Browse Topic: Aircraft instruments

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Leveraging True Altitude Data to Improve Static Pressure Calibration from Dynamic Manoeuvres2026-26-07296/1/2026
The paper presents a method for enhancing the static pressure calibration of a high-performance aircraft. Despite the pre-flight calibration using CFD and Wind Tunnel techniques, position errors are generally observed in the free stream parameters, which necessitate further calibration of air data sensors using flight test data. In the present research, the pressure coefficient is estimated as a time-varying parameter in the flight path reconstruction environment implemented using the Extended Kalman Filtering technique. Aircraft kinematic equations were used for the implementation of the state and measurement models, and flight test data from full flight sorties were used in the estimation process. An extensive validation of the on-board air data calibration tables was conducted. Mean values of the static pressure coefficient were updated using data from multiple sorties, each including computed mean errors from three independent sensors. A comparative analysis between the pre-existing and estimated static pressure coefficients was performed to identify specific flight regimes or manoeuvres where further refinement is required. Finally, the accuracy of the estimated true static pressure was validated by comparing the corresponding pressure altitude with radio altimeter readings at low altitudes, demonstrating strong agreement and validating the effectiveness of the proposed calibration refinement method.
TK, Khadeeja Nusrath, Patel, Dr. Ambalal V, J, Prabhavathi Bhai
Neural Network Enabled Synthetic Air Data System: Development and Validation2026-26-07206/1/2026
Synthetic Air Data System (SADS) provides a smart solution that can be used to predict critical air data parameters in the absence of conventional air data sensors. Traditional air data sensors, such as pitot-static tubes and vanes, are generally expensive, require regular maintenance, and can fail in harsh weather conditions. In addition, these sensors, along with their processor and computers, add weight to the aircraft. To address these issues, a synthetic air data system is proposed using a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN). Several flight variables were checked for Pearson correlation coefficient with respect to the angle-of-attack and angle-of-sideslip, and thereafter, input features were selected based on the thresholding technique. The proposed neural network has two hidden layers and regularization technique was implemented by adding two dropout layers to each hidden layer to prevent overfitting of the model. The neural network was trained using actual flight test data, supplemented with simulated data wherever gaps were observed in the entire flight envelope. The RNN model is trained to predict the aerodynamic flow angles, viz., angle-of-attack and angle-of-sideslip. The proposed model was found to be able to predict the aerodynamic angles with a degree of accuracy. The accuracy was also checked with several complementary actual flight data to check the fidelity of the trained neural network model.
Sahu, Sanju, C, Poornima, Kaliyari, Dushyant, TK, Khadeeja Nusrath, Hebbar, Archana
Traffic Display and Collision Avoidance SystemsARP4102/10C (Current)5/27/2026
This document presents criteria for flight deck controls and displays for Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Digital Twin Aerodynamics Model Validation for HALO Wind Tunnel2026-01-06104/7/2026
A simulation-based aerodynamics model of the Honda Automotive Laboratories of Ohio (HALO) Wind Tunnel, a three-quarter open-jet (ground plane) configuration opened in 2022 for full-scale automotive testing, was initiated to support data fusion for more accurate surrogate models in vehicle engineering programs. The objective was to demonstrate that a matched set of boundary values between the physical wind tunnel and the three-dimensional numerical model yield correct responses for several key flow field quantities, starting with the baseline empty tunnel case: (1) streamwise static pressure distribution, (2) evolution of the free shear layers downstream of the nozzle exit plane, and (3) ground-plane boundary layer development. Pressure-based measurement probes were deployed in these regions using a four-axis overhead traverse to acquire validation data in the large facility, including instrument verification between a 14-hole probe and Pitot-static rake. Detached eddy simulation (DES) and Reynolds-Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) turbulence models were evaluated for the numerical approach. This work describes the three-dimensional model setup and presents these data comparisons.
Patel, Sajan, Disotell, Kevin, Eagles, Naethan
Altimeter, Pressure Actuated Sensitive TypeAS392D (Current)9/18/2025
This Aeronautical Standard covers two (2) basic types of instruments as follows: TYPE I - Range 35,000 feet. Barometric Pressure. Scale range at least 28.1 - 30.99 inches of mercury (946-1049 millibars). May include markers working in conjunction with the Barometric Pressure Scale to indicate pressure altitude. TYPE II- Range 50,000 feet. Barometric Pressure. Scale range at least 28.1 - 30.99 inches of mercury (946-1049 millibars). May include markers working in conjunction with the Barometric Pressure Scale to indicate pressure altitude.
A-4ADWG Air Data Subcommittee
Photometric and Colorimetric Measurement Procedures for Airborne Electronic Flat Panel DisplaysARP4260B (Current)8/20/2025
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) contains methods used to measure the optical performance of airborne electronic flat panel display (FPD) systems. The methods described are specific to the direct view, liquid crystal matrix (x-y addressable) display technology used on aircraft flight decks. The focus of this document is on active matrix, liquid crystal displays (LCD). The majority of the procedures can be applied to other display technologies, however, it is cautioned that some techniques need to be tailored to different display technologies. The document covers monochrome and color LCD operation in the transmissive mode within the visual spectrum (the wavelength range of 380 to 780 nm). These procedures are adaptable to reflective and transflective displays paying special attention to the source illumination geometry. Photometric and colorimetric measurement procedures for airborne direct view CRT (cathode ray tube) displays are found in ARP1782. Optical measurement procedures for airborne head up displays (HUDs) can be found in ARP5287. Generally, the procedures describe manual single point measurements. The individual procedures may be readily incorporated into automated testing equipment (ATE) or other automated environments. This also includes, but is not limited to Fourier scopes and video imaging devices. This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this Technical Report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole responsibility of the user.
