Browse Topic: Electric drives

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EV Propulsion Drive Converter SiC Power Device Over-Temperature Protection under Low Motor Speed Operation2026-01-0436To be published on 04/07/2026
Monitoring power device temperature in an electric vehicle propulsion drive converter is extremely important to achieve full power delivery within the maximum power capability envelope. Usually, on-die temperature sensors are installed on Si-IGBT power devices in electric vehicle propulsion drive converters to enable monitoring device temperature and achieve over-temperature protection. Currently, SiC MOSFET is a promising power device in power converters of electric drives because of its lower loss, higher switching speed, higher voltage capability, and higher junction temperature limit in comparison with widely used Si-IGBT. However, SiC MOSFET is a more expensive device, so the present technology trend is trying to reduce its chip size. Installation of an on-die temperature sensor on SiC MOSFET will significantly increase its cost and complexity. So presently, there is no junction temperature sensor installed in SiC MOSFET due to which there is great difficulty protecting SiC MOSFET
Thongam, Jogendra Singh, Ge, BAOMING, Bradford, Steven, Kulkarni, Milind
New Inverter Switching Control Method to Enhance Sound Quality for Electric Vehicles2026-01-0437To be published on 04/07/2026
Conventional inverter control uses a fixed switching frequency, which leads to a high-pitched switching noise in electric vehicles (EVs) that does not vary with vehicle speed. Although EVs are generally much quieter than traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, some EV owners complain about the lack of dynamic driving sound feedback. A new patented technology has been developed to enhance EV sound quality by dynamically controlling the inverter switching frequencies. This technology generates dynamic propulsion sound with new "switching order" features at multiple harmonics, with the pitch proportional to vehicle speed. A fixed pulse ratio between the switching frequency and the electric motor RPM is implemented to control the switching order. This reduces switching losses during low-speed operation and provides boosted acoustic feedback to the driver during acceleration, which enhances driving experience during sports driving. Furthermore, a special "EV shifting" sound
He, Song, Gagas, Brent, Welchko, Brian, Ball, Kerrie, Gong, Cheng
Low-voltage electric vehicle with increased electrical safety and distributed charging system2026-01-0396To be published on 04/07/2026
Abstract - Reducing the high-voltage BEV to a household level of 120-240 volts is considered in the article as an effective means of solving the problems of electrical safety, maintenance and minor repairs of an electric vehicle in household conditions, distributed power supply of BEV with walking distance for the driver. The analysis of the low-voltage electric drive is performed under the assumption that the battery has a nominal voltage of 200 volts. The issues of transforming a high-voltage machine (400 volts) into a low-voltage one (200 volts) by switching the stator phase sections from serial to parallel connection without changing the overall and energy characteristics are considered. It is shown that a two-motor unit with induction machines with a capacity of 50 kilowatts can provide 100 kilowatts in long-term and up to 200 kilowatts in peak modes. The article considers the issues of implementing a low-voltage inverter and modern trends in distributed power supply for BEVs
Smolin PhD, Victor, Sobolevskiy, Anatoliy, Volovich, Georgy
An Adaptive Brake Force Allocation Strategy for Rear-Wheel Driven EVs2026-01-0636To be published on 04/07/2026
Due to changed requirements compared to conventional propulsion concepts, electromobility demands new and innovative strategies for energy-efficient vehicle motion control. For example, the challenge in purely rear-wheel drive (RWD) electric vehicles (EVs) is to achieve a maximum of regenerative braking power in order to increase energy recovery and to ensure, that this does not impair the braking stability. Within this conflict between energy efficiency and braking dynamics, it is necessary to design an intelligent strategy to optimise recuperation. This paper presents such a strategy, which improves an existing approach formerly presented by the authors, but specifically optimises it to overcome weaknesses. The previous approach had two major limitations: First, the efficiency map of the in-wheel machines (IWMs) was not considered. Second, there was no possibility of switching flexibly between different brake force distributions to guarantee both, maximized recovery potential and
Mitsching, Thomas, Heydrich, Marius, Ivanov, Valentin
Optimization of Lightweight Gear Blanks to Improve NVH for an Electric Drive Unit2026-01-0001To be published on 04/07/2026
A single-speed electric drive unit (eDU) with multi-stage reduction can have high gear whine due to high pitch-line velocity in the absence of engine masking noise. A comprehensive investigation is conducted focusing on the optimization of the first-stage transfer gear blanks to improve NVH performance and reduce mass for EV applications. A multibody dynamic model of the eDU was constructed, incorporating asymmetric gear blank geometry, shaft elasticity, bearing stiffness, and housing flexibility, in order to characterize realistic operating conditions and simulate gear contact mechanics with high fidelity and computational efficiency. NVH excitation sources, including static transmission error and dynamic meshing force, were systematically evaluated for solid and slotted gear configurations. Based on a DOE optimization study, an 8-slot gear blank design is selected to balance mass reduction, stress, NVH, and manufacturing requirements. Micro-geometry optimization was conducted for the
He, Song, Du, Isaac, Li, Bo, Bahk, Cheonjae, Grguras, Zachary, Baladhandapani, Dhanasekar, Patruni, Pavan Kumar
Path Following Strategy for Multi-Axle Vehicles via Nash Game-Based Coordinated Control of AFS and DYC2026-01-0629To be published on 04/07/2026
Due to their complex structure and large inertia, multi-axle hub electric drive vehicles often suffer from response delays and insufficient control sensitivity. To improve path tracking accuracy and handling stability under high-speed and low-adhesion conditions, this paper proposes a coordinated control strategy that integrates a three-dimensional stability assessment with a Nash game-based approach for active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) systems. A path tracking control model tailored for multi-axle vehicles is developed, and a robust Tubular Model Predictive Control (Tube-MPC) method is employed to enhance trajectory tracking performance under model uncertainties and external disturbances. Within the prediction horizon of Tube-MPC, the system continuously evaluates whether the vehicle state remains within the stable region. If the state exceeds this region, a Nash game-based coordination mechanism is activated to formulate a multi-objective control game
Lv, Xin, Liu, Zuyang, Shen, Yanhua, Wang, Kaidi
Study on performance parameters of retarder in mountain condition of hybrid electric vehicle2026-01-0617To be published on 04/07/2026
