Browse Topic: Light trucks

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Design and Performance Research of an Integrated Thermal Management System for Hybrid Electric Light Trucks2026-99-07355/15/2026
Addressing issues in traditional hybrid light trucks—such as low overall energy utilization efficiency and performance degradation of key components under extreme operating conditions—this study presents a novel, high-efficiency, integrated vehicle thermal management system. By coupling various subsystems, the system achieves efficient and rational utilization of the vehicle’s overall energy consumption. Comparative simulation analyses were conducted under different ambient temperatures and initial state-of-charge (SOC) levels to verify the reliability of the designed integrated thermal management system. Results show the system can meet the temperature requirements of all components under both high and low-temperature conditions. Meanwhile, findings indicate that ambient temperature and power modes have a substantial impact on the temperature of each component, and there is potential for utilizing motor waste heat. These outcomes provide a reference for the subsequent optimization of control strategies for thermal management systems in hybrid light trucks.
Meng, Shun, Zhang, Chunyu, Zhang, Yu, Zhang, Dong, Yao, Mingyao, Qiu, Liang, Wu, Yadong, Qian, Yejian
Effects of Vehicle Speed, Category, and Front-End Design on Full-Body Injury Risks of a Midsized Male Pedestrian09-14-01-00175/4/2026
This study investigated how vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and vehicle category influence injury risk to a midsize male pedestrian. Eighty-one generic vehicle (GV) models representing sedans, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), pickup trucks, and minivans sold in the United States were developed by morphing three base models using an automated pipeline. Front-end parameters that were varied included ground clearance (GC), bumper height (BH), hood leading-edge (HLE) height, hood length (HL), bumper lead angle (BLA), hood angle (HA), and windshield angle (WSA). Each vehicle impacted the Global Human Body Models Consortium 50th percentile male simplified pedestrian (GHBMC M50-PS) model at 30, 40, and 50 kph, totaling 243 simulations. Boundary conditions followed the European New Car Assessment Program (Euro NCAP) pedestrian test protocol. Thirty-five injury metrics were extracted across the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities. Linear mixed-effects regression models assessed relationships between vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and injury outcomes, with predictor selection guided by principal component analysis (PCA) and collinearity diagnostics. Impact speed was the strongest predictor of injury severity across all body regions. GC and HLE height were also dominant predictors. Wrap-type trajectories were common at lower speeds and in SUVs, trucks, and minivans, while sedans and minivans showed roof vaulting at higher speeds. Head injury severity increased with speed and was influenced by HA and BLA. Minivans showed elevated brain injury criterion (BrIC) and cumulative strain damage measure (CSDM25) values, indicating increased diffuse brain injury risk. Trucks produced the highest thoracoabdominal injury metrics, which correlated with HL, HA, and HLE height. Sedans showed higher right-side (trailing leg) femur forces, slightly lower left-side femur forces than SUVs and minivans, and lowest tibia moments. Trucks had greater tibia bending moments, while SUVs and minivans had higher left femur moments compared to sedans. GC and impact speed exacerbated lower extremity injuries, varying by vehicle category. These effects are driven by geometry: Higher GC increases the unsupported span below the knee, promoting tibial bending, while lower HLE heights shift impact forces above the knee, elevating femur injury risk.
Poveda, Luis, Miller, Logan E., Edwards, Colin C., Pollock, Madeline, Armstrong, William M., Hsu, Fang-Chi, Gayzik, Scott F., Weaver, Ashley A., Stitzel, Joel D., Devane, Karan S.
The Stellantis North America Aero-Acoustic Wind Tunnel Upgrade2026-01-06094/7/2026
The Stellantis North America Aero-Acoustic Wind Tunnel (AAWT) has been upgraded with a cutting-edge 5-belt Moving Ground Plane (MGP) system, featuring an 8.5-meter center belt and four Wheel Spinning Unit (WSU) belts with advanced coatings for durability and visibility. The expanded 9.4-meter turntable enables ±90° yaw and supports vehicles with wheelbases from 1800 mm to 4500 mm and weights up to 5000 kg, accommodating the full Stellantis North America product range. The original 2-stage boundary layer control system was retained, with new tertiary slots added for improved flow quality. A high-stiffness, six-component Horiba balance with integrated calibration weights and tractive force measurement ensures accurate and precise measurements. Facility enhancements include a 550 m2 building addition for equipment and vehicle prep, a dedicated compressor container for clean air supply, and a vehicle underbody wash booth for efficient cleaning. Commissioning confirmed that flow quality, axial static pressure distribution, and acoustic background noise meet or exceed system specifications. Operational since October 2024, the upgraded AAWT now delivers world-class aerodynamic and acoustic testing capabilities, with enhanced automation, safety, and efficiency.
Lounsberry, Todd, Ladouceur, Brent, Fadler, Gregory
Investigation of the Blockage Phenomenon in Closed Wall Wind Tunnels during the Testing of Bluff Automotive Bodies with Small Wakes in Yawed Configurations2026-01-06074/7/2026
The difficulties of testing a bluff automotive body of sufficient scale to match the on-road vehicle Reynolds number in a closed wall wind tunnel has led to many approaches being taken to adjust the resulting data for the inherent interference effects. But it has been difficult to experimentally analyze the effects that are occurring on and around the vehicle when these blockage interferences are taking place. The present study is an extension of earlier works by the authors and similarly to those studies uses the computational fluid dynamics analysis of five bodies that generate small wakes to examine the interference phenomena in solid wall wind tunnels. This focuses on the effects on the pressures, and forces experienced by the vehicle model when it is in yawed conditions up to 20 degrees. This is accomplished by executing a series of CFD configurations with varying sized cross sections from approximately 0.4% to 14% blockage enabling an approximation of free air conditions as reference. The configurations include a reference fastback (with detailed and smooth underbodies) and a notchback body (detailed underbody) from the Technical University of Munich, the University of Stuttgart AeroSUV (fastback configuration), and a generic pickup truck model (Ford). Examination is made of the physical phenomena occurring around the vehicle as the proximity to the walls and ceiling is changed holding the test section aspect ratio and length constant. Wall and ceiling static pressure distortions, and the distribution of forces on the vehicle body are examined as well as comparing Body Axis and Wind Axis force representations. It is intended that this dataset be utilized by the SAE Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Forum Committee (RVAC) and the Subsonic Aerodynamic Testing Association combined activity, Commonized Automotive Aerodynamic Test Standards (CAATS), to evaluate and/or develop closed wall wind tunnel blockage techniques for automotive bluff bodies.