A-20A Crew Station Lighting
Flight Deck Lighting for AircraftARP4103B (Current)7/7/2025
This document recommends design and performance criteria for aircraft lighting systems used to illuminate flight deck controls, luminous visual displays used for transfer of information, and flight deck background and instrument surfaces that form the flight deck visual environment. This document is for aircraft, except for applications requiring night vision compatibility.
A-20A Crew Station Lighting
Static System Error Compensation in Air Data Calibration for Tiltrotor System CertificationF-0081-2025-01285/20/2025
Air data measurement and calibration are fundamental components in the pursuit of accurate and reliable aerodynamic assessments. The systematic collection of essential data regarding air properties are important for evaluating aircraft performance under various conditions and configurations. The scope is to achieve a comprehensive understanding of airflow characteristics, which is fundamental for design improvements and operational strategies, contributing to safer and more efficient flight operations in a several range of scenarios. This type of data measurement is even more challenging for the AW609 Tiltrotor which combines vertical take-off technology capabilities with the fixed-wing flight efficiency. The activity starts from known pitot-static system calibration methodologies for conventional applications and shows what were the difficulties encountered in a non-conventional Tiltrotor approach. The paper goes through the presentation of the original Pitot-Static and Air Data system and all the problematics that driven to a design change. After the presentation of the new architecture and the new data collection activity, it will be discussed the optimization of the data calibration strategy, also related to some peculiarities of the Tiltrotor, and how it drives to infer the calibration curves for the Air Data Computers (ADCs).
Evangelista, Marco, Mori, Massimiliano
Innovative High-Performance Active Dampers for Effective Mitigation of Helicopter Main Rotor Vibrations2025-01-01635/2/2025
Helicopter vibrations, primarily generated by the main rotor-gearbox assembly, are a major source of concern due to their impact on structural integrity, cockpit instrument durability, and crew comfort. These vibrations are mainly transmitted through the gearbox’s rigid support struts to the fuselage, leading to increased cabin noise and potential damage to critical components. This paper presents a solution for vibration mitigation which involves replacing traditional gearbox support struts with low-weight, high-performance active dampers. Developed by Elettronica Aster S.p.A., these active dampers are designed as electro-hydraulic actuators embedded within a compliant structure. The parallel nested configuration of the system enables high power densities and effective vibration control, significantly reducing the transmission of harmful vibrations to the fuselage. The comprehensive model-based design process is detailed, describing the development and use of a high-fidelity physics-based mathematical model as a design digital twin. It allowed optimizing the damper’s performance to meet the stringent operational requirements of the considered case study, consisting in a 15-seat medium-sized twin-engine helicopter. This model was essential to simulate and verify the system’s behavior under various conditions to ensure a robust and reliable design and the proper setup of controller’s parameters. Additionally, the paper presents the design, modelling and realization of a dedicated test bench for an experimental campaign, which aimed to validate the model results, tune parameters, and evaluate and verify the damper’s real-world performance. The active damper prototype underwent rigorous experimental validation, confirming its ability to meet performance targets, significantly reduce vibration transmission and improve helicopter durability and crew comfort. The results of the extensive testing are shown, demonstrating the practical application of the fully integrated proposed solution. This innovative approach to vibration control offers a practical and efficient solution to a longstanding issue in helicopter operations, reinforcing the potential of the presented solution for effective vibration reduction.
Bertolino, Antonio Carlo, Sorli, Massimo, Porro, Paolo Giovanni, Galli, Claudio
Sensata's sensors aid blind spot monitoring for tractor-trailers24TOFHP12_0812/1/2024
Sensata Technologies' booth at this year's IAA Transportation tradeshow included two of the company's Precor radar sensors. The PreView STA79 is a heavy-duty vehicle side-monitoring system launched in May 2024 and designed to comply with Europe-wide blind spot monitoring legislation introduced in June 2024. The PreView Sentry 79 is a front- and rear-monitoring system. Both systems operate on the 79-GHz band as the nomenclature suggests. PreView STA79 can cover up to three vehicle zones: a configurable center zone, which can monitor the length of the vehicle, and two further zones that can be independently set to align with individual customer needs. The system offers a 180-degree field of view to eliminate blind spots along the vehicle sides and a built-in measurement unit that will increase the alert level when turning toward an object even when the turn indicator is not used. The system also features trailer mitigation to reduce false positive alerts on the trailer when turning. The system is UN 151 compliant.
Kendall, John
Embedded Processing Advancements Enable Smarter, SWAP-Optimized Avionics Displays and Computers24AERP08_058/1/2024
Aerospace manufacturers are leveraging multicore processors and modularity to design smarter cockpit displays and avionic computers that are smaller and capable of supporting more applications from a single line replaceable unit (LRU). Some are also starting to embed more of the processing required to enable cockpit display applications within the display itself, rather than having it enabled by an associated LRU. The development of new electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft and avionics companies changing their approach to the development of safety critical computers and aircraft networking technologies are some of the aerospace industry factors driving this design trend. In the U.S., the Department of Defense (DoD) embracing the Modular Open Systems Approach (MOSA) across the purchase of all new aircraft technologies is influencing design changes in cockpit displays and aircraft computers as well.