In mountain driving scenarios, the continuous braking demands of vehicles pose significant challenges to the performance and reliability of braking systems. Traditional fuel-powered vehicles primarily rely on friction brakes for deceleration, which face issues such as high thermal fade risks and severe brake wear. While pure electric vehicles can utilize motor energy recovery to provide braking force and recover energy, their braking capacity is limited by the maximum regenerative torque of the motor. Moreover, when the battery State of Charge (SOC) is high, the energy recovery function may be restricted or disabled to protect the battery, leading to a sharp reduction or complete loss of braking torque—a safety hazard. Range-extended hybrid vehicles combine the advantages of both engine and electric drive systems. During long downhill operations, their motors can also serve as priority decelerators for efficient energy recovery. However, similar to pure electric vehicles, their motor
duan, xianqi, Tan, Gangfeng, Li, LiuYuanHeng, Tian, Tian, Yang, Yong
Modular Smart Corner Systems for Next-Generation Electric Vehicle Architecture2026-01-0639To be published on 04/07/2026
The transition to software-defined vehicles (SDVs) necessitates a paradigm shift in both control strategies and vehicle architecture. The EU-funded SmartCorners project addresses this challenge by developing integrated smart corner systems (SCS) that combine in-wheel motor propulsion, brake-by-wire, active suspension, and steer-by-wire functionality in a single module. These SCS are embedded within a highly adaptable skateboard chassis architecture, enabling scalable deployment across diverse vehicle platforms. The central approach of this paper is the utilization of artificial intelligence and machine learning to implement multi-layer, data-driven control strategies, facilitating real-time actuation, fault mitigation, and a user-centric vehicle architecture. The SmartCorners project targets to demonstrate significant advancements, including improvement in real-world driving range, reduction of component and system costs, and development time drop of the EV systems enabled by digital
Ratz, Florian, Armengaud, Eric, Formento, Cecilia, Moscone, Giulia, Sorrentino, Gennaro, Bisciaio, Giorgio, Sorniotti, Aldo, Amati, Nicola, Braun, Daniel, Deibler, Bernd, Boxberger, Valerius, Sottile, Salvatore, Ivanov, Valentin, Fuse, Hiroyuki, Kompara, Tomaž
A Study on Fail-Safe and Limp-Home Strategies for Electric Drive Failures in P1-P2 (P)HEVs2026-01-0427To be published on 04/07/2026
Hyundai Motor Company’s TMED-II hybrid system adopts a P1–P2 parallel motor layout, which improves power distribution flexibility but increases reliance on electric drive components. Failures in motors, inverters, or other power electronics can critically affect drivability and safety, making robust Fail-Safe strategies essential. This study proposes a three-stage, sequential Limp-Home strategy for P1–P2 HEVs under P2 motor system failure. Unlike conventional methods that open the main relay and rely solely on the engine, the proposed approach keeps the high-voltage (HV) system active whenever possible to maintain performance, safety, and comfort. Stage 1 – P1 motor-based SOC control: Keeps the main relay closed and uses the P1 motor to maintain SOC within set limits. Overcharge is mitigated by operating the motor in discharge mode, and over-discharge is mitigated through regenerative operation. Engine torque is adjusted to match motor torque demand, preserving launch performance and
Rho, Jeongwon, Park, Sangcheol, Oh, Sung Hwan
Research on Economy Mode Control Algorithm for Pure Electric Tractor with Powered Trailer2026-01-0425To be published on 04/07/2026
This research presents a comprehensive investigation into the electrification development pathway and energy-saving optimization methodologies for commercial tractor vehicles. Given the pivotal role that commercial vehicles play in modern logistics and transportation sectors, their propulsion systems are undergoing a fundamental transition from traditional internal combustion engines toward more sustainable hybrid and pure electric architectures. Simultaneously, the emerging trend of trailer electrification has gained considerable attention, where conventional trailers are retrofitted with motorized axles to form cooperative powertrain systems, demonstrating substantial energy-saving potential as confirmed by multiple research studies. Utilizing an integrated Trucksim and MATLAB/Simulink co-simulation platform, this study developed sophisticated vehicle dynamics models, detailed electric drive system models, and advanced battery models, which were subsequently integrated to establish a
tong, zi yu, Zheng, Hongyu, Li, Gang
Development and Comparison of Benchmarking Methods for Electric Vehicle Drive Units2026-01-0198To be published on 04/07/2026
At the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory, a development project was implemented to compare various test methods for benchmarking the operation of vehicle electric drive units (EDUs). In earlier research, several test methods were identified, of which two were used to test a Chevrolet Bolt EDU: (a) in-vehicle testing of the complete EDU on a chassis hub dynamometer and (b) stand-alone testing of the EDU’s electric motor and inverter in a dedicated test cell after removal from the vehicle. The resulting data sets were compared with each other and with similar data previously published by GM. In this paper, additional EDU test methods are explored. First, the stand-alone testing of the EDU and its subcomponents is expanded to include testing both with and without the EDU gearing. This testing allows the electric motor, inverter, and gearbox to be characterized separately and the EDU to be characterized as a complete unit. Second, in
Moskalik, Andrew, Schauer, Ethan, Barba, Daniel
AI-Powered Requirements Engineering & Design Optimization of Electric Powertrains2026-01-0500To be published on 04/07/2026
The development of electric vehicle powertrains is driven by diverse and often conflicting requirements. In early development phases, these requirements are often vague, incomplete, and continuously refined and subject to change as development progresses. Moreover, powertrain designs must be competitive regarding multiple key performance indicators (KPIs) such as performance, cost, energy efficiency, and package integration. This challenges engineers to concurrently develop the powertrain design alongside the requirements on which the design is based on. Managing this combination of uncertain requirements and multi-KPI design optimization represents a complex challenge in automotive engineering. The present work introduces a requirements engineering approach based on OPED (Optimization of Electric Drives). OPED digitalizes the transition from requirements to technical solutions by integrating parametric system models with an AI-based evolutionary optimization algorithm. This enables
Hofstetter, Martin, Lechleitner, Dominik
Research on Reliability Test Methods for Electric Drive Axle Differentials2026-01-0007To be published on 04/07/2026