Gleason, Mark, Riegel, Eugen
Energy Efficiency Analysis of U-Haul Truck and Trailer Systems: Impact of Tongue Weight and Load Variations2026-01-04664/7/2026
The demand for improved energy efficiency in real-world vehicle operations continues to grow with technology enhancement. When transporting large cargo loads with passenger pickup trucks and rental trailers, the interaction between vehicle payload, towing configuration, and fuel consumption becomes a key factor in overall system efficiency. Understanding how towing configurations and trailer loading influence fuel consumption and vehicle performance is critical for both consumer guidance and vehicle system design. This study investigates the energy efficiency of U-Haul truck and trailer systems, with a particular focus on the influence of trailer tongue weight. U-Haul truck and trailer simulation models were developed using AVL Vehicle Simulation Model (VSM) software, with an F-350 engine brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) map integrated to represent realistic engine performance. Two configurations with equal payload were evaluated: (1) a U-Haul truck alone, and (2) a U-Haul truck towing a trailer. Within these configurations, multiple scenarios were analyzed, including variations in payload levels and tongue weight distributions. Driving cycles were selected to capture common moving conditions such as urban stop-and-go traffic and extended highway operation. Simulation outputs quantified the interactions among vehicle dynamics, powertrain load, and fuel consumption. Results show clear differences in energy consumption between standalone and towing configurations, with tongue weight distribution exerting a significant influence on both efficiency and stability. The findings provide practical insights into the energy trade-offs between independent vehicle operation and towing scenarios. Moreover, the study highlights the importance of load distribution and driving cycle considerations in optimizing fuel consumption, offering a framework that can be extended to rental, commercial, and consumer towing applications where energy efficiency and vehicle performance are important.
Wang, Gang, Kathadi, Mohammad, Yang, William, Chen, Yan
Measurement of Light Truck Tire Operating Deflection Shapes Using Scanning Doppler Laser Vibrometry: Issues and Insights10-10-02-00102/10/2026
As internal combustion engines are replaced by quieter electric motors in ground vehicles, noise and vibration sources aside from the powertrain have become relatively more important. This is especially true of tires. Measurement of the dynamic vibratory characteristics of tires is critical to understanding their influence on the noise and vibration performance of vehicles, both outside the vehicle body and inside of it. In this work, the normal modes and operating deflection shapes of a Yokohama Geolander A/T light truck tire are measured using traditional modal analysis techniques as well as a non-contact Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometry (SLDV) approach. Boundary conditions including free, fixed, loaded, and rotating are implemented to the tire and investigated. Rotating conditions are accomplished in a physical chassis dynamometer environment, with the measured tire mounted on the front axle of a Chevrolet Silverado 1500 pickup truck. Modes of vibration and associated natural frequencies that are measured in all four boundary conditions, including steady-state rotation, are reported and illustrated. Results of the study show that operating deflection shapes of a rotating light truck tire can be measured on a chassis dynamometer using SLDV, assuming the tire is undergoing steady-state rotation, but certain disadvantages in the dynamometer environment make the measurement procedure challenging. Specific concerns such as tire rotating speed consistency and sufficient spatial and frequency resolution of the measurements are delineated in this work. Moreover, practical recommendations for measurement of rotating tire operating deflection shapes using a SLDV are included, and a comparison with the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) method of measurement is presented.
Bastiaan, Jennifer M., Chauda, Gaurav, Baqersad, Javad, Gupta, Arjun, Dhami, Kevalya
Conceptual Design of Uninhabited Aircraft for Support of Wildfire SuppressionSM-2026-VLADA-51871/27/2026
A 4-rotor uninhabited air vehicle is described, with a primary mission of supporting personnel fighting wildfires. The paper demonstrates the use of technical design tools for a small Uninhabited Aircraft System (sUAS). A description of the design process is provided, including developing requirements, identifying constraints, the software tools employed, and examination of results. The vehicle is capable of delivering more than 20 kg of supplies to a delivery point 10 nm away while penetrating 30 kt winds. The sized vehicle is transportable in a medium-duty pickup truck and can be picked up and moved for ground handling by one or two individuals. The vehicle information will be publicly released for NDARC software users. Future work will examine other requirements, such as maneuvering and gust rejection.
Silva, Christopher, Solis, Eduardo
Structural Analysis and Design Optimization of Cylinder Head of Cummins Light Duty Engine for Medium Wheelbase (MWB) Pick-Up Truck2026-26-04951/16/2026
This paper presents the design, structural analysis, structural test validation and risk assessment done by Cummins to evaluate the structural integrity of Light Duty engine cylinder head for a Medium Wheelbase (MWB) pick-up truck. Initially, Cummins used the 2.5L and 3.0L (4-cylinder) engines that have standard power ratings based on existing requirements, but rising market demands for more power, fuel efficiency, lower cost and weight, and future emission compliance led to customer requirements for 15% uprate for 2.5L and 22% uprate for 3.0L from the same base engine. The increase in power requirement possesses challenges on critical components, especially cylinder heads in terms of thermal and structural limits. Multiple analysis led design iterations were performed using cutting edge CAE software such as Ansys, Dassault Systems fe-safe, and PTC Creo to ensure the structural integrity of the cylinder head under high thermal and mechanical loads, and to keep design margins within acceptable limits. A key feature identified through topology optimization was diagonal ribbing pattern on each cylinder, which is novel, and similar pattern can be applied to both new and existing engine platforms to enhance stiffness without major changes to the water jacket. The Cylinder head was subjected to a long endurance test, which comprises of high thermal and mechanical loads under extreme operating conditions. After running for specified number of hours as per inhouse test requirements, the engine was stopped for magnetic particle inspection for any signs of fatigue failure. No major cracks were observed on the 3.0L Cylinder head combustion face. However, a few cracks were observed on the 2.5L cylinder head combustion face at exhaust & intake bridges. Upon investigation, it was concluded that crack was due to high thermo-mechanical fatigue loads and hence further optimization was carried out on the cylinder head design. Furthermore, cylinder head gasket coolant orifice optimization is done to improve the coolant distribution to each cylinder. Thermal analysis showed a reduction in exhaust & intake bridge temperature within the acceptable limits. This paper captures the detailed design and structural analysis on 3.0L and 2.5 L diesel engine Cylinder head.
Pathak, Arun Jyoti, Adiverekar, Vaidehi, Singh, Rahul, Biyani, Mayur
Barrier Weight Prediction for Vehicle Compatibility in North America Market Using Finite Element Analysis2025-01-86214/1/2025
The proliferation of the electric vehicle (EVs) in the US market led to an increase in the average vehicle weight due to the assembly of the larger high-voltage (HV) batteries. To comply with this weight increase and to meet stringent US regulations and Consumer Ratings requirements, Vehicle front-end rigidity (stiffness) has increased substantially. This increased stiffness in the larger vehicles (Large EV pickups/SUVs) may have a significant impact during collision with smaller vehicles. To address this issue, it is necessary to consider adopting a vehicle compatibility test like Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) for the North American market as well. This study examines the influence of mass across vehicle classes and compares the structural variations for each impact class. The Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) protocol referenced for this analysis. Our evaluation approach comprises of two sections: (i) The impact of the barrier mass on to the vehicle structure (V2B) and (ii) vehicle-to-vehicle impact (V2V) analysis. To predict the correct segment weight representing the barrier weight for the North American market, we analyzed the 2022 year to sales data for North American market to assess the average vehicle weight. Data was then compared with CAE predictions barrier mass (~1500kg- 1600kg). Based on the sales data, the average vehicle mass found to be ~1500 kg, aligning with the CAE simulations predictions. This study aims to determine the US sales volume and conduct CAE simulations to predict the precise weight of the barrier that replicates the lightest vehicle currently available in the North American market, as per this study, a barrier weight of (~1500 -1600) kg can be considered for the future vehicle compatibility for NA market. This predicted vehicle weight aligns with the typical vehicle sale data for North American market. Background In 2022, Electric Vehicles (EVs) constituted 14% of all car sales globally, with every major market experiencing year-over-year sales increase. In United States, this meant that over one in five cars sold were electric. To improve the range of EVs, Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) are significantly increasing the weight of high-voltage battery assemblies, leading to an overall increase in the vehicle weight, this in turn, results in substantial increase in front-end-stiffness of the vehicle to meet other US vehicle regulations. The heightened front-end-stiffness is expected to significantly impact vehicle compatibility. To understand various parameters such as Occupant Loading Criterion (OLC) and Standard Deviation (deformation of barrier profile), we referenced Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) test protocol. This helped determine the weight of the barrier that represents the small vehicle segment in the North American market. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) impact CAE simulations were also conducted, selecting smaller vehicle as target vehicles (to represent the barrier mass), and impacting them with different vehicle classes such as Pick-up trucks, Large SUVs, and Compact SUVs. The impact vehicle mass varied from 1800kg to 3200kg.The primary aim of this study is to estimate the barrier weight that replicates the lightest vehicle currently available in the North American market.