858P2-1 Internet Protocol Suite (IPS) for Aeronautical Safety Services, Part 2, IPS Gateway Air-Ground InteroperabilityARINC858P2-1 (Current)7/12/2024
ARINC 858 Part 2 provides aviation ground system gateway considerations necessary to transition to the Internet Protocol Suite (IPS). ARINC 858 Part 2 describes the principles of operation for an IPS gateway that enables ACARS application messages to be exchanged between an IPS aircraft and a ground ACARS host. ARINC 858 Part 2 also describes the principles of operation for an IPS gateway that enables OSI-based application messages to be exchanged between an IPS host and an OSI end system. This product was developed in coordination with ICAO WG-I, RTCA SC-223, and EUROCAE WG-108.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Formal Technique for Fault Detection and Identification of Control Intensive Application of Stall Warning System Using System Theoretic Process Analysis2024-26-04716/1/2024
Faults if not detected and processed will create catastrophe in closed loop system for safety critical applications in automotive, space, medical, nuclear, and aerospace domains. In aerospace applications such as stall warning and protection/prevention system (SWPS), algorithms detect stall condition and provide protection by deploying the elevator stick pusher. Failure to detect and prevent stall leads to loss of lives and aircraft. Traditional Functional Hazard and Fault Tree analyses are inadequate to capture all failures due to the complex hardware-software interactions for stall warning and protection system. Hence, an improved methodology for failure detection and identification is proposed. This paper discusses a hybrid formal method and model-based technique using System Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) to identify and diagnose faults and provide monitors to process the identified faults to ensure robust design of the indigenous stall warning and protection system (SWPS). The technique is implemented for the SWPS system to ensure the detection of faults due to electric, sensor and computational integrity. Once a fault is detected, a graceful degradation of system functionality is ensured, and appropriate caution/warning annunciations are provided to alert the crew. This has been analyzed and demonstrated on the simulated platform. Proposed Methodology uses the Concept of Operations and STPA to derive the control logic model for monitors for fault detection and identification. These monitors analyze data from angle of attack sensors, Air data computational units and Attitude heading reference system for developing a robust logic for SWPS to minimize both false positives and false negatives. The efficacy of the proposed hybrid technique has been demonstrated on the real time flight simulator with aircraft flight data
Kale, Alexander, Madhuranath, Ganesh, Shanmugham, Viswanathan, Nanda, Manju, Singh, Giresh, Durak, Umut
Electrification and Autonomy: Vol. 1EPRCOMPV3320235/10/2024
David, Aharon, Muelaner, Jody E., Rezende, Rene Nardi
Pilot Flight Simulator Performance Under Distraction and Vibrotactile Situation AwarenessF-0080-2024-13435/7/2024
Maintenance of spatial orientation (SO) is achieved primarily through visual information where the horizon and celestial reference cues or flight instruments are used by pilots to infer aircraft orientation. However, cross checking the instruments in degraded visual environments can be complicated by factors such as workload, distraction, and situations where the vestibular and proprioceptive systems may provide false and competing orientation information. We describe experiments measuring pilot performance using a flight simulator under challenging conditions where the sensory information was controlled. Reducing available visual instruments increased the task difficulty. A wearable vibrotactile array could provide concurrent, additional orientation information. Increasing the flying task segment difficulty increased the perceived workload and also corresponded to an increase in accidents. Adding tactile orientation information reduced the accident rate.
Mortimer, Bruce, Duffy, Michelle, Olson, Makaila, Loftis, Shelby, Graff, Daniel, Rupert, Angus, Chaparro, Barbara, French, Jon, Dailey, Chris
Fuel Flow Rate Measurement SystemAS407E (Current)4/23/2024
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) defines minimum performance standards (MPS) for fuel flowmeters, fuel flow indicators, and fuel flow transmitters. The fuel flow indicators and transmitters are intended for use in 14 CFR Part 23, 25, 27, and 29 aircraft equipped with reciprocating and turbine engines. Multiple function displays are not within the scope of this SAE Aerospace Standard (refer to AS6296).
A-4FLW Fuel Flowmeters
3DOF Vehicle Dynamics Model for Fuel Consumption Estimation2024-01-27574/9/2024
The dynamic model is built in Siemens Simcenter Amesim platform and simulates the performances on track of JUNO, a low energy demanding Urban Concept vehicle to take part in the Shell Eco-Marathon competition, in which the goal is to achieve the lowest fuel consumption in covering some laps of a racetrack, with limitations on the maximum race time. The model starts with the longitudinal dynamics, analysing all the factors that characterize the vehicle’s forward resistance, like aerodynamic forces, altimetry changes and rolling resistance. To improve the correlation between simulation and track performances, the model has been updated with the implementation of a Single-Track Model, including vehicle rotation around its roll axis, and a 3D representation of the racetrack, with an automatic trajectory following control implemented. This is crucial to characterise the vehicle’s lateral dynamics, which cannot be neglected in simulating its performances on track. Analysis of suspension geometry, vehicle mass distribution and tire characteristics are made to properly define the parameters of the model, which is used for the optimal race strategy model. The model has been validated by analysis of performance data obtained by the properly made telemetry system during the 2023 competition, and it predicts with good accuracy the fuel consumption obtained.
