The framework is demonstrated on a coaxial
ABSTRACT In order to answer the demand for an electrical primary flight control system for smaller manned or unmanned VTOL aircraft, a novel rotatory actuator and the related control periphery has been designed, manufactured and tested. In contrast to most systems used for these applications today, the presented approach uses an architecture that from the beginning considers the option for certification to civil manned rotorcraft standards. The key idea was to design a single unit comprising all necessary redundancy and failure handling features that simplex COTS components are typically lacking. The over-all architecture, therefore, follows a dual-duplex concept with a minimum of single-pointfailure elements. This paper sketches the layout of the mechanical, electrical, and control unit components, explains the relevant design choices, and presents the realization of a demonstrator system. The subsequent sections describe the successful validation through a series of static and
ABSTRACT The complex vertical takeoff and landing configurations currently under development necessitate flight control system design that enables substantial reductions of pilot workload through Simplified Vehicle Operations. This paper shows optimization and simulation of such a flight control system architecture for a subscale vectored thrust aircraft configuration. A full-envelope Trajectory Control System for longitudinal dynamics was coupled with explicit model-following inner-loop controllers, and a scheduled control allocation logic. Control system parameters were determined using a genetic algorithm optimization scheme subject to dynamic stability, robustness, and control responsiveness constraints. Flight simulation results for a series of representative maneuvers including departure and arrival transitions and forward flight maneuvers are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed flight control system architecture.
ABSTRACT Coupled powerplant and rotorcraft flight dynamics simulations are commonly carried out in the non-linear time-domain framework (e.g. for pilot-in-the-loop handling qualities assessments), although these integrated models are generally not fully accurate from drivetrain dynamics perspective. Nevertheless, there is interest to verify that usual assumption of decoupled torsional stability (including rigid drivetrain analysis) and aircraft rigid body stability is valid, and up to what extent. The process described in the paper entails the automatic assembly of relevant subsystems (bare aircraft flight dynamics, Flight Control System including fly-by-wire actuation, sensors, and Control Laws software, drivetrain dynamics, powerplant dynamics) state space matrices through a Company developed Matlab toolbox. The proposed approach is control system design oriented, i.e. it does not require detailed flexible multibody modelling of the entire aircraft including dynamic systems and it is
ABSTRACT This paper describes the methodology, involving testing and simulation activities, to assess malfunction conditions of complex systems installed on fly-by-wire vehicles, including the evaluation of their effects. This paper provides also a description about how the system malfunction tests are designed, driven by input requirements and systems capability and behavior. With respect to prior publications, this paper includes some practical test examples, based on systems monitoring, logics and alerting functions. The case study described here comes from a portion of multiple laboratory certification tests done for AW609 Tiltrotor, focused on Avionics System malfunctions. These tests and simulations are a valuable Means of Compliance with respect to applicable airworthiness rules, and a suitable means to verify the design safety requirements. Three relevant examples are presented, grouped by input requirement and safety conditions. The effect of such malfunctions is evaluated
ABSTRACT This paper examines the Handling Quality Rating (HQR) of the Model-Based Pilot Controller (MBPC) in failure scenarios within the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS). The MBPC aims to automate the testing of malfunctions in the AFCS of the T625 Gökbey platform. It is constructed using optimal control and estimation theory, with the cost function representing human characteristics determined by weighting matrices. The optimal values of weighting matrices that minimize the cost function are achieved via Genetic Algorithm. This algorithm utilized to systematically minimize user-defined cost functions tailored to optimize performance for selected maneuvers within the scope of ADS33E-PRF, considering user-defined constraints. Time-domain metric performance is provided for two maneuvers: vertical maneuver and hovering turn. The HQRs of the MBPC evaluated according to Power Frequency and Inceptor Peak Power-Phase (IPPP) metrics. The MBPC satisfies the ADS33 desired performance
ABSTRACT The advent of electric propulsion is revolutionizing the paradigm of rotorcraft design, leading to new electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft. Direct drive topologies are common within these new designs, and some designers have chosen to utilize this mechanism for Primary Flight Control (PFC), effectively utilizing the aircraft engines as PFC actuators to control the speed of the rotors. This decision integrates the propulsion and flight control systems, and intrinsically couples the aircraft sizing and control. Four separate tools were exercised throughout this study to conduct a conceptual design exploration of eVTOL aircraft handling qualities. The main tasks for these tools were: 1) aircraft sizing and performance analysis, including the calculation of trim; 2) flight dynamics modeling and analysis; 3) handling qualities-centric control law optimization; and 4) electric motor sizing. Sizing of an RPM-controlled Hexacopter concept explored the dependency of
ABSTRACT This paper addresses the urgent need to enhance rotorcraft safety and performance by developing a prediction methodology for the onset of the Vortex Ring State (VRS), and therefore verifying the VRS avoidance diagram. The objectives of this research are to assess the correlation between predictions generated by a comprehensive flight dynamics code and the latest and most accurate VRS boundary models, validate the VRS avoidance diagram across diverse descending flight conditions, and identify specific parameters indicating the rotor's entry into the VRS. The methodology involves a detailed investigation of 8 descent manoeuvres using a comprehensive flight dynamics code coupled with an advanced free vortex wake model. Results show that the pitch and roll oscillations and thrust fluctuations experienced by helicopters during the VRS are also observed in the model response to steep descent maneuvers. The findings confirm the reliability and applicability of the VRS avoidance
ABSTRACT In the last decade, in order to respond to the emerging market of unmanned applications, Airbus Helicopters has developed a generic Flight Control System (FCS) for heavy unmanned helicopters. This paper describes the development of this system from the applicable high-level requirements to the design of the redundant fail safe-operative architecture and the flight modes. A focus is made on two specific flight sequences: Automatic Take-Off and Landing from ship deck which is one of the most complex maneuvers for a drone and 4D navigation (including relative to a target). The system has been brought to a maturity level with more than 100 flight hours in unmanned configuration and a level of Validation & Verification close to a certification. The portability of the developed solution on other helicopters to derive new Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle or Optionally Piloted Vehicle is also addressed thanks to commonalities with FCS that are already in use on the Airbus Helicopters fleet.