With the rapid socio-economic development, global issues such as the energy crisis and environmental pollution have become increasingly severe. Electric vehicles have garnered growing attention due to their environmental friendliness, simple structure, and high energy efficiency. Electric drive technology is regarded as the most ideal universal driving solution for pure electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles. The electric drive axle, as a new type of integrated mechatronic transmission system, is being increasingly adopted owing to its advantages such as high drive efficiency, flexible spatial arrangement, and facilitation of digital and automated chassis control. This study focuses on reliability testing methods for the differential in electric drive axles, mainly including the extraction of reliability test conditions and feasibility analysis of the test scheme. The main research contents are as follows: First, based on specific parameters of an electric
Zheng, Hongyu, Li, Ziyu, Wang, Dajiang, tian, kai
Advancing Electric Drive Unit Design with Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH).2026-01-0413To be published on 04/07/2026
The performance of Electric Drive Units (EDUs) in electrified powertrains heavily depends on efficient thermal and lubrication management. Accurate assessment of lubrication flow, particularly in terms of wettability and churning losses, is essential for optimizing EDU performance across various driving conditions. This paper presents a comprehensive numerical investigation of lubrication flow behavior within an EDU using an advanced Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method. The mesh-free SPH approach provides significant advantages in modeling intricate oil dynamics, such as oil splashing, and the behavior of oil in contact with rotating components. The primary focus of this study is to investigate the phenomena of splashing, wettability, and churning losses under various operating conditions within the gearbox environment. Key flow characteristics such as oil distribution, particle trajectories, torque resistance due to fluid drag, and oil volume fraction are analyzed under
Chintala, Paramesh, Inada, Jorge, Flores Solano, Cesar Alfonso, Gingade, Suresh
Adaptive Torque Vector Control for Distributed Drive Intelligent Electric Vehicles Using Model and Data Driven Approaches2026-01-0628To be published on 04/07/2026
To effectively improve the performance of chassis control of distributed drive intelligent electric vehicles (EVs) under difference road conditions, especially in combing road information and chassis control for improving road handling and ride comfort, is a challenging task for the distributed drive intelligent EVs. Simultaneously, inaccurate chassis control and uncertainty with system input, are always existing, e.g., varying road input or control parameters. Due to the higher fatality rate caused by variable factors, how to precisely chose and enforce the reasonable chassis control strategy of distributed drive intelligent EVs become a hot topic in both academia and industry. To issue the above mentioned, an adaptive torque vector hierarchical controller based on road roughness and adhesion is proposed, which optimizes the comprehensive performance of vehicle chassis. First, combined with the characteristic of the unbalance dynamic force caused by the air gap between the stator and
Wang, Zhenfeng, Zhao, Gaoming, Zhang, Zhijie
Lateral stability and energy-saving integrated control of distributed drive vehicles with four wheel hub motors2026-01-0635To be published on 04/07/2026
Abstract: In order to improve the lateral stability and energy optimization of four-wheel hub motor distributed drive vehicles under complex road conditions, a layered control strategy for yaw stability is proposed. The upper controller is designed based on the sliding mode control principle to create a yaw moment controller, establishing both a two-degree-of-freedom model and a seven-degree-of-freedom model for the vehicle, tracking the desired yaw rate, desired center of mass side slip angle, actual yaw rate, and actual center of mass side slip angle to obtain the corresponding additional yaw moment. Moreover, the state of the vehicle is analyzed using the phase plane method of the center of mass side slip angle and yaw rate, and the total additional yaw moment for the vehicle is computed based on weighted calculations according to the state. Additionally, an unscented Kalman filter observer is established to enhance the tracking accuracy of the actual yaw rate and actual center of
shi, cheng'ao, liu, bingsen, Zou, Xiaojun, Wang, Tao, Zhang, Ming
Methods of Highly Repeatable Lubricant Testing for Electric Vehicles: Universal Motor Control and Statistical Test-Variation Analysis2026-01-0421To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper describes a systematic approach to evaluate lubricants for hybrid and electric vehicles (xEVs) that can detect impacts on efficiency as low as 0.1 percentage points. Two testing methods were developed to evaluate lubricants' efficiency effects: (1) on a complete vehicle (using the manufacturer's hardware and motor control) and (2) on a standalone drive unit (using custom power electronics and control). A Monte Carlo simulation was used to analyze the resulting data to determine the detection limits of the vehicle test method. To evaluate the effectiveness of the test stands and the data-analysis method, a Tesla Model 3 electric drive unit and a Chevrolet Bolt battery electric vehicle (BEV) were characterized for system efficiency. For the Bolt mounted on a hub driven chassis dynamometer, this method is capable of detecting a change in the drive unit's electromechanical efficiency between baseline and candidate fluids of <0.4 percentage point (pp) with 95% confidence at most
Luo, Yilun, Gross, Michael, Kostan, Travis
Lightweight Bubble Sheet Panel To Reduce Inverter Noise and Vibration for Electric Vehicles2026-01-0442To be published on 04/07/2026
Inverters are typically integrated into electric drive units for electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce packaging size and cost. However, coupled vibrations from the electric motor and gears are transmitted to the inverter, which, due to its large radiative panel, becomes a dominant noise source. Metal panels are required for electromagnetic interference (EMI) compliance, yet these covers usually lack sufficient stiffness or damping for noise control. Adding ribs and applying damping treatments results in excessive mass, cost, and packaging challenges. A new, patented bubble sheet panel design has been developed to enhance the structural strength and damping of the inverter while significantly reducing its mass. A thin sheet of aluminum or magnesium is welded onto the cover in an optimized pattern that enhances stiffness and damping performance while accommodating packaging requirements. The welding pattern can include logos or artistic designs to improve the panel’s appearance. The metal
He, Song, Bobel, Andrew, Naismith, Gregory, Yi, Wenwen, Patruni, Pavan Kumar
Noninvasive Loss Breakdown of an Electric Drive Unit2026-01-0448To be published on 04/07/2026