De Carlo, Matteo, Dragone, Paolo, Tempone, Giuseppe Pio, Carello, Massimiliana
661P1-9 Cockpit Display System Interfaces to User Systems, Part 1, Avionics Interfaces, Basic Symbology, and BehaviorARINC661P1-9 (Current)2/9/2024
ARINC 661 defines logical interfaces to Cockpit Display Systems (CDS) used in all types of aircraft installations. The CDS provides graphical and interactive services to user applications within the flight deck environment. When combined with data from user applications, it displays graphical images to the flight deck crew. The document emphasizes the need for independence between aircraft systems and the CDS. This document defines the interface between the avionics equipment and display system graphics generators. This document does not specify the "look and feel" of any graphical information, and as such does not address human factors issues. These are defined by the airline flight operations community. Supplement 9 adds numerous changes and additions: Restructuring of the document for ease of use Addition of GpVertexBuffer and GpVertexRender Widgets Formalization of the Super Layer concept Generalization of input device text Timeout values for things like popups Extended Block protocol Parent/child relationships across levels of hierarchy Clean up of ExcludedRegionsExtension Map clarifications Updated widget guidance MapBoundary and ExcludedRegionsExtension clarifications String length fields in event structures Correction of Supplement 8 Errata Symbol command example issues Ability for UA to request widget parameter values from CDS Array Parameters including discussing race conditions associated with updating the array content and “NumberOf” parameters New run-time parameter and event for EditBox widgets MapGrid related updates CursorMapEventsExtension Map buffer of item parameter cleanup Addition of glossary definitions for widget level terms used in the document EditBoxNumericBCD cleanup Map Management and MapGrid cleanup Additional key codes
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
661P2-1 Cockpit Display System Interfaces, Part 2, User Interface Markup Language (UIML)ARINC661P2-1 (Current)2/9/2024
This document defines the User Interface Markup Language (UIML) which allows developers to specify the interface, look, and behavior of any Graphical User Interface (GUI). The GUI consists of several components, from the simplest, called primitive components (such as rectangle, text, image, group), to more complex components built by the aggregation of several primitive components and by providing relational specific logic. Also defined is the execution model, which provides the rules to interpret the language so that the graphical user interface has a standardized and consistent behavior defined for any platform. Supplement 1 adds numerous additions and changes: Scripting Language Definition Creation of A661P2_StringType Addition of Color property to the Image Primitive Addition of color Standard Library. Correction of ColorMatrix Datatype Addition of Private Library schema Constraints on max array size and max string size Rectangle primitive clarification Function Library function restrictions Touch & Gesture primitives’ clarification Type Restriction Modalities clarification of Initialization of In and InOut Clipping Region extension and clarification BorderImage Positive Real clarification Maps Clarification of State Machine Syntax and Behavior CustomPrimitive standard XML tag Clarification on PropSetter/Getter/onChange Updated Metadata to support Custom Primitives State Machine Layout Metadata KeyboardInput events clarification ConstIn Init Expression Appendix on Changelog Crown Clarification Font Library Issue Semantics of Transform Skew Path Clarification
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
791P2-2 Mark I Aviation Ku-Band and Ka-Band Satellite Communication System, Part 2, Electrical Interfaces and Functional Equipment DescriptionARINC791P2-2 (Current)1/29/2024
This document (ARINC Characteristic 791, Part 2) provides the non-networking interface definition of the Mark I (ARINC 791) and Mark II (ARINC 792) Ku-Band and Ka-Band Satellite Communication (satcom) system intended for passenger entertainment on commercial transport aircraft. ARINC Characteristic 791 Part 1 of this document provides an overview of Ku-band and Ka-band satcom systems. System provisions, including Line Replaceable Unit (LRU) form factors, attachments, cooling, and inter-system wiring, are defined. Signals between the Modem/Modem Manager (Modman) and the Antenna Subsystem are described to permit interchangeability between any Modman and any Antenna Subsystem. ARINC Characteristic 791 Part 2 of this document provides the non-networking interface definition of the satcom system. Any signal crossing into or out of the communication system is documented to ease aircraft integration. Signals within the satcom system, and in particular, between the Modman and the Antenna Subsystem, are described to permit interchangeability between any Modman and any Antenna Subsystem. ARINC Characteristic 791 Part 3 of this document provides the networking interface definition of the satcom system. Any signal crossing into or out of the communication system is documented to ease aircraft integration.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Bluetooth Profile Testing Using Packet Tracing in Automotive Domain2024-26-03491/16/2024
With the advancement of automotive industries, the need for wireless connectivity between vehicle and smartphone is increasing. To meet the demand for wireless connectivity, Bluetooth plays a vital role. Testing Bluetooth systems is challenging and complex when development cycles of the system involve multiple partners. The system under test must fulfil consumers expectation of Bluetooth functionality paired with their personal devices. Despite many advances and existence of a few reliable systems, hardware limitation, and lack of standardization in Bluetooth test system are some of the prolonged issues. Throughout the course, various capabilities and existing traditional Bluetooth testing system practice were researched, which majorly at a system level (Black box). The gap of such testing is the escape of defect which involves the interoperability of multiple profiles like AVRCP, HFP, and A2DP. This paper focuses on a reliable testing approach which is based on packet level testing common to BLE and Bluetooth Classic. Research shows there is no common approach for BLE and Bluetooth Classic, some research provides BLE based solution for packet level tracing but lacks to bring it in Bluetooth Classic. The work here will help us in packet sniffing, processing, logging for both BT Classic and BLE profiles. Hence the need to test Bluetooth system to detect and deliver defect-free products would save development cost in terms of time involved in iterative development and testing cycle, and gain customer’s trust. This paper intends to introduce a humble solution to the testing community a step before the functional testing of Bluetooth system through validation of transmitted Bluetooth profile packet-id between the devices.
