Browse Topic: Aircraft operations

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A Simple Method for Synthesizing Wear-Resistant Superhydrophobic Anti-Icing Coating2026-99-01297/31/2026
This research demonstrates a facile method for fabricating an anti-icing coating through spray deposition on a metallic substrate. A dual-layer structure was designed to enhance icephobic properties: a primer layer incorporating fluorocarbon resin, butyl acetate, and rod-shaped micrometer-sized metal oxides to establish a secondary roughness morphology, followed by a topcoat composed of butyl acetate and nano-scaled superhydrophobic particles. Evaluation of the coating performance revealed a maximum water contact angle of 171.9°, indicating exceptional hydrophobicity. Furthermore, the coating exhibited notable abrasion resistance and anti-icing capabilities against overlaying ice.
Li, Dongyang, Xu, Zelong, Wu, Jiang, Tong, Wei, Wang, Weiqing, Cong, Rimei, Qian, Jiawei, Qu, Shaohui
Research on the Application of Eddy Current Retarders in Aircraft Arresting Systems2026-99-16217/24/2026
At present, the aircraft arresting system in our country is the fixed water turbine type. This kind of equipment cannot achieve the arrestment of multiple aircraft types, and the arresting distance cannot be adjusted. According to these problems of the aircraft arresting system in our country, the eddy current retarding device is added, based on the water turbine braking device of the aircraft arresting system. It derives the differential equation for an aircraft arresting system with a water turbine brake and eddy current retarder using mathematical modeling. Four types of aircraft parameters are selected, and MATLAB is used as a simulation tool to verify the reliability of the arresting system after installing the eddy current retarder. This research can improve the arresting support ability and make the arresting device meet the arresting requirements of different types of aircraft.
Wei, Yan, Feng, Chunchun, Wang, Jianwu, Li, Binghong, Yang, Yang
115/200 Volt, 400 Hz Aircraft External Electrical Power Connector Contact Maintenance ProceduresAIR4365C (Current)7/23/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) describes procedures for use in the field to determine if 115/200 Volt, 400 Hz aircraft external electrical power connectors are excessively worn, which may result in the inability of the external power plug to be retained, intermittent electrical performance, and arcing.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Endurance Time Test Procedures for SAE Type II/III/IV Aircraft Deicing/Anti-icing FluidsARP5485C (Current)7/20/2026
The purpose of this SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) is to provide the sample selection and endurance time test procedures for SAE Type II, III, and IV aircraft deicing/anti-icing fluids, required for the generation of endurance time data of acceptable quality for review by the SAE G-12 Holdover Time Committee. The related standard ARP5718 provides the process by which endurance time data is converted to holdover times for publication by regulators and subsequent use by aircraft operators.
G-12HOT Holdover Time Committee
Numerical Simulation Study on the Transformation Process of Multiple Droplets into Liquid Films2026-99-18337/17/2026
The numerical simulation of the transformation process of multiple droplets into liquid films is a complex problem involving multiphase flow, interface dynamics, and heat and mass transfer. It usually requires the combination of fluid mechanics, interface science, and numerical calculation methods. Based on the smooth particle fluid dynamics method, this paper establishes a multiphase fluid-solid coupling interaction model among droplets, surrounding air and solid walls, and studies the dynamic change process of multiple raindrops dispersed in different grooves. The results show that when the contact Angle is small, the boundaries of multiple raindrops do not come into contact. The multiple raindrops evolve in their respective grooves and eventually form multiple raindrops that approach the steady-state contact Angle. The second situation is that the boundaries of multiple raindrops do not come into contact, the raindrops start to fuse, and multiple raindrops form a larger one. At this point, the contact point of the gas-solid-liquid phase disappears, that is, the "regulating force" of the contact Angle is 0. This paper provides important numerical simulation references for flight safety, aerodynamic performance and anti-icing/de-icing technologies during the flight of aviation aircraft.
Huo, Ye, Chen, Yongheng, Sun, Cunxiang
Aircraft Surface Coating Interaction with Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing FluidsAIR6232 (Current)6/10/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides descriptions of test methods for determining if an aircraft surface coating of any thickness has adverse effects on aircraft deicing/anti-icing fluids with respect to fluid holdover time performance and aerodynamic performance. Although not the primary mandate of the G-12 Aircraft Ground Deicing Committee, this document also provides descriptions of suggested test methods for evaluating aircraft surface coatings with respect to durability, hardness, weathering, aerodynamic drag, ice adhesion, ice accumulation, contact angle, and thermal conductivity. These additional tests can provide informational data for characterizing the coatings and may be useful to operators when evaluating the coatings.