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides the hydraulic and flight-control system designer with the various design options and techniques that are currently available to enhance the survivability of military aircraft. The AIR addresses the following major topics: a Design concepts and architecture (see 3.2, 3.5, and 3.6) b Design implementation (see 3.3, 3.6, and 3.7) c Means to control external leakage (see 3.4) d Component design (see 3.8)
This Technical Governance is part of the SAE UCS Architecture Library and is primarily concerned with the UCS Architecture Model (AS6518) starting at Revision A and its user extensions. Users of the Model may extend it in accordance with AS6513 to meet the needs of their UCS Products. UCS Products include software components, software configurations and systems that provide or consume UCS services. For further information, refer to AS6513 Revision A or later. Technical Governance is part of the UCS Architecture Framework. This framework governs the UCS views expressed as Packages and Diagrams in the UCS Architecture Model.
Over the past few decades, aircraft automation has progressively increased. Advances in digital computing during the 1980s eliminated the need for onboard flight engineers. Avionics systems, exemplified by FADEC for engine control and Fly-By-Wire, handle lower-level functions, reducing human error. This shift allows pilots to focus on higher-level tasks like navigation and decision-making, enhancing overall safety. Full automation and autonomous flight operations are a logical continuation of this trend. Thanks to aerospace pioneers, most functions for full autonomy are achievable with legacy technologies. Machine learning (ML), especially neural networks (NNs), will enable what Daedalean terms Situational Intelligence: the ability to understand and make sense of the current environment and situation but also anticipate and react to a future situation, including a future problem. By automating tasks traditionally limited to human pilots - like detecting airborne traffic and identifying
The presence of a slung-load during the flight of a quadrotor generates swing effects that can greatly influence the dynamics of the quadrotor. These effects have the potential to threaten the stability of the system’s attitude. This study presents a disturbance compensation strategy that is designed based on the utilization of an adaptive harmonic extended state observer (AHESO) in order to solve this problem and achieve precise attitude control. To derive the aforementioned algorithm, a comprehensive mathematical model for the quadrotor-slung-load system is built. The periodic features of disturbance are derived by considering the movement of the slung-load. Subsequently, by taking the periodic features of the disturbances into account, the AHESO for accurate disturbance estimation is designed. In this observer, an online frequency estimator for the harmonic disturbances is introduced. Lyapunov theory is introduced to examine the stability of the AHESO. In addition, backstepping
Advanced flight control system, aviation battery and motor technologies are driving the rapid development of eVTOL to offer possibilities for Urban Air Mobility. The safety and airworthiness of eVTOL aircraft and systems are the critical issues to be considered in eVTOL design process. Regarding to the flight control system, its complexity of design and interfaces with other airborne systems require detailed safety assessment through the development process. Based on SAE ARP4754A, a forward architecture design process with comprehensive safety assessment is introduced to achieve complete safety and hazard analysis. The new features of flight control system for eVTOL are described to start function capture and architecture design. Model-based system engineering method is applied to establish the functional architecture in a traceable way. SFHA and STPA methods are applied in a complementary way to identify the potential safety risk caused by failure and unsafe control action. PSSA with
Artificial intelligence (AI) has become prevalent in many fields in the modern world, ranging from vacuum cleaners to lawn mowers and commercial automobiles. These capabilities are continuing to evolve and become a part of more products and systems every day, with numerous potential benefits to humans. AI is of particular interest in autonomous vehicles (AVs), where the benefits include reduced cognitive workload, increased efficiency, and improved safety for human operators. Numerous investments from academia and industry have been made recently with the intent of improving the enabling technologies for AVs. Google and Tesla are two of the more well-known examples in industry, with Google developing a self-driving car and Tesla providing its Full Self-Driving (FSD) autopilot system. Ford and BMW are also working on their own AVs.
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