Selokar, Ashish Kishor, Iqbal, MD Farhan, Anilkumar, Sandhya, Tavhare, Sarika
Research of Vehicle Behavior Classification of Off-Road Motorcycles Using Gradient Boosting2023-01-181710/24/2023
Machine learning is used for the research and development of ITS services and the rider assistance for on-road motorcycle racing. Meanwhile, rider assistance systems for off-road motorcycles have yet to be developed, partly due to the complexity of the measurement conditions, as described in the previous paper. This research aims to create a reliable AI which is capable of classifying typical jump behaviors in off-road riding by machine learning to create a rider assistance system for off-road motorcycles. Motorcycle manufacturers and certain research institutes use motion sensors to collect data, but the data is obtained from a limited number of vehicles and riders. The creation of a rider assistance system requires a large amount of validation data. Furthermore, it is desirable to achieve the target with data that can be measured in mass-produced vehicles, which will make it possible to collect data even from general users. In addition, recent machine learning models are black boxes because it is difficult for people to understand the entire process, and it is necessary to evaluate the validity of the results. The approaches are as follows. (1) Using data that can be measured in mass-produced vehicles, the number of features was increased as a preprocessing step. (2) The validity of the machine learning model was evaluated by focusing on the SHAP value, one of the XAI techniques. As a result, (1) classification ability has improved. (2) correspondence between the number of features with large SHAP values and physical phenomena has been obtained. In other words, it has been confirmed that appropriate number of features have been selected for classification. These results have indicated that the created AI has a certain level of classification ability and that the judgment results can be trusted.
Uto, Yuki, Tokunaga, Hisato, Inaba, Taichi, Higashi, Takayuki
Fundamentals of Electric Aircraft, Revised EditionR-5639/1/2023
Fundamentals of Electric Aircraft, Revised Edition was developed to explain what the electric aircraft stands for by offering an objective view of what can be expected from the giant strides in innovative architectures and technologies enabling aircraft electrification. This edition features new illustrations and photographs throughout. Through tangible case studies, a deep insight is provided into this paradigm shift cutting across various aircraft segments – from General Aviation to Large Aircraft. Addressing design constraints and timelines foreseen to reach acceptable performance and maturity levels, Fundamentals of Electric Aircraft, Revised Edition puts forward a general view of the progress made to date and what to expect in the years to come. Drawing from the expertise of four industry veterans, Pascal Thalin (editor/contributor), Ravi Rajamani, Jean-Charles Maré, and Sven Taubert (contributors), it addresses futuristic approaches but does not depart too far from the operational down-to-earth realities of everyday business. Fundamentals of Electric Aircraft, Revised Edition also offers analyses on how performance enhancements and fuel burn savings may bring more value for money as long as new electric technologies deliver on their promises.
Thalin, Pascal, Rajamani, Ravi, Mare, Jean-Charles, Taubert, Sven
Night Vision Imaging Systems (NVIS) Integrally Illuminated Information PanelsARP4967C (Current)8/21/2023
This document is intended to highlight critical design issues that a panel designer should understand when designing panels for NVIS applications. It is not intended to be a discussion of the benefits of one lighting technology versus another. Refer to ARP4168 for a more complete discussion of these lighting technologies.
A-20A Crew Station Lighting
Controlling Aircraft—From Humans to Autonomous Systems: The Fading HumansEPR20230147/18/2023
While being the first to fly, the Wright Brothers were also the first and last complete “one stop shop” of aviation: the only case in human flight in which the same individuals personally carried out the research, development, testing, manufacturing, operation, maintenance, air control, flight simulation, training, setup, operation, and more. Since then, these facets gradually fragmented and drifted away from the aircraft. This report discusses the phenomenon of aircraft operation’s “fading humans,” including the development of flight instruments to support it, its growing automation, the emerging artificial intelligence paradigm, and the lurking cyber threats that all over the place. Controlling Aircraft – From Humans to Autonomous Systems: The Fading Humans examines the “fading” process itself, including its safety aspects, current mitigation efforts, ongoing research, and the unsettled topics that still remain. Click here to access The Mobility Frontier: Cybersecurity on the Air & Ground Click here to access the full SAE EDGETM Research Report portfolio.
David, Aharon
Minimum Safe Performance Over Speed Warning InstrumentsAS8007 (Current)6/19/2023
This AS defines instruments which use inputs of static and pitot pressure equal to those which are utilized to establish the pressure altitude and speed of that aircraft. These pressures are applied to the instrument ports to provide means for generation of an aural warning whenever the aircraft reaches or exceeds the maximum operating limit speed. This Over Speed Warning Instrument function may be incorporated as part of an Air Data Computer, or an Air Speed Indicator, or an Air Speed/Mach Number Indicator, or other instruments. In those cases where the Over Speed Warning Instrument is part of another instrument, the standards contained herein apply only to the Over Speed Warning Instrument function. Each aircraft type and model has a defined maximum operating limit speed curve or curves which are a part of the airframe manufacturer's type certification approval data; this limit speed data shall be available from the subject airframe manufacturer as published in the operating manual for the aircraft type and model number and configuration.