Techniques exist to precisely measure the electromechanical efficiency in an electric drive unit (EDU, defined here as the combined motor and geartrain). While total drive unit efficiency is an important metric, it does not quantify the different loss sources in the EDU. Due to the tight packaging in production EDUs, it’s impractical to mount a torque transducer between the electric machine and gearbox to separate the losses from these components. Additionally, this approach does not separate the winding, core, and mechanical losses present in the electric machine. In this work, we developed a noninvasive approach to distinguish winding, core, and mechanical losses for EDUs containing synchronous electric machines. To separate the effects of these losses, mechanical output power was held constant at several test points while varying the stator’s current amplitude and angle. By maintaining the mechanical power at a constant value and varying the stator current, the core and winding
Woods, Tyler, Gross, Michael, Drallmeier, Joseph
Research on Parameter Matching and Control Strategy of Electric Semi trailer Power System2026-01-0449To be published on 04/07/2026
Reducing carbon emissions is an important issue for environmental protection, while also saving fossil fuels for all mankind and preventing global warming. Therefore, reducing carbon emissions is of great significance. The carbon emissions in the transportation sector account for an important proportion of global carbon emissions, and the carbon emissions of heavy-duty commercial vehicles also account for an important proportion of the carbon emissions in the transportation sector. Therefore, the electrification of heavy-duty commercial vehicles is one of the important ways to save energy and reduce emissions for heavy-duty vehicles. Especially the research topic of this article: semi-trailer trains. Similar to passenger cars, semi-trailer trains also have two electrification ideas: hybrid and electric drive. Considering the high energy demand of heavy-duty commercial vehicles, the high cost of large capacity batteries, the current low level of development of electric heavy-duty
Zheng, Hongyu, Zhu, Kaixuan, Zhang, Yuzhou
Predicting Electric Vehicle Interior Noise Quality from Drive Unit End-of-Line Vibration Testing2026-01-0223To be published on 04/07/2026
The Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) quality of electric vehicles (EVs) is heavily influenced by the performance of the electric drive unit. As a critical step in production, End-of-Line (EOL) testing of drive units is used to assess and control component-level NVH before vehicle assembly. However, the correlation between EOL test results and final vehicle interior noise quality, which directly impacts customer satisfaction, is not always fully understood. This paper presents a methodology for characterizing and predicting vehicle interior noise quality based on data from drive unit EOL vibration testing. Our study investigates the intricate relationship between drive unit assembly variations, component tolerances, and the resulting vibrational response. We establish a robust correlation between these drive unit characteristics and both objective vehicle interior noise levels and subjective customer perception. The findings provide a framework for using EOL data to proactively
Arvanitis, Anastasios, Jangid, Kuldeep
System-Level Performance of Torque Vectoring Controllers for Electric Vehicles with In-Wheel Motors10-10-04-00293/13/2026
Torque Vectoring (TV) is a critical control technology for enhancing the vehicle dynamics and stability of electric vehicles equipped with four-wheel-independent-drive (4WID) systems. A central challenge in TV design is managing the trade-off between maximizing handling performance and minimizing energy consumption, a crucial factor for EV range. While numerous advanced TV control strategies have been proposed, a comprehensive and comparative benchmark of foundational controllers evaluated on a platform that captures this trade-off is notably absent from the literature. Among the numerous TV control strategies proposed in literature, they are typically evaluated using simplified vehicle models that neglect the detailed dynamics and efficiency losses of the electric powertrain. This study addresses this gap by presenting a comprehensive comparison of six distinct TV control strategies—PID, LQR, two first-order Sliding Mode Controls (SMC), and two second-order SMCs. The controllers are
de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Carello, Massimiliana
Airport Electrical Power System HarmonicsAIR5387 (Current)2/17/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended to cover all airport 50 or 60 Hz electrical systems as well as all electrical utilization equipment that is attached to those systems.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Development of Plug-In Hybrid Motorbike and Analysis towards Sustainable Urban Mobility2026-28-01112/12/2026
The transportation system is one major catalyst to urban ecological imbalance. In developing countries, two-wheelers are considered a major mode of urban personal transportation because of their compactness, easy maneuver in heavy traffic and good fuel efficiency. In India, middle and lower middle-class people prefer to choose two wheelers, and these vehicles are dominantly fuelled by gasoline. Although, the energy consumption by a two-wheeler is comparatively less than that of a four-wheeler, they use about 60% of the nation’s petroleum for on-road vehicles and the impact on urban air quality and climatic change is significantly high. This high proportion of gasoline utilization and emission contribution by two wheelers in cities demand greater attention to improve urban air quality and near-term energy sustainability. Electrification of two-wheelers through the application of a plug-in hybrid idea is a promising solution. A plug-in hybrid motorbike was developed by putting forth a
Kannan, Prashanth, Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao
Common Mode Voltage Reduction in Quasi-Z Source Inverter for Electric Vehicle Applications Using MBPWM Technique2026-28-01022/12/2026
Unlike traditional voltage source or current source inverters, ZSI/qZSI can boost and invert DC power in a single stage, making them attractive for applications like EVs where battery voltage may vary. Common mode Voltage (CMV) is the voltage between the neutral point of the motor and ground. High CMV in motor drive systems can cause: Higher leakage currents, Electromagnetic interference (EMI), Insulation stress, bearing currents, leading to premature motor failure. Reducing CMV is essential for reliable and safe EV operation. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is used to control the QZSI output voltage. The QZSI offers several advantages over traditional inverters, including improved efficiency, reduced cost, and increased reliability. The proposed system is designed to reduce the CMV through a combination of passive LC filtering and shoot-through (ST) modulation techniques. The LC filter is designed to attenuate high-frequency components of the CMV while the ST modulation is used to
N, Kalaiarasi, R, Rajarajeswari, D, Anitha
Engineering flexibility into EV powertrains26AUTP02_112/1/2026
When developing specialist and performance EVs, the challenge goes far beyond selecting an off-the-shelf powertrain. Each manufacturer brings unique performance targets, packaging constraints, and integration requirements. And add on the fact that no two platforms look the same. Powered by Everrati, our B2B division, engages directly with leading customers globally, capturing what they truly need from electric powertrains. Two areas emerge consistently as the most complex and variable: the electric drive unit (EDU) and the battery system.