G-12ADF Aircraft Deicing Fluids
Investigating the Potential of Two Individually Controlled Injectors per Rotor for a Direct Injection Hydrogen Wankel Engine2026-37-00086/9/2026
Hydrogen-fueled rotary engines offer a promising zero-emission solution for compact commercial powertrains. This study reports experimental results from the further development of a naturally aspirated, direct-injection hydrogen rotary engine by HTM. Initial applications, such as an airport baggage tractor, demonstrated technical feasibility but revealed pre-ignition that limited maximum torque. To address this, mixture formation was investigated using an experimental setup with two independently controlled injectors feeding a single rotor injection channel. The effects on operating behavior, efficiency, and NOx emissions were evaluated. The dual-injector configuration significantly shortens injection duration and improves spatial distribution of hydrogen within the combustion chamber. Enhanced mixture control suppresses pre-ignition and enables higher mean effective pressure. Systematic variation of injection timing under representative steady-state conditions also shows potential for NOx reduction through differentiated injector operation. In-cylinder pressure analysis and exhaust gas measurements provide detailed insight into combustion characteristics and abnormal events. The dual-injector setup increases torque capability and operational robustness without additional mechanical complexity, supporting the use of hydrogen rotary engines in compact hybrid systems and stationary power applications.
Endres, Jonas, Beidl, Christian, Herold, Tim, Lavall, Philipp, Schmidt, Marvin, Hofmann, Silas, Kahl, Jonas
Aircraft Ground Deicing Training and Qualification ProgramAS6286E (Current)5/27/2026
This document establishes the minimum training and qualification requirements for ground-based aircraft deicing methods and procedures. All guidelines referred to herein are applicable only in conjunction with the applicable documents. Due to aerodynamic and other concerns, the application of deicing fluids shall be carried out in compliance with engine and aircraft manufacturers’ recommendations. The scope of training should be adjusted according to local demands. There are a wide variety of winter seasons and differences of the involvement between deicing operators, and therefore, the level and length of training should be adjusted accordingly. However, the minimum level of training shall be covered in all cases. As a rule of thumb, the amount of time spent in practical training should equal or exceed the amount of time spent in classroom training.
G-12T Training and Quality Programs Committee
Aircraft Cargo Conveyor/Belt LoaderARP1836D (Current)5/21/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) outlines the functional and design requirements for a self-propelled belt conveyor for handling baggage and cargo at aircraft bulk cargo holds. Additional considerations and requirements may legally apply in other countries. As an example, for operation in Europe (EU and EFTA), the applicable EN standards shall be complied with.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Airborne Icing TankersARP5904A (Current)5/8/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) document establishes criteria and recommended practices for the use of airborne icing tankers to aid in design and certification of aircraft ice protection systems and components. Several icing tankers are described, along with their capabilities and suggested use. Sample data for these tanker spray systems are included, shown with 14 CFR Parts 25 and 29, Appendix C icing envelopes for continuous maximum and intermittent maximum icing conditions. (Note: In the remainder of this document, the phrase “Appendix C icing envelopes” will be used for brevity.) This ARP is intended as a guide toward standard practice and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances.
AC-9C Aircraft Icing Technology Committee
Battery Industrial, Lead-Acid Type, for Use in Electric Powered Ground Support EquipmentARP1817B (Current)3/25/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) describes an industrial battery, lead-acid type, for use in electric powered ground support equipment.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Baggage/Cargo Trailer RequirementsARP1348B (Current)2/18/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) applies to airline trailer equipment with four wheel running gear pulled and steered through an integral tow bar, for use on airport ramps and other airport areas for transporting baggage, freight, and other materials. This ARP can apply to any airline/airport trailer chassis regardless of its equipment; the trailer bed can be designed to carry either bulk baggage/cargo, or a cargo unit load device by means of a rollerized conveyor system, or a piece of aircraft servicing equipment (e.g., ground power unit, air start unit, etc.).