A-4ADWG Air Data Subcommittee
Minimum Performance Standard for Mach MetersAS8018A (Current)6/19/2023
This AS covers subsonic and supersonic Mach meter instruments which, when connected to sources of static (Ps), and total (Pt), or impact (Pt-Ps), pressure provide indication of Mach number. These instruments are known as Type A. This AS also covers servo-operated repeater or digital display instruments which indicate Mach number when connected to the appropriate electrical output of a Mach transducer of Air Data Computer. These instruments are known as Type B.
A-4ADWG Air Data Subcommittee
Instrument and Cockpit Illumination for General Aviation AircraftARP1048C (Current)6/13/2023
This document establishes acceptable design criteria for instrument and cockpit illumination for general aviation aircraft.
A-20A Crew Station Lighting
Validated Technologies to Maintain Spatial OrientationF-0079-2023-180315/16/2023
Mortimer, Bruce, French, Jon, McGrath, Braden, Rupert, Angus
Off Throttle Steering and Obstacle Avoidance Capabilities of Personal WatercraftJ2608_202302 (Current)2/20/2023
This SAE Standard establishes a uniform test procedure and performance requirements for off throttle steering and obstacle avoidance capabilities of personal watercraft. Personal watercrafts intended to be operated by a single operator who either stands or kneels in a tray located behind a moveable handlepole are exempted from this SAE Standard. This SAE Standard does not apply to outboard powered personal watercraft and jet powered surfboards.
Personal Watercraft Committee
Integrated Flight Deck SystemTBMG-4706211/23/2022
Garmin International, Inc Olathe, KS 800-800-1020
735C Traffic Computer, ACAS-X, and ADS-B FunctionalityARINC735C (Current)11/2/2022
This document describes Airborne Collision Avoidance System X (ACAS X) functionality and provides the necessary interface definitions and protocols to accommodate the requirements of RTCA DO-385: Minimum Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Collision Avoidance System X (ACAS X) ACAS Xa and ACAS Xo) (latest version applies) and the requirements of RTCA DO-386: Minimum Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Collision Avoidance System X (ACAS X) ACAS Xu (latest version applies). Additionally, this document describes interfaces and protocols necessary to accommodate Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI) based on the reception of Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) data and Traffic Information Services–Broadcast (TIS-B) data. The equipment becomes ACAS X with ADS-B IN applications added, as defined by RTCA DO-317C: Minimum Operational Performance Standards for (MOPS) for Aircraft Surveillance Applications (ASA) Systems (latest version applies). ACAS X hybrid surveillance is an integral part of RTCA DO-385 and DO-386 MOP.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Aircraft Evacuation Signal SystemARP1178C (Current)8/5/2022
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice recommends general criteria for the development and installation of an aircraft emergency signal system to permit any crew member (flight or cabin) to inform all other crew members that an emergency evacuation situation exists and that an evacuation has been or should be immediately started.
S-9B Cabin Interiors and Furnishings Committee
Minimum Performance Standard for Pitot and Pitot-Static ProbesAS8006A (Current)8/4/2022
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) covers the following basic types: Type I - Pitot pressure, straight and L-shaped, electrically heated. Type II - Pitot and static pressures, straight and L-shaped, electrically heated.
A-4ADWG Air Data Subcommittee
Pressure Altimeter SystemsAS8009C (Current)8/4/2022
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) specifies minimum performance requirements for pressure altimeter systems other than air data computers. This document covers altimeter systems that measure and display altitude as a function of atmospheric pressure. The pressure transducer may be contained within the instrument display case or located remotely. Requirements for air data computers are specified in AS8002. Some requirements for nontransducing servoed altitude indicators are included in AS791. This document does not address RVSM requirements because general RVSM requirements cannot be independently detailed at the component level. The instrument system specified herein does not include aircraft pressure lines. Unless otherwise specified, whenever the term “instrument” is used, it is to be understood to be the complete system of pressure transducer components, any auxiliary equipment, and display components. The test procedures specified herein apply specifically to mechanical type instruments. Solid state instruments or automatic test instrumentation may require other test procedures. Such differing procedures shall be justified prior to use.
A-4ADWG Air Data Subcommittee
STALL WARNING INSTRUMENTAS403A (Current)8/4/2022
A-4ADWG Air Data Subcommittee
Aircraft Damage Caused by Ground Support EquipmentAIR1589C (Current)5/16/2022
Incidents where a piece of ground support equipment or personnel damages an aircraft under the control of ground or maintenance operations that requires corrective action by aircraft maintenance personnel. Operations include, but are not limited to servicing, line maintenance, heavy maintenance, and aircraft movement, e.g., marshalling/pushback/tow/reposition/taxi.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Fifty Years of Innovation in Performance Limit Indicator (A success story of Airbus Helicopters contribution, to helicopter fleet safety , by simplifying piloting and reducing workload)F-0078-2022-00385/10/2022
Since their invention, helicopters were typical flying object that requested very specific competencies to control their flight. The control of the rotors power, delivered by the engine, was subject to multiple indicators that were installed in the cockpit. Depending on the various technologies, engine temperature, turbine rotation speed, and torque are measured; main gearbox torque, or free turbine speed are monitored. The pilot has the responsibility to ensure that none of them are at their limit, depending on the environmental conditions mainly outside temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Germanetti, Serge
Motorcycle Turn Signal LampsJ131_202205 (Historical)5/1/2022
This SAE Standard provides test procedures, requirements, and guidelines for motorcycle turn signal lamps. It does not apply to mopeds.