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - SAE: Where Meaningful Relationships Take Shape135531/30/2026
Curious how SAE can open doors in the automotive industry and beyond? Listen in as we sit down with Dean Case, Membership Director, SAE SoCal, whose 45-year journey in the automotive industry is packed with stories of racing, engineering, and community building. From joining SAE as a Cal Poly student to shaping the future of motorsports and electric vehicles at Mazda, Ford, and Nissan, learn how SAE International became a springboard to building lifelong connections and uncovering new opportunities. Whether you're a student, engineering professional, or automotive enthusiast, this conversation is packed with inspiration, practical advice, and proof that SAE provides a firm foundation for meaningful relationships that last. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders
Patterson, Lori
Correlation of Power Rating for Battery Electric Vehicles: Simulation vs. Test Validation in Accordance with Regulatory Compliance2026-26-05751/16/2026
Accurate power and energy assessment in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) requires high-fidelity simulation models that reflect real-world performance. This study presents a power rating correlation of the BEV model in compliance with the GTR 21[1] standard, validating the simulation’s accuracy against physical test data. Simulations were conducted using Matlab and Simulink based Simulation tool to estimate Electric Drive Module (EDM) power at the motor output and gearbox input under standardized conditions. The operating parameters were shared with the testing team to ensure consistency; however, the initial test results deviated by approximately 4% to 5% from the simulation target. To address this delta, EDM speed and vehicle speed were optimized, achieving a close alignment with the simulation and meeting the power rating targets. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between the simulation and test data, confirming the model’s accuracy and reliability. This study underscores
Mahajan, Prasad, Kesarkar, Sidhesh, Ali, Shoaib
Enhancing Range Prediction Accuracy for the BEV: Bridging the Gap between Simulation and Real-World Testing2026-26-05211/16/2026
Accurate range estimation in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is essential for optimizing performance, energy efficiency, and customer expectations. This study investigates the discrepancies between physical test data and simulation predictions for the BEV model. A detailed range delta analysis identifies key contributors to the observed deviations, including regenerative braking inefficiencies, increased propulsion demand, auxiliary loads, and estimated drivetrain losses within the Electric Drive Module (EDM) during traction and regen. Results indicate that the test vehicle exhibits lower regenerative braking efficiency, higher traction forces and lower regen energy than predicted by simulations, primarily due to EDM inefficiencies and friction brake usage during regeneration. The study underscores the importance of refining simulation methodologies by integrating real-world, test based EDM loss maps to improve accuracy and better align predictive models with actual vehicle
Mahajan, Prasad, Kesarkar, Sidhesh, Ali, Shoaib
Optimization of Electric Powertrain Mounting for Vibration Isolation in EV Powertrains Using Multibody Dynamics2026-26-00801/16/2026
With growing significance of electric vehicles (EVs), their powertrains – while naturally quieter than internal combustion engine (ICE) powertrains – pose new NVH (Noise, Vibration, Harshness) challenges. These are triggered mainly from high-frequency disturbances caused by electric motors and gear interactions. Isolation of such excitations is essential for securing cabin refinement and customer expectations for acoustic comfort. This paper offers a simulation-based approach to optimal placement of the electric drive unit (EDU), which houses the electric motor and gearbox, with the objective of reducing vibration transfer to the chassis of the vehicle. The methodology explores the effect of spatial mount repositioning under actual dynamic load conditions through multibody dynamics (MBD) modeling and integrated optimizer using advanced multibody dynamics simulation software – Virtual Dynamics. The suggested workflow helps in effective investigation of mount positioning within packaging
Shah, Swapnil, Mane, Prashant, Back, Arthur, Emran, Ashraf
Structural and Micro-Geometry Optimization of an Electric Drive Unit for Whine Noise Reduction2026-26-03151/16/2026
The noise generated by pure electric vehicles (EVs) has become a significant area of research, particularly due to the increasing adoption of electrified propulsion systems aimed at meeting OEM fleet CO₂ reduction targets. Unlike internal combustion engines, which mask many drivetrain noises, EVs expose new challenges due to the quieter operation of electric motors. In this context, the transmission system and gear structures have emerged as primary contributors to noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) in EVs. The present study provides an NVH study that focuses on the gear whine noise issue that is seen at the vehicle level and cascades to the powertrain level. Comprehensive root cause identification, focusing on the transmission system's structural and dynamic behavior. The research emphasizes modifications to both the gearbox housing and gear structures to reduce noise level, and model validation was all part of the study, which was accompanied by physical test results. Using MBS
Baviskar, Shreyas, Kamble, Pranit, Ghale, Guruprasad, Bendre, Parag, Prabhakar, Shantanu, Kunde, Sagar, Thakur, Sunil, Wagh, Sachin
High-Frequency Dynamic Stiffness Measurements of Automotive Elastomers for Electric Vehicles2026-26-03121/16/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has intensified the demand for advanced elastomeric materials capable of meeting stringent noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) requirements. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs lack traditional masking noise generated by the powertrain. In the automotive industry, the dynamic stiffness of elastomers in internal combustion engines has traditionally been determined using hydraulic test rigs, with test frequencies limited to a maximum of 1,000 Hz. Measurements above this frequency range have not been possible and are conducted only through computerized FE or CAE calculation models. Electric drive systems, however, generate distinct tonal noise components in the high-frequency range up to 10,000 Hz, which are clearly perceptible even at low sound pressure levels. Consequently, the dynamic stiffness characteristics of elastomers up to 3,000 Hz are critical for optimizing NVH performance in EVs. This study focuses on high