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Airport Electrical Power System HarmonicsAIR5387 (Current)2/17/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended to cover all airport 50 or 60 Hz electrical systems as well as all electrical utilization equipment that is attached to those systems.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Method of Evaluating Pneumatic Ground Power UnitsAIR4545A (Current)2/17/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) covers, and is restricted to, the behavior of air under conditions of critical and subcritical flow at temperatures less than 500 °F.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Maintenance of Ground Support EquipmentAIR4286 (Current)2/12/2026
The following are suggested policies, procedures, and practices required to maintain mobile and fixed ground support equipment at airport passenger and cargo terminals. The principal purpose for ground support equipment maintenance is to provide the owner/user with safe, serviceable equipment, in good appearance, at minimal cost, and with minimum downtime. Maintenance programs initiated on ground support equipment must also conform to regulations controlling airport operations. This document has been divided into three sections corresponding to the three stages of equipment life; acquisition, maintenance, and disposal.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Technical Manual Requirements for Ground Support EquipmentAS4828A (Current)2/12/2026
This document is a guideline for format, structure and content for ground support equipment (GSE) technical manuals. This document focuses on requirements specific to the GSE industry and does not cover general technical publication practices. Additional standards for GSE and for manufacturer’s publications exist and may add requirements beyond what is covered in this standard. This may include EU Directive 2006/42/EC. This document is written in specific terms by intention, and conforms to recognized practices in the industry. When the word SHALL is used in this standard, it indicates a requirement that must be adhered to in total and does not allow for variance. When the word SHOULD is used, it indicates a recommended practice which allows the manual writer to use discretionary judgment. This document does not apply to electronic test equipment.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Ground Equipment Rebuild ProgramAIR1599A (Current)2/12/2026
This Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended to be concerned with fleet programs rather than programs for individual units. Technical and administrative considerations in developing an approach to a program will be suggested. Organization of material possibly wanted in the form of a detailed specification for airline rebuilder communication is reviewed.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Aircraft Tow BarARP1915E (Current)2/12/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) specifies dimensional and physical requirements of tow bar connections to tractor and aircraft (see Figure 1). It is applicable to all types of commercial transport category aircraft tow bar. The purpose of this SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) is to standardize tow bar attachments to airplane and tractor according to the mass category of the towed aircraft, so that one tow bar head with different shear levels can be used for all aircraft that are within the same mass category and are manufactured in compliance with AS1614 or ISO 8267.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
GSE Training VideosAIR4730A (Current)2/12/2026
This document provides information on the preparation and use of video for operational and maintenance training of qualified personnel associated with GSE.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Maintenance of Batteries and Battery Charging and Servicing FacilitiesAIR1898A (Current)2/12/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) covers, and is restricted to, hands-on servicing/ maintenance of industrial lead acid batteries used solely for motive power and exclusively for ground support equipment (GSE). It does not address or pertain to automotive-type SLI (starting-lighting-ignition) batteries or any other types of batteries (such as nickel-cadmium, zinc, or lithium batteries) which may be on-board airport GSE for either motive power or auxiliary uses. Similarly, the battery servicing and charging facilities described herein are those intended exclusively for industrial lead acid batteries.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Fuels in Ground Support Equipment (Other Than Gasoline or Diesel)AIR5373A (Current)2/12/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended as a source of comparative information and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This document describes currently used fuels and fuels which may be used in the future. Conventional gasoline and diesel fuels are intentionally omitted from this document.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Main Line Aircraft Tow Bar Attach Fitting InterfaceAS1614D (Current)2/12/2026
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) specifies the interface requirements for tow bar attachment fittings on the nose gear (when towing operations are performed from the nose gear) of conventional tricycle type landing gears of commercial civil transport aircraft with a maximum ramp weight higher than 50,000 kg (110,000 pounds), commonly designated as “main line aircraft”. Its purpose is to achieve tow bar attachment fittings interface standardization by aircraft weight category (which determines tow bar forces) in order to ensure that one single type of tow bar with a standard connection can be used for all aircraft types within or near that weight category, so as to assist operators and airport handling companies in reducing the number of different tow bar types used.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Ice Penetration Test Method for AMS1431 and AMS1435 Runway Deicing/Anti-Icing ProductsAS6211A (Current)1/22/2026
This document establishes a standardized test method designed to provide stakeholders—including runway deicing/anti-icing product manufacturers, users, regulators, and airport authorities—with a means of evaluating the relative ice penetration capacity of runway deicing and anti-icing products over time. The method measures ice penetration as a function of time, thereby enabling comparative assessments under controlled conditions. While commonly applied to runway treatments, these products may also be used on taxiways and other paved surfaces. The test is not intended to provide a direct measurement of the theoretical or extended ice penetration time of liquid or solid deicing/anti-icing products. Instead, it offers a practical and reproducible basis for performance evaluation, supporting operational decision-making and regulatory compliance.