Motorcycle Lighting Standards Committee
Illuminated Vehicle Logos - Investigation on Potential Distraction and Their Influence on Road Safety2022-01-07973/29/2022
The current development of automotive lighting strives towards more and more lighting installations on vehicles. Additionally, to that, manufacturers start animating these lighting installations as coming home or leaving home greetings from the car to the driver. In a previous paper we have shown, that these additional animations are in fact not distracting to other road users and when used correctly, e.g. in a sequential turn indicator, can be beneficial to the overall traffic safety. This study then aims to investigate the potential influence of illuminated logos on road safety. European lawmakers forbid the use of illuminated advertisements on vehicles to minimize the danger of distraction for other road users and thereby negatively influencing traffic safety. As of now, active illumination of the manufacturer’s logo is considered an advertisement. For this, a test vehicle was setup with two high luminance monitors, one at the front, one at the back, capable of producing 4000 cd/m2. With this, it was possible to efficiently vary size, form and illuminance between the logos to find a suitable range for illuminated logos. This vehicle with an illuminated logo at front and back was driven past each test subject, and their attention and distraction was measured. Additionally, a questionnaire was answered after the study to find the test subject’s objective opinions and evaluations of the illuminated logos. The results for gaze tracking show no significant differences in fixations between an illuminated logo and currently allowed light signatures. Showing an actual advertisement with different colors however, led to a significant increase in the number of fixations on the passing vehicle as well as an increase on the gaze duration on the passing vehicle. Even clearer than the objective results is the subjective evaluation. Here the light signatures with the illuminated logos were not only rated as non-distracting and were not perceived as advertisements but were also found to be more pleasing to the subjects.
Kobbert, Jonas, Hamm, Michael, Hinterwaelder, Christian, Bullough, John D.
Analysis of Water Injection and Improvement of Turbulent Flows in Split Cycle Engine CompressorSAE-PP-0021312/29/2021
The split cycle engine could be the next breakthrough for internal combustion (IC) engines achieving up to 60% thermal efficiency and having near to zero harmful emissions. This engine could challenge EV, fuel cell and hydrogen technologies. Water injection has been used to improve compression efficiency by the University of Brighton, showing that it is an effective way of reducing compression work. This study looks at three design solutions to improve air-water mixing and control the flow entering the compression chamber, to minimise compression work. Air and water temperature are investigated with a mathematical model, to understand their impact on compression work. The results from this study, although being relatively imprecise, show correlations between visual, experimental and CFD results, presenting a simpler design solution to the conventional direct injection. The results from the mathematical model show that air temperature does not affect considerably compression efficiency, and injected water has a negative effect on compression for temperatures higher than 60°C.
Borgia, Fabio
Testing of Airplane Installed Environmental Control Systems (ECS)ARP217D (Current)12/27/2021
This document deals with ground and flight test of airplane installed Environmental Control Systems (ECS), Figure 1. The ECS provide an environment, controlled within specified operational limits of comfort and safety, for humans, animals, and equipment. These limits include the following: pressure, temperature, humidity, ventilation air velocity, ventilation rate, wall temperature, audible noise, vibration, and environment composition (ozone, contaminants, etc.). The ECS are composed of equipment, controls, and indicators that supply, distribute, recycle and exhaust air to maintain the desired environment.
AC-9 Aircraft Environmental Systems Committee
Oxygen Considerations for High Elevation Airport Operations (HEAO)AIR6829 (Current)8/26/2021
This document covers information concerning the use of oxygen when flying into and out of high elevation airports for both pressurized and non-pressurized aircraft. Oxygen requirements for pressurized aircraft operating at high altitudes have for decades emphasized the potential failures that could lead to a loss of cabin pressurization coupled with the potential severe hypoxic hazard that decompressions represent. This document is intended to address the case where the relationship between cabin and ambient pressures are complicated by operations at high terrestrial altitudes. Operators who fly into these high-altitude airports should address the issues related to this environment because it carries the potential for insidious hypoxia and other conditions which can affect safety. It provides information to consider in developing operational procedures to address hypoxia concerns consistent with regulatory mandates. In some sections, procedures are discussed that may mitigate the deleterious effects of hypoxia in a non-flight regime yet still have the potential to represent risk factors associated with flight operations. All the information is provided as a framework for potential oxygen management and other procedures to facilitate responsible practices and facilitate compliance with existing regulatory requirements. This document cannot address every type aircraft pressurization system, oxygen system or operational condition the flight may encounter. Any threat or hazard not discussed in AIR6829 should be brought to the attention of the OEM, the regulatory authority and the flight operations department for proper guidance.
A-10 Aircraft Oxygen Equipment Committee
Electrical and Electronic Equipment Cooling in Commercial TransportsAIR64C (Current)8/10/2021
This document considers the cooling of equipment installed in equipment centers, which usually consist of rack-mounted equipment and panel mounted equipment in the flight deck. Instances where these two locations result in different requirements are identified. This document generally refers to the cooled equipment as E/E equipment, denoting that both electrical and electronic equipment is considered, or as an E/E equipment line-replaceable-unit (LRU). The majority of cooled equipment takes the form of LRUs. The primary focus of this document is E/E equipment which uses forced air cooling to keep the equipment within acceptable environmental limits. These limits ensure the equipment operates reliably and within acceptable tolerances. Cooling may be supplied internally or externally to the E/E equipment case. Some E/E equipment is cooled solely by natural convection, conduction, and radiation to the surrounding environment. This document discusses specification requirements, system design considerations, component design, and system testing. It also discusses the analysis and test considerations for the thermal design of the avionic equipment. The discussion of supplementary cooling systems includes consideration of a refrigeration system. This document just covers air cooling of equipment. AIR1811 should be consulted for information on liquid cooling of equipment. Although this document is targeted at transport category airplanes, most of the material applies to other classes of aircraft with possible adaptions.