Kusnoorkar, Harsha, Koraddi, Basavaraj, Guerrero, Michael, Sripada, Venu Vinod, Tangirala, Ravi
Effect of Aftermarket Modifications on ADAS Functionality – 2021 Ford F-150 Light Vehicle2025-01-80574/1/2025
Both automotive aftermarket vehicle modifications and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are growing. However, there is very little information available in the public domain about the effect of aftermarket modifications on ADAS functionality. To address this deficiency, a research study was previously performed in which a 2022 Chevrolet Silverado 1500 light truck was tested in four different hardware configurations. These included stock as well as three typical aftermarket configurations comprised of increased tire diameters, a suspension level kit, and two different suspension lift kits. Physical tests were carried out to investigate ADAS performance of lane keeping, crash imminent braking, traffic jam assist, blind spot detection, and rear cross traffic alert systems. The results of the Silverado study showed that the ADAS functionality of that vehicle was not significantly altered by aftermarket modifications. To determine if the results of the Silverado study were significant only for that particular light truck, or if they could be generalized to other light vehicles, a similar study was performed on a 2021 Ford F-150 light truck. Aftermarket modifications applied to the F-150 were like those employed on the Silverado, except a suspension lower kit was added to the hardware configurations tested. Physical test procedures were carried over into the F-150 study, apart from a pedestrian interaction test that was added. The results of the F-150 study are analogous to the results of the Silverado study, in that the ADAS performance of the modified F-150 was found to be comparable to stock for all aftermarket hardware configurations tested. However, the average values for certain ADAS performance metrics differed in some F-150 modified configurations compared to stock. In this work, the results of the F-150 ADAS functionality testing is summarized, and a statistical analysis of the test data collected is presented.
Bastiaan, Jennifer, Muller, Mike, Morales, Luis
A Survey of Vehicle Forward Lighting System Mounting Height and Driver Eye Height2025-01-86624/1/2025
Headlight glare remains a persistent problem to the U.S. driving public. Over the past 30 years, vehicle forward lighting and signaling systems have evolved dramatically in terms of styling and lighting technologies used. Importantly, vehicles driven in the U.S. have increased in size during this time as the proportion of pickup trucks and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs) has increased relative to passenger sedans and other lower-height vehicles. Accordingly, estimates of typical driver eye height and the height of lighting and signaling equipment on vehicles from one or two decades ago are unlikely to represent the characteristics of current vehicles in the U.S. automotive market. In the present study we surveyed the most popular vehicles sold in the U.S. and carried out evaluations of the heights of lighting and signaling systems, as well as typical driver eye heights based on male and female drivers. These data may be of use to those interested in understanding how exposure to vehicle headlighting and other factors have changed in the recent past.
Bullough, John D.
Model-Based Evaluation of Hybrid Powertrains for a Light Duty Pickup Truck Application2025-01-85324/1/2025
In recent years, the stronger push for reducing GHG and NOx emissions has challenged vehicle manufacturers globally. In USA, Multi-Pollutant Emissions Standards for Model Years 2027 and Later Light Duty and Medium-Duty Vehicles released by EPA in April 2023 aims to reduce the CO2 emissions by 56% and 44%, respectively, for light and medium duty vehicles by 2032 from 2026 levels. It also includes the NMOG+ NOx standards, which require a 60 – 76% reduction by 2032 from 2026 levels for light to medium-duty vehicles. Europe also aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 55% by 2030 from 1990 levels and 100% by 2035. To achieve such low levels of CO2 emissions, especially in the near-term scenario of limited EV sales, hybridization of conventional powertrains has found renewed interest. While hybrid powertrains add complexity, if optimized well for the application, they can offer best tradeoff between upfront cost, range, payload, performance, emissions and off-ambient operation. This study investigates the benefits and challenges of various hybrid architectures suitable for a pickup truck application using a model-based approach. First, a baseline vehicle model of a conventional powertrain pickup truck was developed using GT-SUITE and correlated to test data for fuel economy, and engine-out emissions over EPA regulatory cycles. Thereafter, the model was extended to represent various electrified powertrains such as P2, P3, P1P2, P1P3, range extender and Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) architecture. The component sizes and energy management strategy for each hybrid architecture was then optimized using a genetic algorithm-based optimization approach to maximize fuel efficiency. The optimized powertrains were finally compared against each other on performance, fuel efficiency, added curb weight, added cost and cost of ownership. In comparison to the baseline vehicle, the optimized P1P2 and P1P3 parallel hybrid configurations showed a 29% and 32% increase in fuel economy over the regulatory cycles in charge sustaining mode, respectively. The range extender concept (referred to as hybrid BEV architecture in the study) with a dedicated hybrid engine showed the highest potential of 46% increase in fuel economy along with 75% reduction in engine-out NOx emissions. The hybrid BEV architecture also showed the lowest Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) among the other electrified powertrains.
Fnu, Dhanraj, Correia Garcia, Bruno, Paul, Sumit, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-Adhesion Road Considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-88134/1/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability. This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a tandem composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder (ECR) or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model, and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length and vehicle speed, on the road adhesion coefficient is analyzed. Combined with road conditions and driver intentions, three state variables—vehicle speed, battery state of charge, and braking intensity — are employed as control inputs. A fuzzy controller is then designed to distribute the basic braking torque between the motor and retarder. Additionally, a slip ratio controller is developed to dynamically adjust the braking torque of the electro-mechanical brake, preventing wheel lock-up. Finally, simulations are conducted using MATLAB/Simulink to validate the effectiveness of the proposed composite braking method.
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Longitudinal Analysis of Forward Blind Zone Changes in Popular Vehicle Models (1997–2023)09-13-01-00053/26/2025
Background. In 2022, vulnerable road user (VRU) deaths in the United States increased to their highest level in more than 40 years. At the same time, increasing vehicle size and taller front ends may contribute to larger forward blind zones, but little is known about the role that visual occlusion may play in this trend. Goal. Researchers measured the blind zones of six top-selling light-duty vehicle models (one pickup truck, three SUVs, and two passenger cars) across multiple redesign cycles (1997–2023) to determine whether the blind zones were getting larger. Method. To quantify the blind zones, the markerless method developed by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety was used to calculate the occluded and visible areas at ground level in the forward 180° arc around the driver at ranges of 10 m and 20 m. Results. In the 10-m forward radius nearest the vehicle, outward visibility declined in all six vehicle models measured across time. The SUV models showed up to a 58% reduction in visibility within a 10 m radius. Other vehicles exhibited smaller (7%–19%) reductions. At longer distances (10 m–20 m), vehicles demonstrated both increases and decreases in visibility. Conclusion. The markerless method provides a straightforward and replicable assessment of driver visibility. The observed decrease in direct outward visibility near the vehicles points to the need for further study regarding this trend, including analysis of the repeatability and viability of the measurement technique.