G-12RDP Runway Deicing Product Committee
A Literature Review on Application of Maintenance and Management Strategies for Electric-Vertical Take-Off and Landing Aircraft’s Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul Organizations01-18-03-001612/18/2025
In the context of emerging technology developed for advanced air mobility concept, its maintenance protocols are not yet mature and existing aviation maintenance systems may not support electric-vertical take-off and landing (e-VTOL) needs. Thus, the operation of e-VTOL aircraft during its deployment stage necessitates the need for qualitative maintenance support. The main purpose of this study is to develop the basic structural principles of the projected new maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) organization for e-VTOL air vehicles, which will support airworthiness through comprehensive maintenance approaches. Thus, the operation of e-VTOL aircraft during its deployment stage necessitates the need for qualitative maintenance support. The importance of the study is to offer standard procedures based on management and maintenance strategies, application of predictive and prescriptive maintenance tools, which pose a significant contribution to ensuring safety, reliability, and cost-effectiveness in e-VTOL operations. The methodology based on leveraging modern management theory in combination with maintenance strategy ensures reaching a goal, creating an effective MRO organization. The findings of the analysis, conducted on the current study, reveal the suitability of the traditional aircraft maintenance approach for e-VTOL air vehicle maintenance processes that can support multi-model aircraft with different design configurations and architectures. To facilitate comprehensive engagement among all relevant stakeholders, the result of the analysis assumes the establishment of an effective aircraft maintenance ecosystem. Effective agreement between e-VTOL operators and MRO providers will contribute to ensuring appropriateness with evolving aircraft architectures in compliance with regulatory standards. This study fills a research gap in the literature relating to aircraft maintenance by proposing a digitally integrated approach and, regulation-compliant framework tailored for e-VTOL aircraft. The suggested multi-strategy maintenance model incorporates predictive analytics, modular diagnostics, and contingency planning tailored for e-VTOL operations, synergizing with AI implementation distinguishes it with its novelty implemented in the modern aviation sector.
Imanov, Tapdig, Bozdereli, Arzu
Identification of Runway Friction Coefficient Using Extended Kalman Filter09-13-02-001212/11/2025
Aircraft operations during landing or takeoff depend strongly on runway surface conditions. Safe runway operations depend on the tire-to-runway frictional force and the drag offered by the aircraft. In the present research article, a methodology is developed to estimate the braking friction coefficient for varied runway conditions accurately in real-time. To this end, the extended Kalman filtering technique (EKF) is applied to sensor-measured data using the on-ground mathematical model of aircraft and wheel dynamics. The aircraft velocity and wheel angular velocity are formulated as system states, and the friction coefficient is estimated as an augmented state. The relation between the friction coefficient and wheel slip ratio is established using both simulated and actual ground roll data. Also, the technique is evaluated with the simulated data as well as real aircraft taxi data. The accuracy of friction estimation, with and without the measurement of normal reaction force on the landing gear, is analyzed using the simulated data. The friction coefficient vs slip ratio curve, derived from the empirical “Magic formula”, compares well with the estimated maximum tire-to-ground braking friction, and a shift in optimal slip is observed in actuality compared to the predictions. The brake disc friction coefficient is also estimated during the process since the brake torque measurements are not available in the actual data. The estimated friction coefficient, which represents the real characteristics of the runway, can be used to tune the control algorithms of the aircraft’s anti-skid brake management system for various runway conditions. While improvements in anti-skid efficiency alone may not directly prevent all runway excursions, accurate real-time friction estimation enhances the predictability and reliability of braking action, supporting safer operations under degraded or uncertain runway conditions. Moreover, the real-time estimation of tire-to-ground friction coefficient vs slip ratio curves can be used to develop adaptive control algorithms for the brake management system.
T.K., Khadeeja Nusrath, Singh, Jatinder
Aircraft Skin Pressures and TemperaturesAIR8469 (Current)12/10/2025
This information report covers all known aircraft with respect to deicing operations, especially with regard to OEM pressure and temperature limitations on the airframe. It provides data for airlines/operators on compliance with OEM limits and confirms that OEM limits are not exceeded during deicing operations.
G-12M Methods Committee
Aircraft Pressures and Temperatures – Resource DocumentAIR8471 (Current)12/10/2025
This SAE AIR covers Forced Air technology including: reference material, equipment, safety, operation, and methodology. It is intended to provide pressure and temperature (temps pages 26 & 31) information and minimum safety guidelines regarding use of equipment to remove frozen contaminants related to: i) Forced air ii) Forced air/fluid iii) Deicing fluid
G-12M Methods Committee
Glossary of Terms - Aircraft Ground Refueling and DefuelingAIR4783B (Current)11/18/2025
This SAE Aerospace Information Report presents a glossary of terms commonly used in the ground delivery of fuel to an aircraft and pertinent terms relating to the aircraft being refueled.