AC-9 Aircraft Environmental Systems Committee
Method of Testing Pre-Conditioned Air EquipmentARP5374B (Current)4/8/2021
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) applies to Point-Of-Use, Central and Mobile Pre-Conditioned Air Equipment. It does not apply to aircraft mounted equipment.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Experimental and Numerical Investigations of Sprays in Crossflow in Aftertreatment Systems2021-01-05964/6/2021
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) with gaseous ammonia is the leading technology used to meet on- and off-highway NOx emission standards across the world. In typical SCR systems, a low-pressure injector introduces a solution of urea and water (UWS) into hot exhaust gases leading to atomization and subsequent spray processes that finally lead to production of gaseous ammonia. Through their synergetic effect, the UWS injector and mixing enhancement devices (such as static mixers or baffles) help deliver a uniform mixture of ammonia and NOx to the SCR catalyst with minimal urea-derived solid deposits. To develop an efficient and robust aftertreatment system, it is essential to have experimental and simulation capabilities to assess the behavior of sprays under flow conditions representative of engine exhaust. The experimental part of the present work uses an optically accessible, cold- or hot-flow capable test section (called Insitu test section) that allows optical observations and measurements of aftertreatment sprays in cross-flowing gas. Pitot tubes are used to measure gas velocity, and high-speed imaging is used in conjunction with laser diffraction drop size measurements to characterize the spray. CFD Simulations are conducted using the commercial finite volume code ANSYS FLUENT using the Lagrangian Drop - Eulerian Fluid framework. User defined functions are developed to prescribe accurate initial conditions for the spray, and custom MATLAB scripts are used for detailed post- processing. Predicted velocity fields, spray trajectories and drop sizes are compared against test data under both cold- and hot-flow conditions and effects of spray submodels and numerical model settings are investigated. Finally, implications of the findings from this study for diesel aftertreatment system CFD simulations are discussed.
Munnannur, Achuth, Blessinger, Matthew, Liu, Z. Gerald
Investigation of the Impairment on Road Traffic through Animation and Sequential Activation2021-01-08524/6/2021
Two research fields are presented in this paper covering new lighting functions. In the first part, a study is presented that evaluates distraction by light animations. 41 test subjects were involved, and a situation was constructed with several traffic participants and an animated-light vehicle parked so as to be conspicuously within the test subjects’ view. 91% of the test subjects stated they felt little or no distraction or impairment from the light display on the parked car. 29% noticed something conspicuous about the test vehicle. 22% indicated they had noticed the car’s lights flashing as its central locking system was operating. Only 7%—three of the 41 participants—noticed the animations in addition to their traffic monitoring. Of these, two said they didn’t feel disturbed at all by the animations while the third found it only very slightly distracting. Nobody said the distraction or impairment was “neutral”, “little bit” or “strong”. So this study concludes that there is no connection between annoyance, distraction, or impairment with welcome/farewell animations of a vehicle’s front or rear lighting. In a second study, the direct reaction on the visual support via dynamic turn indicators was investigated. Since the switch-on sequence (“movement”) of a turn indicator gives additional information about the intended direction, the effects on correct detectability and reaction speed have been investigated on various types of dynamic activation. Two different types of dynamic turn indicator activation used in U.S. or ECE were investigated as well as some new ideas for the type and direction of animation. The error rate for static TI detection was five times higher than for a dynamic TI. The reaction time for a dynamic TI was recorded to be 34% quicker than for a standard TI. This shows a massive improvement of nighttime traffic safety by dynamic signal functions.
Hamm, Michael, Hinterwaelder, Christian, Kobbert, Jonas
Evaluation of Human Factor Considerations for Outdoor Laser Operations in the Navigable AirspaceAIR5995A (Current)3/1/2021
This report identifies the reasons for, and results associated with, the conduct of a flight simulation research project evaluating the effect of low powered laser beam illumination of pilot crewmembers operating in the navigable airspace. This evaluation was primarily concerned with the possible degradation of pilot performance when illuminated by a laser while operating in an airport terminal area where pilot workloads are normally at their maximum.
G-10OL Operational Laser Committee
Graphic Symbols for Aircraft Hydraulic and Pneumatic SystemsAS1290C (Current)2/12/2021
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) provides a system of graphic symbols and line codings that are intended primarily for usage in hydraulic and pneumatic system schematic diagrams for all types of aircraft.
A-6 Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems
Aircraft HumidificationAIR1609B (Current)1/14/2021
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) covers the design parameters for various methods of humidification applicable to aircraft, the physiological aspects of low humidities, the possible benefits of controlling cabin humidity, the penalties associated with humidification, and the problems which must be solved for practical aircraft humidification systems. The design information is applicable to commercial and military aircraft. The physiological aspects cover all aircraft environmental control applications.
AC-9 Aircraft Environmental Systems Committee
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