Bohne, Christian, Gröne, Michael
E-Drive System Selection Criterion for Hybrid Electric Heavy Commercial Vehicles Segments2026-26-04671/16/2026
The automotive industry has been expediting progress toward electrification since climate change driven by global warming represents a significant environmental challenge with far-reaching implications. While electric vehicles offer considerable potential for mitigating CO₂ emissions, their elevated upfront costs pose a notable challenge to large-scale market penetration. Hybrid electric vehicles can serve as an effective intermediary solution, bridging the gap between conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and fully electric vehicles, owing to their comparatively lower initial costs. Hybrid electric vehicle component selection is a complex process that must fulfill multiple requirements: fuel economy, performance, drivability, packaging, total cost of ownership and comfort. Additionally, the selection of hybrid configuration also plays a vital role in determining the cost of the hybrid electric vehicle. Hence, it is a great challenge to select the right powertrain
Shendge, Raman, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Wani, Kalpesh, Warule, Prasad
Real-Time Range Optimization for Selected Destinations by Dynamic Energy Management Strategy (DEMS) in BEVs2026-26-01681/16/2026
The automotive industry has undergone significant transformation with the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). However, the inadequate driving range is still a major limitation and to tackle range anxiety, the focus has shifted to energy management strategies for optimal range under different driving conditions. Developing an optimal energy management algorithm is crucial for overcoming range anxiety and gaining a competitive edge in the market. This paper introduces Dynamic Energy Management Strategy (DEMS) for electric vehicles (EVs), designed to optimize battery usage and extend the driving range. Utilizing vehicle digital twin model, DEMS estimates energy consumption across Eco, Normal, and Sports driving modes by analyzing vehicle velocity profiles and pedal inputs. By calculating actual battery consumption and identifying excess power usage, DEMS operates in a closed loop to periodically assess the power gap based on real-time vehicle conditions, including HV components like the
Dey, Supriyo, Venugopal, Karthick Babu, Penta, Amar, Kumar, Rohit, Arya, Harshita
Powertrain Optimization of Indian City Electric Bus Using Active Learning Simulation Methodology2026-26-06571/16/2026
Public transport electrification is going to play a massive role in India’s COP26 pledge to achieve net zero emissions by 2070. India plans to electrify 800,000 buses in a push towards 30% EV penetration by 2030. Further encouraged by government incentives under National Electric Bus Program (NEBP), e-Bus market is expected to grow at a CAGR of ~86% annually over the next 5 years. With most OEMs going for fleet electrification for reducing CO2 emissions and to cater to growing demand in Indian cities for cleaner public transport, improving powertrain efficiency and performance of state-of-the-art e-Buses is a natural progression of e-mobility sector development in India. The first step in designing powertrain for an electric city bus is to determine the motor(s) size and transmission specifications (number of gears, gear ratios etc.). Complications arise due to a wider and non-linear operation range of eBus. This study focuses on powertrain optimization for a medium duty electric city
Sandhu, Rouble, Chen, Bicheng, Emran, Ashraf, Xia, Feihong, Lin, Xiao, Berry, Sushil
Wheel Speed Control for Corner Module ABS with Full Brake-By-Wire System2025-01-732212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB), with its continuous torque control characteristic, can enhance the performance of anti-lock braking control in intelligent chassis system. Therefore, in this study, a corner module anti-lock braking system (ABS) using EMB is proposed for intelligent chassis driven by in-wheel motors (IWMs). The corner module design can directly utilize the high-bandwidth speed signal of the IWM. This transforms traditional ABS wheel slip rate control into low-latency, high-bandwidth wheel speed tracking control under strong transient conditions. As a result, the control loop is simplified and signal transmission delay is reduced, which allows EMB to fully exploit its performance advantages. Additionally, this study proposes an Improved Higher-order Sliding Mode Control strategy with Super-Twisting Algorithm (IHSMC-STA) for wheel speed tracking control. The proposed strategy enhances the traditional first-order sliding mode exponential reaching law and integrates the
Chang, Cheng, Chu, Liang, Zhao, Di
Mode Identification and Collaborative Switch for the Front-Centralized and Rear-Distributed Electric Drive Vehicle Based on BP Neural Network2025-01-733512/31/2025
Distributed-drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) significantly enhance off-road maneuverability but suffer from compromised high-speed stability and robustness. This research introduces a front-centralized and rear-distributed (FCRD) architecture that synergistically leverages the advantages of each configuration. The electric-drive-wheel (EDW) on the rear suspension can provide three working modes: (a) Drive-connected mode, (b) Drive-disconnected mode, (c) Brake mode. It is the key actuator for vehicle mode-switching, which supports the vehicle with three driving modes: (a) DDEV, (b) front-wheel drive (FWD), (c) all-wheel drive (AWD). A hierarchical control architecture employs the upper-layer controller with Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN) for mode identification and decision-making. The lower-layer controller enables the intelligent torque distribution and collaborative control of the motors. The control strategy is pre-trained in the VCU (vehicle control unit) with off-line data
Ding, Xiaoyu, Chen, Xinbo, Wang, Wei, Zhang, Jiantao, Kong, Aijing
Fuzzy Logic-Based Traction Control for a 4WD In-Wheel Electric Formula Vehicle2025-36-011412/18/2025
Vehicle dynamic control is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency and high performance. In formula-type electric vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors (4WD), traction control combined with torque vectoring enhances stability and optimizes overall performance. Precise regulation of the torque applied to each wheel minimizes energy losses caused by excessive slipping or grip loss, improving both energy efficiency and component durability. Effective traction control is particularly essential in high-performance applications, where maintaining optimal tire grip is critical for achieving maximum acceleration, braking, and cornering capabilities. This study evaluates the benefits of Fuzzy Logic-based traction control and torque distribution for each motor. The traction control system continuously monitors wheel slip, ensuring they operate within the optimal slip range. Then, torque is distributed to each motor according to its angular speed, maximizing vehicle efficiency and performance