AE-5A Aerospace Fuel, Inerting and Lubrication Sys Committee
Aircraft Deicing Vehicle - Towable UnitARP8701 (Current)8/22/2025
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) covers the general technical requirements and provides specification guidance for towable deicing vehicles/units equipped with a deicing/anti-icing fluid spraying system. The unit shall be highly maneuverable for applying deicing/anti-icing fluid onto all exterior surfaces of commercial/commuter aircraft to be treated. The unit shall also be suitable for day and night operations and shall be reliable and capable of performing deicing/anti-icing treatments satisfactorily under various precipitation (e.g., moderate snow) and icy weather conditions (e.g., outside air temperatures down to -40 °C/-40 °F) in accordance with the recommendations and instructions specified in aircraft manufacturers’ documents and the current version of AS6285.
G-12E Equipment Committee
Qualifications Required for SAE Type I Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing FluidsARP6207A (Current)7/22/2025
This document describes: a The preparatory steps to test experimental Type I fluids according to AMS1424; b The recommendations for the preparation of samples for endurance time testing according to ARP5945; c A short description of the recommended field spray test; d The protocol to demonstrate that Type I fluid can be used with the Type I holdover time guidelines published by the FAA and Transport Canada, including endurance time data obtained from ARP5945; e The protocol for inclusion of Type I fluids on the FAA and Transport Canada lists of fluids; f The protocol for updating the FAA and Transport Canada lists of fluids; g The role of the SAE G-12 Aircraft Deicing Fluids Committee; h The role of the SAE G-12 Holdover Time Committee; and i The process for the publication of Type I holdover time guidelines. This document does not describe laboratory-testing procedures. This document does not include the qualification requirements for AMS1428 Type II, III, and IV fluids (these are provided in ARP5718).
G-12HOT Holdover Time Committee
Qualifications Required for SAE Type II/III/IV Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing FluidARP5718C (Current)7/17/2025
This document describes: a The preparatory steps to test experimental Type II, III, and IV fluids according to AMS1428 b The recommendations for the preparation of samples for endurance time testing according to ARP5485 c A short description of wind tunnel testing d A short description of the recommended field spray test e The protocol to generate draft holdover time guidelines from endurance time data obtained from ARP5485 f The protocol for inclusion of Type II, III, and IV fluids on the FAA and Transport Canada lists of fluids and the protocol for updating the lists of fluids g The role of the SAE G-12 Aircraft Deicing Fluids Committee h The role of the SAE G-12 Holdover Time Committee i The process for the publication of Type II, III, and IV holdover time guidelines This document does not describe laboratory testing procedures. This document does not include the qualification requirements for AMS1424 Type I fluids (these are provided in ARP6207).
G-12HOT Holdover Time Committee
Fluid, Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing, Non-Newtonian (Pseudoplastic), SAE Types II, III, and IVAMS1428M (Current)6/27/2025
The AMS1428 specification defines the technical requirements for Type II, III, and IV aircraft deicing/anti-icing fluids. These non-Newtonian thickened fluids are formulated to effectively remove frost, ice, and snow from aircraft surfaces while offering protection times longer than Type I fluids against refreezing or frozen contamination. The document outlines key performance criteria, such as freezing point, aerodynamic acceptance, and anti-icing performance, alongside environmental properties like biodegradability, aquatic toxicity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Operational considerations, including storage stability, materials compatibility, exposure to dry air, dry-out exposure to cold dry air, successive dry-out and rehydration, and physical properties like pH, refraction, and rheological properties (viscosity) are also specified. Additionally, the specification details the required testing methods to evaluate these properties and sets forth guidelines for the initial qualification, site or unit qualification, periodic requalification, and lot acceptance of Type II, III, and IV fluids. This foundation specification (AMS1428) and its associated category specifications (refer to AMS1428/1 and AMS1428/2) cover a deicing/anti-icing material in the form of a fluid.
G-12ADF Aircraft Deicing Fluids
Fluid, Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing, Non-Newtonian (Pseudoplastic), SAE Types II, III, and IVAMS1428M (Current)6/27/2025
The AMS1428 specification defines the technical requirements for Type II, III, and IV aircraft deicing/anti-icing fluids. These non-Newtonian thickened fluids are formulated to effectively remove frost, ice, and snow from aircraft surfaces while offering protection times longer than Type I fluids against refreezing or frozen contamination. The document outlines key performance criteria, such as freezing point, aerodynamic acceptance, and anti-icing performance, alongside environmental properties like biodegradability, aquatic toxicity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Operational considerations, including storage stability, materials compatibility, exposure to dry air, dry-out exposure to cold dry air, successive dry-out and rehydration, and physical properties like pH, refraction, and rheological properties (viscosity) are also specified. Additionally, the specification details the required testing methods to evaluate these properties and sets forth guidelines for the initial qualification, site or unit qualification, periodic requalification, and lot acceptance of Type II, III, and IV fluids. This foundation specification (AMS1428) and its associated category specifications (refer to AMS1428/1 and AMS1428/2) cover a deicing/anti-icing material in the form of a fluid.