Epstein, Alexander K., Brodeur, Alyssa, Drake, Juwon, Englin, Eric, Fisher, Donald L., Zoepf, Stephen, Mueller, Becky C., Bragg, Haden
Ground Height and Pitch Angle Influence on the Aerodynamic Behavior of a Production Pickup Truck2024-36-001112/20/2024
The fuel economy performance of road vehicles is one of the most important factors for a successful project in the current automotive industry due to greenhouse effect gases reduction goals. Aerodynamics and vehicle dynamics play key roles on leading the automaker fulfill those factors. The drag coefficient and frontal area of the vehicle are affected by several conditions, where the ground height and pitch angle are very relevant, especially for pickup trucks. In this work, we present a combined study of suspension trim heights and aerodynamics performance of a production pickup truck, where three different loading conditions are considered. The three weight configurations are evaluated both in terms of ground height and pitch angle change considering the suspension and tires deflection and these changes are evaluated in terms of drag coefficient performance, using a Lattice-Boltzmann transient solver. Results are compared with the baseline vehicle at road speed condition, where both numerical results and flow comparison contours are provided.
Buscariolo, Filipe Fabian, Terra, Rafael Tedim
Aftermarket Wheels - Passenger Cars and Light Truck - Performance Requirements and Test ProceduresJ2530_202412 (Current)12/10/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice provides performance, sampling, certifying requirements, test procedures, and marking requirements for aftermarket wheels intended for normal highway use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose passenger vehicles. For aftermarket wheels on trailers drawn by passenger cars, light trucks, or multipurpose vehicles, refer to SAE J1204. These performance requirements apply only to wheels made of materials included in Tables 1 and 2. For wheels using composite material, refer to SAE J3204. New nomenclature and terms are added to clarify wheel constructions typically not used in OEM applications. The testing procedures and requirements are based on SAE standards listed in the references.
Wheel Standards Committee
The Effect of Ultracapacitor on the Performance of Series Range-Extended Hybrid Commercial Vehicle02-17-03-00179/6/2024
Toward the goal of “dual carbon economy” development, new energy hybrid commercial vehicles have become the main vehicles to meet the future fuel consumption and emission targets. In order to meet the high requirements of commercial vehicles on power and to minimize the influence of ambient temperature on the power of the vehicle, this study proposes a composite energy storage system (CESS) incorporating ultracapacitors. To further understand the impact of ultracapacitor on the dynamic performance of the vehicle, this study compares the dynamics of series range-extended hybrid pickup trucks with and without ultracapacitor at ambient and low temperatures, as well as the effect of ultracapacitor on the service life of lithium-ion batteries, by means of simulation. The results show that at room temperature (25°C), the addition of ultracapacitor shortens the 0–100 km/h acceleration time of the whole vehicle by 24.4% and improves the off-road climbing performance by 11.7%; at low temperature (−20°C), the addition of ultracapacitor shortens the 0–100 km/h acceleration time of the whole vehicle by 88.8% and improves the off-road climbing performance by 67.9%. Under WLTC, 3% gradient conditions, the ultracapacitor increases the cycle life of the lithium-ion battery by about 9% and reduces heat generation by 11.7%.
Yu, Xiaocao
Modeling and Control Strategy for Engine Thermal Management System2024-01-22344/9/2024
In order to study the influence of engine silicone oil fan clutch on the performances of engine cooling system under different control strategies, a model of engine cooling system for light truck is established. The working characteristics of the silicone oil clutch and the measured performance parameters of the cooling system components are taken into account in our proposed model. Modeling methods for different silicone oil fan control strategies are also given. Using the established model, the performance parameters under different vehicle speeds, such as coolant temperature of engine outlet and power consumption of cooling fan, are calculated and analyzed. The in-suite measurement of the engine cooling system is carried out to get the temperatures of engine coolant inlet and outlet from engine ECU. The model is validated by the comparison between the calculation and the measured results. Based on the established model, the working characteristics of different control forms of silicone oil clutch are analyzed, and an adaptive fuzzy PID control strategy is proposed for the controlled silicone oil clutch. Compared with the two-speed silicone oil clutch based on air temperature control and the electronically controlled silicone oil clutch based on PID controller control, the results show that the adaptive fuzzy PID controller established in this paper can reduce the power consumption of the cooling fan by 26.1% and 10.7% , if the vehicle runs under heavy-duty commercial vehicle test cycles (CHTC) .The modeling and analysis method in this paper can be used for the development and optimization of silicone oil clutch control strategy.
Jiang, Chun-Hong, Wang, Xihui, Wang, Xinling, Duan, Yaolong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Comprehensive Cradle to Grave Life Cycle Analysis of On-Road Vehicles in the United States Based on GREET2024-01-28304/9/2024
To properly compare and contrast the environmental performance of one vehicle technology against another, it is necessary to consider their production, operation, and end-of-life fates. Since 1995, Argonne’s GREET® life cycle analysis model (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies) has been annually updated to model and refine the latest developments in fuels and materials production, as well as vehicle operational and composition characteristics. Updated cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis results from the model’s latest release are described for a wide variety of fuel and powertrain options for U.S. light-duty and medium/heavy-duty vehicles. Light-duty vehicles include a passenger car, sports utility vehicle (SUV), and pick-up truck, while medium/heavy-duty vehicles include a Class 6 pickup-and-delivery truck, Class 8 day-cab (regional) truck, and Class 8 sleeper-cab (long-haul) truck. Powertrain coverage includes internal combustion (spark ignition and compression ignition) engines, hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid, full battery electric, and fuel cell vehicles powered by conventional and low carbon energy sources. The results offer insights into the current state of these technologies, as well as a projection of the likely environmental implications of future fuel and vehicle advancements through a time-series evaluation of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions.
Kelly, Jarod C., Kim, Taemin, Kolodziej, Christopher P., Iyer, Rakesh K., Tripathi, Shashwat, Elgowainy, Amgad, Wang, Michael
A Holistic Approach to Next-Generation Polymer Composite Pickup Bed Development and Prototyping2024-01-24324/9/2024
As we move toward electrification in future mobility, weight and cost reduction continue to be priorities in vehicle development. This has led to continued interest in advanced molding processes and holistic design to enable polymer materials for demanding structural applications such as pickup truck beds. In addition to performance, it is necessary to continue to improve styling, functionality, quality, and sustainability to exceed customer expectations in a competitive market. To support development of a lightweight truck bed design, a cross-functional team objectively explored the latest materials and manufacturing technologies relevant to this application. In Phase 1 of this work, the team considered a variety of alternatives for each functional area of the bed, including thermoplastic and thermoset materials with a range of processing technologies. Several initial design concepts and respective material cards were generated to capture the broadest set of materials and technologies, and preliminary simulations were run, showing that the concepts were feasible to optimize both cost and weight while meeting performance criteria. For Phase 2, the team selected the most promising design concept to move forward with detailed design and simulation, supported by novel material-level testing. Prototype tooling was fabricated, and several variations of lightweight fiber-reinforced composite parts were molded. Part testing achieved equivalent or improved results in mechanical performance relative to the incumbent design, and the team also gained insights into opportunities for optimization in the next steps, scaling up to demonstrate production capability. The successful correlation of physical testing to simulation results can further support the development of validation tools for future polymer composite designs and additional components. This work demonstrates that by taking a holistic approach to polymer composite structure development, performance targets can be met with innovative design and material selection, while cost and weight are balanced and optimized across the system.