Oliveira, Vivian Fernandes, Hayashi, Daniela Tiemi, Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Andrade Estevos, Jaqueline, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio, Eckert, Jony Javorski
Development of a Lateral Dynamic Model for Formula 4WD Vehicles with In-Wheel Motors2025-36-017612/18/2025
Vehicle electrification has introduced new powertrain possibilities, such as the use of four independent in-wheel motors, enabling the development of control strategies that enhance vehicle safety and drivability. The development of a model capable of simulating vehicle behavior is fundamental for control system design. A high-fidelity model takes into account several parameters, such as vehicle ride height, track width, wheelbase, and others, making it possible to evaluate the vehicle’s behavior and allowing for prior validation of the design, thus contributing to improved vehicle safety and performance. In this context, this study presents a lateral dynamic model of a Formula 4WD vehicle with in-wheel motors, enabling the simulation and analysis of the vehicle’s behavior in cornering maneuvers. To achieve this, the complete lateral model is developed using MATLAB Simulink as the platform, incorporating the semi-empirical Hans Pacejka tire model, calculating yaw moment, and analyzing
Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Araujo, Lucas Montenegro, Vitalli, Rogério, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe, Santos Neto, Pedro José dos, Daniel, Gregory Bregion, Eckert, Jony Javorski
TOC99-07-06-0TOC12/2/2025
TOC
Tobolski, Sue
Horse Powertrain's Future Hybrid System can hybridize EVs25AUTP12_0512/1/2025
Horse Powertrain revealed more information about its all-in-one hybrid powertrain, the Future Hybrid System, at IAA Mobility 2025 in Munich in September. The new details involve a 1.5-L, four-cylinder unit with integrated engine, motor, and transmission that was designed to replace an EV's front electric drive module to convert that EV into a hybrid, PHEV, or range-extended EV. Horse Powertrain revealed two variants of the Future Hybrid System (FHS) in Munich. The first, called Performance, is 740 mm (29 in) wide and uses two motors in a P1 + P3 configuration, with one each on the engine output and transmission output shafts. The second, the Ultra-Compact, is 650 mm (26 in) wide and is designed to sit between the engine and transmission. The 1.5-L engine, a dedicated hybrid transmission, and a full suite of power electronics for hybrid use are used in both versions. The company said an even smaller version - by 70 mm (3 in) - with three cylinders is being investigated.
Blanco, Sebastian
Analysis of Factors Influencing the Efficiency Improvement Potential of a Winding Changeover in an Electric Machine2025-01-051811/25/2025
The winding configuration of an electric machine has a decisive influence on the properties of a traction drive. When designing the electric drive, the optimum compromise must be found between maximum torque, maximum power and high efficiency over a wide operating range. A decisive factor in this design conflict is the choice of the winding configuration. The concept of winding switching offers a way of solving the design conflict and improving the characteristics of the drive through the additional degree of freedom of the variable winding configuration. Switching the number of parallel winding branches in a serial and parallel configuration is a promising approach to overcome the challenge of a high spread between maximum power and high efficiency in customer related driving scenarios of an electric vehicle. The aim of this study is to identify factors influencing the efficiency improvement potential of the winding switching topology under consideration compared to a reference drive
Oestreicher, Raphael, Koenen, Christian, Kulzer, André Casal
Road Test Emulation: A Data-Driven Calibration Approach2025-01-052111/25/2025
The resource-intensive process of road testing constitutes an essential part of the development of powertrain software. A significant proportion of explorative tests and adjustments for use in service are conducted during the vehicle test phase. However, the observed trends of decreasing development cycles and increasing system complexity generate a field of conflicts. In order to address this issue, this paper proposes road test emulation as a data-driven approach for continuously adapting powertrain software to the evolving overall system. A dedicated data strategy is designed to enhance customer-oriented software development. Therefore, test scenarios equivalent to in-service conditions are determined based on customer data. These test scenarios enable an emulation of road testing and the analysis of the system in a real-world operational context from the early stages of the product development process. System-specific data from the vehicle under development itself is utilised to
Martini, Tim, Kempf, André, Winke, Florian, Auerbach, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal
Safety Critical Series Arc Detection and Measurement in Medium and High Voltage DC Circuits2025-32-001211/3/2025
Direct current (DC) systems are increasingly used in small power system applications ranging from combined heat and power plants aided with photovoltaic (PV) installations to powertrains of small electric vehicles. A critical safety issue in these systems is the occurrence of series arc faults, which can lead to fires due to high temperatures. This paper presents a model-based method for detecting such faults in medium- and high-voltage DC circuits. Unlike traditional approaches that rely on high-frequency signal analysis, the proposed method uses a physical circuit model and a high-gain observer to estimate deviations from nominal operation. The detection criterion is based on the variance of a disturbance estimate, allowing fast and reliable fault identification. Experimental validation is conducted using a PV system with an arc generator to simulate faults. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the method in distinguishing fault events from normal operating variations. The
Winkler, Alexander, Mayr, Stefan, Grabmair, Gernot
Analysis of a Battery Bicycle with a Sliding Mechanism for Need-Based Adjustments for Luggage Space2025-28-040510/30/2025