G-12ADF Aircraft Deicing Fluids
Aircraft Ground Deicing/Anti-Icing ProcessesAS6285F (Current)5/27/2025
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) establishes the minimum requirements for ground-based aircraft deicing/anti-icing methods and procedures to ensure the safe operation of aircraft during icing conditions on the ground. This document does not specify the requirements for particular aircraft models. The application of the procedures specified in this document are intended to effectively remove and/or prevent the accumulation of frost, snow, slush, or ice contamination which can seriously affect the aerodynamic performance and/or the controllability of an aircraft. The principal method of treatment employed is the use of fluids qualified to AMS1424 (Type I fluid) and AMS1428 (Type II, III, and IV fluids). All guidelines referred to herein are applicable only in conjunction with the applicable documents. Due to aerodynamic and other concerns, the application of deicing/anti-icing fluids shall be carried out in compliance with engine and aircraft manufacturer’s recommendations.
G-12M Methods Committee
Augusta Regional Airport Preparation for Transformative VTOL Air Vehicle OperationsF-0081-2025-01325/20/2025
The emergence of electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) air vehicles is transforming how people and freight are moved in short distances. This transformation has a profound impact on surrounding infrastructure necessary to provide Aircraft On Ground support for eVTOLs. The hover capabilities of eVTOLs have similar operating characteristics within terminal and uncontrolled airspace. However, the need to conserve battery energy via rapid approaches and departures affects terminal airspace management. To attract eVTOL operators, existing airports, landing zones, and vertiports are modifying their infrastructure to include fixed electric charging stations, additional taxiways, upgraded fire suppression systems, separate hangers, and capable MRO facilities. Augusta Regional Airport (KAGS) is the base airport for the annual Masters Golf Tournament which experiences five times the normal airport traffic and some 40,000 commuting patrons. eVTOLs can offset land traffic issues associated with commuters and supplies. Since KAGS is centroid to 32,000 square miles of territory void of major highways, basing eVTOLs can offer expedited transit services for people and goods which will have a profound impact on the economic viability and quality of life in the area.
Stanzione, Kaydon, Johnston, Diane
Aircraft Markings for Ground Support Equipment AlignmentAS6896 (Current)5/9/2025
The purpose of this document is to provide a standard for aircraft fuselage markings located at the doors used for ground servicing operations. These markings can be used by all GSE that will dock at the aircraft. These markings may be used for one or several phases of the GSE positioning relative to the aircraft process: GSE alignment during approach, GSE final docking, and GSE auto leveling. It is not the purpose of this standard to describe the different technologies, cameras, or other equipment that can be mounted on GSE to utilize these markings. The aircraft that may use these markings will have a fuselage diameter of 3 m or more.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Airline Tow Tractor - Baggage/Cargo Factors for Design ConsiderationAIR1316C (Current)4/24/2025
This document outlines the functional and design requirements for baggage/cargo tow tractors used for airline services.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Fluid, Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing, SAE Type IAMS1424T (Current)4/14/2025
This foundation specification (AMS1424T) and its associated category specifications (AMS1424/1 and AMS1424/2) cover a deicing/anti-icing material in the form of a fluid.
G-12ADF Aircraft Deicing Fluids
Research on Anti-Slip Traction Control for Aircraft Engine-off Towing System2025-01-82924/1/2025
When the aircraft towbarless towing vehicle (TLTV) drives on road surfaces that are wet, icy, oily, or covered with debris, as well as under conditions such as overloaded towing, uneven distribution of aircraft weight, sudden acceleration and sharp turns, brake system failures, or severe tire wear, it may slip due to a mismatch between traction force and ground adhesion. As a key piece of ground support equipment at airports, the anti-slip performance of TLTV is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient ground movement of aircraft. With continuous advancements in control technology, extensive research has been conducted on anti-slip control strategies for TLTV. This paper reviews relevant literature in the field of anti-slip control for TLTV in recent years, focusing on the current status of anti-slip control technology development, control strategies, and the application of co-simulation technology in anti-slip control. Based on co-simulation using Matlab and Adams software, this paper employs a fuzzy PI control algorithm to optimize the traditional PI control algorithm for dual closed-loop control and analysis of the rotational speed and current of the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) in the TLTV. The results indicate that the control algorithm is a primary factor affecting stability. A comparative analysis of stability data before and after optimization reveals that the optimized control system exhibits stronger anti-interference capability, thereby enhancing the stability of the TLTV system. The control strategy demonstrates significant effects in improving the anti-slip performance of TLTV. The use of Matlab and Adams co-simulation technology provides effective means for analyzing and verifying anti-slip control strategies. The future development trend of anti-slip control technology for TLTV will emphasize intelligence, precision, and integration to adapt to diverse airport operating environments and improve the safety and efficiency of traction operations.