Nummy, Amanda
The New Toyota 2.4L L4 Turbo Engine with 8AT and 1-Motor Hybrid Electric Powertrains for Midsize Pickup Trucks2024-01-20894/9/2024
Toyota has developed a new 2.4L L4 turbo (2.4L-T) engine with 8AT and 1-motor hybrid electric powertrains for midsize pickup trucks. The aim of these powertrains is to fulfill both strict fuel economy and emission regulations toward “Carbon Neutrality”, while exceeding customer expectations. The new 2.4L L4 turbocharged gasoline engine complies with severe Tier3 Bin30/LEVIII SULEV30 emission regulations for body-on-frame midsize pickup trucks improving both thermal efficiency and maximum torque. This engine is matched with a newly developed 8-speed automatic transmission with wide range and close step gear ratios and extended lock-up range to fulfill three trade-off performances: powerful driving, NVH and fuel economy. In addition, a 1-motor hybrid electric version is developed with a motor generator and disconnect clutch between the engine and transmission. This hybrid architecture provides EV driving, which enhances the NVH and fuel economy, and provides additional acceleration with motor assist. Moreover, this hybrid electric system can meet customers’ “overlanding” electric power usage expectations. These performances will help exceed customer expectations for various pickup truck uses such as on-road, off-road and towing situations.
Endo, Motoshiro, Bridge, Alistair, Ikeda, Akihiro, Miyamoto, Koichi, Miyazaki, Terufumi, Hosoda, Fuminori, Herring, Craig, Wallace, James J., Hu, Mu
Lane Change Conflict Analysis of Camera Based Side-View Systems2024-26-00151/16/2024
The recent progress in camera-based technologies has prompted the development of prototype camera-based video systems, intended to replace conventional passenger vehicle mirrors. Given that a significant number of collisions during lane changes stem from drivers being unaware of nearby vehicles, these camera-based systems offer the potential to enhance safety. By affording drivers a broader field of view, they facilitate the detection of potential conflicts. This project was focused on analyzing naturalistic driving data in support of the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 111 regulatory endeavors. The goal was to assess the effectiveness and safety compatibility of prototype camera-based side-view systems as potential replacements for traditional side-view mirrors. The method employed involved extracting radar data from instances of lane changes conducted by 12 drivers for two pick-up trucks includes 10018 signal-indicated lane changes performed at speeds consistent with highway travel in a naturalistic driving study. Among these, 5029 lane changes were carried out using camera-based displays. The study delved into the influence of camera-based systems on lane change behavior, particularly examining lane change conflicts using time-to-collision data obtained from radar readings. The objective was to assess their impact on safety measures, such as vehicle detection, distance, closing speeds, and conflicts. These assessments spanned a range of conditions, including both daylight and nighttime operations. Upon analyzing the results, no compelling evidence emerged to indicate that the adoption of camera-based systems had a detrimental effect on lane change performance, leading to riskier lane changes in comparison to the traditional mirror systems.
Guduri, Balachandar, Llaneras, Robert
Modelling and Simulation of Solar Powered Thermoelectric Generator for Electric Food Delivery Pick-Up Truck2023-28-009611/10/2023
With the shift towards electric vehicles in the present world scenario, pick-up trucks play a significant role in providing much commercial and private transportation of goods. Focusing on the application of food delivery by electric pick-up trucks, by using solar powered thermoelectric generators, the food temperature and texture can be maintained that increases customer satisfaction. The power generated by the solar panels can be utilized for this purpose without increasing the load on the battery. Also, the additional solar energy that can be used to charge the battery is a way to increase efficiency and decrease the dependency on non-renewable sources. In this basic research, the electric powertrain mathematical model is developed in MATLAB and Simulink. Using the solar panel model the size of the solar panel needed in order to acquire the power needed to run the thermoelectric generator and charge the battery is calculated. The solar module is developed using a photovoltaic array and connected with a battery pack module and the parameters that determine the output of this subsystem are noted. Results revealed that thermoelectric generator needs 150 W power to keep the food hygienic and to compensate for this energy a 20 by 12 solar panel array with a 250 W power output is needed.
Shaik, Amjad, Devunuri, Suresh, Jayanth, Pampadiga, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao
The Effects of the Wheel Bearing and Mating Parts to Rotor Runout and Runout Variation2023-01-188711/5/2023
During validation of a new brake lining on a light duty truck application, the brake rotor exhibited high lateral runout on the friction surfaces. As the engineering team investigated the issue more carefully, they noticed the rotor lateral runout was also changing from revolution to revolution. The team ran testing on multiple light pickup vehicles and found differences in the amount of rotor runout variation. The rotor lateral runout and runout variation can cause vibration and pulsation of the passenger seat and the steering wheel. To identify the root cause of the high level of rotor lateral runout and runout variation, measurement data was collected and analyzed from the vehicle level test. During further analysis, some of the runout variation corresponded to a wheel bearing internal frequency. The bearing internal geometry was studied to confirm what factors affected the runout variation. The team also conducted testing to see how the mating components may have affected the wheel bearing. In addition to the vehicle testing, fixtures were built to perform brake corner bench testing. This testing showed that both the total runout and runout variation increased as more mating components were added. Brake corners from two different vehicles were bench tested. The major difference between the vehicles was the mounting location of the splash shield. On one vehicle the splash shield is mounted (sandwiched) between the knuckle and the bearing’s outer ring flange and on the other vehicle, the splash shield is directly mounted with screws to the knuckle (not sandwiched). Splash shield distortion due to compression near the knuckle bolts and the bearing outer ring contact surface, caused the larger total runout value and the higher variation. The study also proved that continuous assembly/disassembly will increase the distortion on the mating parts, which leads to the greater total runout and variation values.
Hwang, Hyungdoo, Kuehl, Paul, Sutherlin, Robert, Grubaugh, Kelly
Ford EV engineers ‘Always On’ for customer feedback23AUTP10_0810/1/2023
Engineers like to know what customers think about a vehicle. Now, drivers of the all-electric Ford F-150 Lightning and Mustang Mach-E can oblige via a new system that channels select customer comments to engineers. F-150 Lightning fullsize pickup truck and Mustang Mach-E SUV owners in the U.S. can pass along opinions via a 45-second voice message after selecting “record feedback” through the settings-general menu on the infotainment touchscreen. “We want to hear the customer's voice. Ford does customer clinics and events, but this is a different way to capture customer feedback,” Donna Dickson, chief engineer of the Ford Mustang Mach-E, said in an interview with SAE Media.