A battery bicycle with luggage space is designed and developed to have variable luggage space available to the rider. The developed design with bicycle frame has an innovative sideway moving frame for variable need-based space. The design was prepared for an e-commerce delivery application, suppling products through an easy, quick, and low-cost mode of transport with variable spacing options. The design was prepared for 160 kg weight, with 210 cm, 90 cm, and 35 cm as length height and width, respectively. The designed bicycle can carry luggage up to 100 kg. The design is powered by a 250-watt electric motor and can move with a maximum speed of 24 km/hr. The steering mechanism, cargo bucket, and the base frame are made in two parts for commuter convenience. The cargo bucket is front-mounted, on a sliding frame that enables one half of the bucket to be slid into the other half through sideways movement by fitted channels. The design has both electric and non-electric driving modes. The
Vashist, Devendra, Satti, Harsh, Awasthi, A.K, MUKHERJEE, SOURAV
Impact of Range Extender Engine Configuration on Powertrain Performance and Vehicle Integration2025-01-038610/7/2025
The light-duty transportation sector is experiencing a worldwide push towards reduced carbon intensity. One pathway that has been developed focuses on replacing internal combustion engine (ICE)-based vehicles with full-electric battery electric vehicles (BEV), which offer local carbon dioxide (CO2)-free mobility. However, batteries offer a limited mobility range and can require long recharging times, leading to a limited range perception among some vehicle operators. A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) utilizes a small ICE to mitigate the range concerns of BEVs, while also enabling a battery size reduction with its associated improvements in cost, weight, and manufacturing-related CO2 intensity. A previous study by the authors discussed evaluation criteria for range extender engines (REx) and compared additive technology options to enable cost-, efficiency, or power-optimized REEV applications using a modular approach. This study contrasts the dedicated REx with associated modular
Hoth, Alexander, Marion, Joshua, Silvano, Peter, Peters, Nathan, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai Krishna, Bunce, Mike
Factors Influencing Energy Consumption in Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles: A Field Study2025-01-041410/7/2025
The paper assesses the impact of key factors influencing energy consumption for a Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle (PHEV) passenger car based on actual operating conditions over a period of one year. The tests were carried out in various climatic conditions, by random drivers, on the roads and streets of a medium-sized city in Poland. The use of PHEV with the prepared measuring procedure allowed for the analysis of energy consumption separately for the internal combustion and electric drive system. The total energy consumption directly depends on the way the car is used and on the availability of energy in fuel tank and traction battery. The calculated energy consumption varied from 20.19 to 41.97 kWh/100 km. The results were compared to other vehicles operated in real conditions, registered in a public database. The recorded minimum values of energy consumption correspond to the electric drive system, and the maximum values to the internal combustion drive system.
Mamala, Jaroslaw, Graba, Mariusz, Bieniek, Andrzej, Prażnowski, Krzysztof, Hennek, Krystian, Burdzik, Rafał
Understanding End-of-Line NVH Scatter Bands in Electric Drives with High-Precision Simulations2025-01-040610/7/2025
An important characteristic of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is their noise signature. Besides tire and wind noise, noise from auxiliaries as pumps, the electric drive unit (EDU) is one of the major contributors. The dynamic and acoustic behavior of EDUs can be significantly affected by production tolerances. The effects that lead to these scatter bands must be understood to be able to control them better and thus guarantee a consistently high quality of the products and a silent and pleasant drive. The paper discusses a simulation driven approach to investigate production tolerances and their effect on the NVH behavior of the EDU, using high precision transient multi-body dynamic analysis. This approach considers the main effects, influences, and the interaction from elastic structures of electric motor and transmission with accurate gear contact models in a fully coupled way. It serves as virtual end of line test, applicable in all steps of a new EDU development, by increasing
Klarin, Borislav, Schweiger, Christoph, Resch, Thomas
Instability Prediction of Onboard Power Electronic Systems in Hybrid Electric Tractors under Large Power Disturbances14-14-03-00199/11/2025
In recent years, the powertrains of agricultural tractors have been transitioning toward hybrid electric configurations, paving the way for a greener future agricultural machinery. However, stability challenges arise in hybrid electric tractors due to the relative small capacity to perform power-intensive tasks, such as plowing and harvesting. These operations demand significant power, which are supplied by the electric power take-off system. The substantial disturbances introduced by the electric power take-off system during these tasks render conventional small-signal analysis methods inadequate for ensuring system stability. In this article, we first develop a large-signal model of the onboard power electronic systems, which includes components such as the diesel engine–generator set, batteries, in-wheel motors, and electric power take-off system. By employing mixed potential theory, we conduct a thorough analysis of this model and derive a stability criterion for the onboard power
Li, Fangyuan, Li, Chenhui, Gao, Lefei, Ma, Qichao, Liu, Yanhong
Comparing Different Electrical Architectures for a Parallel PEMFC-Battery Hybrid Electric Lightweight Vehicle2025-24-01109/7/2025
In the field of hybrid powertrains for sustainable mobility, fuel cells are a promising solution to improve the performance of battery electric vehicles by implementing PEMFCs as REx. The selection of proper power electronics, such as converters, is fundamental to guarantee tight control and electrical stability. In this paper, a comparison between different electrical architectures of an electric hybrid PEMFC/battery vehicle is proposed: a light battery electric quadricycle (EU L6e) with four in-wheel motors is hybridized with a 3 kW open-cathode PEMFC as REx in parallel layout. The battery accounts for a bi-directional DC/DC converter to stabilize the voltage at 48V, needed by EMGs. A passive architecture is firstly considered, with the PEMFC stack connected to the battery poles; the second architecture is a semi-active one, with the PEMFC connected after the battery DC/DC converter; the last considered layout is active, with a unidirectional DC/DC converter between PEMFC and
Sicilia, Massimo, Cervone, Davide, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
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