Yao, Yanan, Xu, Yitong, Zhu, Hengjia
Research on Path Tracking Control of Electric Towbarless Aircraft Taxiing System under Crosswind Condition2025-01-82834/1/2025
The lateral dynamic and kinematic models of the electric towbarless towing vehicle (TLTV)–aircraft system, incorporating active front steering for the TLTV, are formulated to evaluate the impact of crosswind on the aircraft’s towing trajectory. This analysis considers scenarios with varying towing velocities and crosswind directions and intensities. To mitigate crosswind-induced disturbances affecting the aircraft’s motion, A high-speed and low-speed Model Predictive Control (MPC) strategy for the active front steering of a TLTV is proposed. This strategy is designed to optimize the TLTV’s steering performance under varying operational conditions, addressing the distinct dynamic characteristics of high-speed and low-speed towing scenarios. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed control method achieves exceptional performance in both speed regulation and path tracking during towing operations.
Zhu, Hengjia, Bai, Zehao, Xu, Yitong, Zhang, Wei
Water Spray and High Humidity Endurance Test Methods for AMS1424 and AMS1428 Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing FluidsAS5901E (Current)3/25/2025
This document establishes the minimum requirements for an environmental test chamber and test procedures to carry out anti-icing performance tests according to the current materials specification for aircraft deicing/anti-icing fluids. The primary purpose for such a test method is to determine the anti-icing performance under controlled laboratory conditions of AMS1424 Type I and AMS1428 Type II, III, and IV fluids.
G-12ADF Aircraft Deicing Fluids
The Logistic Lasso and Ridge Regression Algorithm-Based Airline Passenger Satisfaction Prediction Model2025-01-71683/19/2025
Airline passenger satisfaction is important for airline operation service quality management. When airline companies carry out advertisement campaigns or plan a marketing strategy, the resources and budgets are not unlimited. Thus, an airline can only focus on improving a few factors that drive passenger satisfaction. To understand the key satisfies for the young and the old adults, respectively, we leverage five airline passenger satisfaction methods to identify the key factors that explain the airline service satisfaction of different passengers. In particular, we investigate and compare the ridge and the Lasso regularization in terms of the resulting model’s sparsity and computational efficiency. The top three important factors that influence the old’s satisfaction are departure and arrival time convenience, legroom service, and baggage handling. Our findings indicate that the young people place a higher value on entertainment, while the old adults place a higher value on usefulness and comfort. The Lasso is the most accurate model with the overall error of 9.65% to predict the young passenger’s satisfaction, while the Best Subset with BIC with the overall error of 10% is the best mode for the old adults. It’s suggested that airline companies could use the Lasso model for predicting the airline satisfaction of the young people, and use the best subset with BIC for predicting the airline satisfaction of the old adults. The study findings would help the airlines improving their state-of-the-art operations to have outstanding service.
Ma, Jie, Hu, Song, Wang, Haipeng
Design and Safety Criteria for Passenger Boarding StairwaysAIR6133A (Current)3/5/2025
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Endurance Time Test Procedures for SAE Type I Aircraft Deicing/Anti-Icing FluidsARP5945B (Current)2/24/2025
The purpose of this ARP is to provide the sample selection criteria and endurance time test procedures for SAE Type I aircraft deicing/anti-icing fluids required for the generation of endurance time data of acceptable quality for review by the SAE G-12 Holdover Time Committee. A significant body of previous research and testing has indicated that all Type I fluids formulated with conventional glycols, as defined in 3.1.1 of AMS1424, perform in a similar manner from an endurance time perspective. This applies to Type I deicing/anti-icing fluids formulated with propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, and diethylene glycol only. As a result, Type I deicing/anti-icing fluids containing these glycol bases no longer require testing for endurance times. The methods described in this ARP shall be employed, however, if endurance time testing of a conventional glycol-based Type I deicing/anti-icing fluid is desired or requested by a fluid manufacturer, operator, or other organization. Fluids formulated with non-conventional glycol, as defined in 3.1.1 of AMS1424, and all non-glycol Type I deicing/anti-icing fluids must be tested for endurance times using the methods described in this ARP (as appropriate).