Buchholz, Kami
Ford Ranger fully redesigned for 202423AUTP09_109/1/2023
When Ford first reintroduced the Ranger to North America in 2019, it was welcomed largely because of its revered nameplate. But outside of a lauded 2.3-L 4-cylinder turbo engine and an impressive array of options, there wasn't much to write home about. And critics downgraded the lineup for a spartan interior and having a ride that bounced passengers around. Ford says it built the 2024 Ranger lineup with that feedback in mind. And, for the enthusiast crowd, the yearned-for Ranger Raptor makes its loud debut with a 405-hp engine.
Clonts, Chris
Efficiency-Biased Design of an H2-Fueled Internal Combustion Engine for Heavy and Challenging Applications2023-24-00758/28/2023
This publication outlines FEV’s engineering approach and the associated process steps for efficiency optimization of the entire powertrain definition for various commercial applications, from light-duty vehicles to heavy long-haul trucks, with particular emphasis on the most important use cases. A focus is on the crucial trade-off between attractive transient drivetrain performance and the pursuit of ultra-low, near zero tailpipe pollutant emissions. The applied measures, ranging from minimized mechanical friction and reduced losses to on-demand support by different boosting technologies, different types of H2 injection and mixture formation (external and internal), and different exhaust gas aftertreatment layouts, are thoroughly evaluated and investigated using FEV’s dedicated H2-ICE simulation tool chain. This enables the specification of satisfactory H2-ICE based powertrain solutions for a wide range of use cases in the commercial vehicle sector. This publication outlines FEV’s engineering approach and the associated process steps for optimization of the entire powertrain definition for various commercial vehicle applications, from light trucks to heavy long-haul trucks, with particular emphasis on the most important use cases. A focus is on the crucial trade-off between beneficial transient drivetrain performance and the pursuit of ultra-low, near zero tailpipe pollutant emissions. The applied level of support from different boosting technologies, different types of H2 injection and mixture formation (external and internal), and different exhaust gas aftertreatment layouts is thoroughly evaluated and investigated using FEV’s dedicated H2 ICE simulation tool chain. This enables the specification of satisfactory H2-ICE based powertrain solutions for a wide range of use cases in the commercial vehicle sector.
Koerfer, Thomas
Registration and Conformity Assessment Process for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks WheelsJ3010_202307 (Current)7/24/2023
The SAE J2530 provides performance, sampling, test procedures, and marking requirements for wheels intended for normal highway use on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose passenger vehicle. This Recommended Practice (which is separate from SAE J2530) specifies the workflow of the Wheel Conformity Assessment Program. This program allows wheel manufacturers to register their product compliant to SAE J3010. The following items precede display of “SAE J3010” on any particular wheel design: a Manufacturer registration All manufactures with the objective to pursue registration, shall complete the registration as an individual manufacturer via the registrar’s website http://wheeldb.registrar.domain. The registration includes company contact information, wheels produced, and company identification marks. b Wheel design certification All wheel designs intended for certification in accordance to this Recommended Practice, shall complete the application and submittal of test results via the above stated registrar website and in accordance to the procedures herewith. c Use of SAE J3010 Upon completion of the conformity assessment process, the Program Manager will post the image, identification, and conformity report of the wheel design on the corresponding website. Use of the “SAE J3010” mark in any form is restricted only to wheels noted in the online version of the Comprehensive Wheel Registry (REG-CWR). d Wheel test facility or laboratory accreditation registration All facilities or laboratories (first-, second-, or third-party) intended for wheel testing under the subject conformity assessment process, shall complete the application and submittal of test results via the above stated registrar website and in accordance to the procedures herewith. Accreditation from the registrar is required before providing valid test reports as part of this conformity assessment program. Manufacturers of wheels for passenger cars and light trucks, who advertise their products as "Conforms to SAE J3010" and label their product with the "SAE J3010" mark, shall follow these procedures. Conformity assessment of products to SAE J3010 is voluntary; however, adherence to these procedures is mandatory for those advertising their products as “Conforming to SAE J3010.” Wheel designs using the “SAE J3010” mark meet the requirements of SAE J2530. This conformity assessment program does not include other parameters like inner profile of the wheel and fitment to the brake or vehicle suspension, ventilation hole cooling efficiency, wheel attachment or length of thread engagement, etc., which are necessary for complete fitment and suitability to vehicles.
Wheel Standards Committee
2025 Ram 1500 REV offers class-leading big battery23AUTP06_106/1/2023
Stellantis' Ram brand introduced more details about the 2025 Ram 1500 REV electric pickup at the New York International Auto Show and one option is an enormous 229-kWh battery pack with a “targeted” driving range of up to 500 miles (805 km) and a maximum towing capacity of 14,000 lb. (6,350 kg). That range, which just about doubles the average range of currently offered electric pickup trucks, can be had in the Ram 1500 REV XR. The standard model, which will be on sale first, debuts with a 160-kWh battery and a targeted range of up to 350 miles (563 km). Both can handle 800-volt DC fast charging at up to 350 kWh, meaning an ability to gain 110 miles (177 km) of range in about 10 minutes.
Clonts, Chris
Challenges with the Introduction of X-By-Wire Technologies to Passenger Vehicles and Light Trucks in regards to Functional Safety, Cybersecurity and Availability2023-01-05814/11/2023
Classic vehicle production had limitations in bringing the driving commands to the actuators for vehicle motion (engine, steering and braking). Steering columns, hydraulic tubes or steel cables needed to be placed between the driver and actuator. Change began with the introduction of e-gas systems. Mechanical cables were replaced by thin, electric signal wires. The technical solutions and legal standardizations for addressing the steering and braking systems, were not defined at this time. Today, OEMs are starting E/E-Architecture transformations for manifold reasons and now have the chance to remove the long hydraulic tubes for braking and the solid metal columns used for steering. X-by-wire is the way forward and allows for higher Autonomous Driving (AD) levels for automated driving vehicles. This offers new opportunities to design the vehicle in-cabin space. This paper will start with the introduction of x-by-wire technologies. It will cover the three aspects of the transformation from line to wire; functional safety (fail operational), security, and availability. It will also provide examples of two different implementation approaches, one from a classic OEM with a basic platform vehicle architecture and concept, and the other from the start-up company, REE Automotive, with their skateboard architecture and brand-new concept of REEcorner™ Vehicle Motion.
Scheibert, Klaus, Kostarigka, Artemis, Dannebaum, Udo, Ambekar, Abhijit, Cai, Wenlin, Heidt, Laurent
Empirical Equations of Changes in Aerodynamic Drag Based on Direct On-Track Road Load Measurements for Multi-Vehicle Platoons2023-01-08304/11/2023
Considerable effort is currently being focused on emerging vehicle automation technologies. Engineers are making great strides in improving safety and reliability, but they are also exploring how these new technologies can enhance energy efficiency. This study focuses on the changes in aerodynamic drag associated with coordinated driving scenarios, also known as “platooning.” To draw sound conclusions in simulation or experimental studies where vehicle speed and gaps are controlled and coordinated, it is necessary to have a robust quantitative understanding of the road load changes associated with each vehicle in the platoon. Many variables affect the drag of each vehicle, such as each gap length, vehicle type/size, vehicle order and number of vehicles in the platoon. The effect is generally understood, but there are limited supporting data in the literature from actual test vehicles driving in formation. This study uses a practical approach to quantify road load changes in each vehicle using axle torque sensors to directly measure the load required to maintain steady-state speeds while in different platoon configurations (compared to driving solo). Three test vehicles were used, which varied in size and type: a passenger car, a mid-size SUV, and a full-size pickup truck. A control computer in each vehicle sent commands to the vehicle accelerator input to control the speed and gap based on radar feedback. The final product of the test program is a set of empirical equations that estimate drag changes for two- and three-vehicle platoons at highway speeds (88-112 km/hr) with varying vehicle and platoon configuration parameters.
Duoba, Michael
Development of New V6 3.0 L Turbocharged and 3.5 L Naturally Aspirated Gasoline Direct Injection Engines2023-01-03984/11/2023
With the objective of further enhancing the engine performance of the Acura brand and the environmental performance of the Honda brand in relation to the North American market, where there is a need for powertrains with driving force margin for SUVs and pickup trucks, Honda has developed a 3.0 L turbocharged engine and a 3.5 L naturally aspirated engine. Both engines adopt the same newly developed valvetrain structure and share main engine geometries. These newly developed engines are equipped with a compact new valvetrain structure combining Hydraulic Lash Adjusters and roller rocker arms with a valve-lifter based Variable Cylinder Management system which has an internalized switching mechanism. This newly developed valvetrain made it possible to incorporate dual overhead cam structure without enlarging the cylinder head shape relative to the single overhead cam structure. It further achieves this while permitting application of a Variable Cylinder Management system and of a Variable Timing Control for intake and exhaust valves to this engine. Sharing the main engine geometries and components for each type of engine, primarily the new valvetrain structure, also facilitated changes in reciprocating and other parts, and minor changes such as the mounting of a turbocharger and increases in fuel injection system pressure, enabling the required enhancements in engine and environmental performance to be achieved. Regarding the turbocharged engine, the twin-scroll type turbocharger combined with the V6 engine made it possible to increase power and enhance boost pressure responsivity while preventing enlargement even over the single turbocharger. That turbocharged engine achieves maximum power of 265 kW and maximum torque at 1400 rpm of 480 Nm, raising the figures for the existing engine by 26.7% for power, and 35.2% for torque. Regarding the natural aspiration engine, the high fuel pressure system and the multi-stage injections made it possible to reduce emissions by reducing fuel adhesion in the cylinders and enhancing homogeneity. It further enables enhancement of the thermal efficiency by combining dual Variable Timing Control and high-tumble ports and piston crown shape designed to maintain tumble flow. That natural aspiration engine achieves a maximum power of 213 kW and a maximum torque of 355 Nm. In terms of environmental performance, the thermal efficiency is 37.5%, an increase over the 36.5% of the existing engine. A vehicle equipped with this engine was also able to achieve LEV III and SULEV30 standards as well as particulate matter (PM) of 1 mg/mile.
Taki, Shotaro, Konishi, Yukio, Tomitani, Yuki, Ishii, Kazumasa, Imakita, Akio, Kawawa, Satoshi
Evaluation of Drivers of Very Large Pickup Trucks: Size, Seated Height and Biomechanical Responses in Drop Tests2023-01-06494/11/2023
This study focused on occupant responses in very large pickup trucks in rollovers and was conducted in three phases. Phase 1 - Field data analysis: In a prior study [9], 1998 to 2020 FARS data were analyzed; Pickup truck drivers with fatality were 7.4 kg heavier and 4.6 cm taller than passenger car drivers. Most pickup truck drivers were males. Phase 1 extended the study by focusing on the drivers of very large pickup trucks. The size of 1999-2016 Ford F-250 and F-350 drivers involved in fatal crashes was analyzed by age and sex. More than 90% of drivers were males. The average male driver was 179.5 ± 7.5 cm tall and weighed 89.6 ± 18.4 kg. Phase 2 – Surrogate study: Twenty-nine male surrogates were selected to represent the average size of male drivers of F-250 and F-350s involved in fatal crashes. On average, the volunteers weighed 88.6 ± 5.2 kg and were 180.0 ± 3.2 cm tall with a 95.2 ± 2.2 cm seated height. The volunteers were lap-shoulder belted in the driver seat of a 2002 Ford F-250 crew cab. The head-to-roof clearance was 12.8 ± 1.1 cm. It was 1.0 ± 0.6 cm once the vehicle was statically inverted. Phase 3 – Drop tests: Three drop tests were conducted using 2002 Ford F-250 crew cab pickups. An instrumented 50th Hybrid III ATD was lap-shoulder belted in the driver seat. The ATD was modified by increasing the seated height by 5 cm, from 88 to 93 cm, to represent the average driver of very large pickups. Biomechanical responses were assessed. All were below Injury Assessment Reference Value (IARV) except for upper and lower neck. The effect of roof/pillar deformation on occupant responses was analyzed by varying the vehicle weight (3147 kg in production test v 1502 kg in the buck test) and roof/pillar strength (production v roll caged). The test data and videos were reviewed to identify time coinciding with ground contact, head-to-roof contact, peak biomechanical responses, and maximum deformation. Upper neck compression was -7,426 N in the production test; it was -8.339 N in the buck test and -7,549 N in the roll caged tests. The loads occurred at about 25 msec in all tests. Maximum roof/pillar deformation occurred 150 ms later in the production test. Conclusion: Peak neck compressions were similar in the three tests and occurred shortly after initial head contact and prior to significant roof/pillar deformation. Neck injury responses resulted from torso augmentation and were independent of roof system deformation.
Burnett, Roger, Parenteau, Chantal, Vogler, Michelle, Toomey, Daniel, Orlowski, Kenneth, Krishnaswami, Ram
Estimation of Seated Driver Eye Height based on Standing Height, Weight, Seatback Angle, and Seat Bottom Angle2023-01-08384/11/2023
This paper presents an analysis on the position of driver eye height as a function of their standing height, weight, biological sex, seat back angle and seat bottom angle. Typically, eye heights are estimated based on standing height, or measured from a rigid seated position with a vertical seat back. While reasonably close, these estimated eye heights are generally not correct for individuals seated in deformable vehicle seats with non-vertical seat back angles. Thus, these measurements tend to overestimate the participants eye height in more ecologically probable scenarios, such as driver eye height while operating a vehicle. In this study, eye measurements were taken from a standing position and while seated on a rigid surface and then compared to the same participant’s eye height measured while seated on six different representative vehicle seats with seat back angles of 20, 25, and 30 degrees respectively. Furthermore, this study also measured for-aft positioning of the participant’s eyes relative to the anterior edge of the head restraint at each seat position. This study utilized three pickup truck seats, two light passenger vehicle seats, and one sport utility vehicle seat. This data outlines a methodology that can be used to estimate eye positions of other adult humans in deformable vehicle seats when only their standing height, weight, and biological sex are known, or even more precisely when general seat geometry is also known. This allows for more accurate recreations of first-person point-of-view lines of sight or visual obstruction analysis.