G-12HOT Holdover Time Committee
A Real-Time Multiplayer SUMO-Unity Co-Simulation Platform for Vehicle-Aircraft Coordinated Operation2025-01-71972/21/2025
As the demands for air travel and air cargo continue to grow, airport surface operations are becoming increasingly congested, elevating the operational risks for all entities. Conventional measurement methods in airport traffic scenarios are limited by high temporal and spatial costs, uncontrollable variables, and their inabilities to account for low-probability events. Moreover, current simulation software for airport operations exhibits weak simulation capabilities and poor interactivity. To address these issues, this study developed a virtual reality traffic simulation platform for airport surface operations. The platform integrated 3D modeling technologies, including Blender and Unity, with the Photon Fusion multiplayer platform and Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO) traffic simulation software. By incorporating Logitech external devices, the platform enabled real-time human-driven simulations, multiplayer online interactions, and validation of airport traffic flow models. To enhance practical applicability of the platform, a scenario library for vehicle-aircraft-taxiway coordinated operations was designed based on historical data. A stated preference survey was distributed to aviation experts, evaluating scenario risk ratings and occurrence frequencies. Principal component analysis and rank sum ratio were applied to identify key scenarios, which were embedded into the platform. The results of this study simulate the interaction among vehicles, aircraft, and airport taxiways, providing a scenario-driven control strategy verification platform and real-time interactive driving decision support. This approach contributes to the digital transformation of airport surface management, enhancing operational efficiency and safety.
Zhang, Yuheng, Han, Zhongyi, Zhang, Yuhan, Ye, Zhirui
Ancillary Deicing/Anti-Icing InformationAIR8468 (Current)1/10/2025
This manual contains information regarding aircraft deicing/anti-icing surfaces and areas.
G-12M Methods Committee
653P2-5 Avionics Application Software Standard Interface, Part 2, Extended ServicesARINC653P2-5 (Current)12/16/2024
As avionics software continues to evolve, so does ARINC Specification 653. ARINC 653 Part 2 specifies extensions (i.e., optional services) to the required Application Program Interfaces (APIs) described in ARINC 653 Part 1.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Forced Air or Forced Air/Fluid Equipment for Removal of Frozen ContaminantsAIR6284A (Current)12/3/2024
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) covers forced air technology including: reference material, equipment, safety, operation, and methodology. This resource document is intended to provide information and minimum safety guidelines regarding the use of forced air or forced air/fluid equipment to remove frozen contaminants.
G-12E Equipment Committee
Battery Powered Aircraft Tow Tractors - Factors for Design ConsiderationAIR1854B (Current)11/21/2024
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) identifies and summarizes the various factors that must be considered and evaluated by the design or specifying engineer in establishing the specifications and design characteristics of battery-powered aircraft tow tractors. This AIR is presented in two parts. The first part is simply a summarization of design factors that must be considered in establishing vehicle specifications and design characteristics. The second part refers particularly to the performance characteristics of an aircraft tow tractor. Some definitions, formulas, data, and an example are provided mainly for assisting the specifying engineers of potential buyers and users of aircraft tow tractors in the evaluation and comparison of their requirements with the performance capabilities of the various tow tractors offered by the tow tractor manufacturers. Although the design engineers could also use the formulas and data in their calculations of the performance specifications of aircraft tow tractors, this AIR is not intended to provide the methods and all data necessary for detailed calculations and design of a battery-powered aircraft tow tractor.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Light Airfield Management UAV Based on TurMass Technology2024-01-700211/15/2024
The advent of the low-altitude economy represents a novel economic paradigm that has emerged in recent years in response to technological advancement and an expanding social demand. The low-altitude economy is currently undergoing a period of rapid development, which underscores the importance of ensuring the safety of airfield operations. To enhance operational efficiency, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be utilized for the inspection of the surrounding area, runway inspection, environmental monitoring, and other tasks. This paper employs TurMass technology, the TurMass gateway is miniaturised as the communication module of FT24, and the TK8620 development board replaces the LoRa RF module in the ELRS receiver to achieve the communication transmission between the remote control and the receiver. Additionally, a TurMass chip is integrated into the UAV to transmit beacons, while an airfield management aerial vehicle is employed to receive nearby UAV data, thereby preventing collisions. A new ground test device was employed to mitigate the risks associated with the actual test. The article provides a comprehensive account of the underlying principles, system architecture, pivotal technologies, and prospective applications of the aerial vehicle.
Zhang, Xiaoyang, Chen, Hongming
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