Roescher, Todd, Randles, Bryan, Welcher, Judson
Impact Testing of Passenger Vehicle and Semi-Truck Pneumatic Tires and Rims2023-01-06254/11/2023
Wheels and tires on vehicles, are often directly (or indirectly) involved in collisions with other vehicles or fixed objects. In this study, the effects of the pneumatic tire and rim, as it contributes to a dynamic collision, was isolated and studied. A total of 15 mounted tires of various common sizes were selected to conduct 35 dynamic impact tests into the flat face of an instrumented concrete barrier. The tires and rims used in the tests ranged from heavy truck, light truck, down to common passenger vehicle tires. Each of the 15 tires and rims were impact tested individually to failure in order to explore the dynamic response and performance of pneumatic tires in collisions. Of the 35 tests, 28 were conducted with a single tire and rim configuration and 7 tests were conducted simulating a dual truck tire configuration. It was determined that the coefficient of restitution for 22 of the tire impacts into the rigid flat faced barrier were remarkably similar, around 0.9 ± 0.1. Additionally, three full-scale impact tests were conducted using four heavy truck tires, mounted in parallel with offsets typical of dual tire spacing, to impact the front, rear, and side of a mid-size SUV. The coefficient of restitution ranged between 0.31-0.33 for all three impacts. The acceleration and integrated velocity pulses of those same three tests were also compared with previous published research of narrow frontal object impacts and found to have good correlation. These instrumented pneumatic tire and rim tests provide well-documented real-world type tests that can be used for future evaluation, comparison, or simulation of similar applicable type collision events. They also provide a foundational basis for future exploration of the role of the pneumatic tires directly involved in impacts.
Asay, Alan F., Woolley, Ronald L., Nielson, Brian C.
Challenges in PM Measurement at 1 mg/mile and Tunnel Background Correction2023-01-03704/11/2023
The LEV IV FTP PM limit in the recently approved CARB ACC II regulations for passenger cars and light duty trucks will be 1 mg/mile starting in 2025. Gravimetric PM measurement at these levels is very challenging as the net mass of PM on the filter in full flow tunnel testing ranges between 8 to 32 micrograms depending on amount of dilution. This is approaching tunnel background levels which, in combination with filter handling, static charge removal and microbalance instability, compounds the uncertainty. One major source of the uncertainty at these low levels is the tunnel contamination resulting in high variability from test to test and cell to cell. This tunnel background is mostly HC artifact which cannot be easily controlled and can be significantly higher than the 5-μg CFR allowable correction limit in some test cells. Items that might affect the PM background include the type of testing being run on the tunnel prior to measuring the background such as OBD, cold and diesel testing. Quantifying the contribution of these artifacts and how they play into the overall uncertainty cannot be easily determined at this time. Regular conditioning and cleaning of the tunnel to keep the tunnel background below the 5-μg limit has shown to be crucial at these low levels. The process to drive contamination out and reduce the tunnel background below 5 μg will be described. A model is created to determine the range of net PM mass on the filter at 1 mg/mile with different CVS flowrates. The current process of tunnel background measurement and correction will be discussed. Countermeasures to reduce the uncertainty in PM measurement at 1 mg/mile PM level will be explored.
Yassine, Mahmoud K.
Engine Idle Creep Testing and Modeling of Vehicles Equipped with CVT, DCT, and Conventional Automatic Transmissions2023-01-06204/11/2023
Determining impact speeds is an important factor in any accident reconstruction. Event data recorders are now commonplace in on-road vehicles and provide an added tool for the accident reconstructionist. However, in low-speed collisions where impact severity is often important, event data recorders fail to record data as the minimum threshold for impact severity sometimes is not met. Alternatively, damage-based methods may be ineffective in quantifying the severity of the impact due to a lack of defined vehicle crush damage. These types of scenarios oftentimes present themselves as a bullet vehicle in the beginning processes of accelerating from a stop or when a stopped target vehicle is rear-ended from behind by the bullet vehicle. A specific subset of this scenario might entail the foot of the driver of the bullet vehicle coming off the brake pedal, allowing the bullet vehicle to “creep” forward at engine idle speeds and impacting the target vehicle resulting in no visible crush damage to either vehicle. Eighteen vehicles with conventional automatic transmissions were tested, which included sedans, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), pickup trucks, and vans. Two vehicles (one sedan, one wagon) equipped with dual-clutch transmissions (DCTs) and three vehicles (one sedan, one hatchback, and one wagon) equipped with continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) were also tested. These vehicles were allowed to accelerate at idle with the brake pedals released. Acceleration, speed, distance, and engine speed data were collected for multiple vehicles runs in both forward and reverse directions over level ground. The data resulting from this study were then compared/contrasted among the different drivetrains and also previously published literature to determine similarities and differences. Previous study data sets were also incorporated with the authors’ data to improve predicted vehicle speed.
Timbario, Thomas A., Stoner, Jacob, Sheldon II, Stuart
Nomenclature - Wheels for Passenger Cars, Light Trucks, and Multipurpose VehiclesJ1982_202303 (Current)3/23/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes uniform engineering nomenclature for the most common wheel constructions, and their components used on passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles. These wheel constructions are welded disc wheels, cast wheels, forged wheels, composite wheels and hybrid wheels. This nomenclature and the accompanying drawings are intended to define fundamental wheel terms rather than to provide a comprehensive tabulation of all wheel design types.
Wheel Standards Committee
Engine Oil TestsJ304_202303 (Current)3/8/2023
The purpose of this SAE Information Report is to describe test conditions and performance evaluation factors for both diesel and gasoline engine tests. Specifically, the tests described in this document are used to measure the engine performance requirements for engine oils described by the API Service Categories described in API Publication 1509, ASTM D4485, SAE J183, and SAE J1423 standards, U.S. military specifications, and ILSAC GF Standards.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Wheel Radial Impact Test Procedure for Passenger CarsJ3203_202301 (Current)1/25/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice defines the test stand and procedure for evaluating radial impacts of all wheels intended for passenger cars and light trucks. A minimum performance requirement is intentionally not provided. The intent is to establish a uniform method and test stand for imparting damage and evaluating radial impacts. A minimum performance requirement will be a proposed change when users determine what is of most value.
Wheel Standards Committee
Hose Clamp SpecificationsJ1508_202301 (Current)1/13/2023
This SAE Standard covers 32 types of clamps most commonly and suitably being used on OEM coolant, fuel, oil, vacuum, and emission systems.
Non-Hydraulic Hose Committee
Vehicle Noise Sensitivity to Different Levels of Taper Wheel Bearing Brinell Damage for Body-on-Frame Passenger Vehicles2022-01-11929/19/2022
This paper reviews the relationship between taper wheel bearing damage and vehicle noise and vibration for a body-on-frame pickup truck and a body-on-frame SUV. In addition to understanding how the different levels of bearing damage relate to vehicle noise, it also discusses the level of noise versus the damaged bearing’s position in the vehicle. For this study, the wheel bearing supplier provided front and rear bearings with various amounts of Brinell damage to the bearing raceways. The different bearings were evaluated subjectively for noise in the vehicle. After vehicle testing, the bearing raceway Brinell depths were measured to correlate the level of bearing damage to vehicle noise. The study shows the relationship between bearing Brinell dent depth and vehicle noise for body-on-frame light trucks and SUVs. The noise was most apparent in vehicles between 45 and 60 mph. For bearings with moderate levels of damage, steering inputs were required to hear noise. This corresponds to a vehicle turning at city or highway speeds. For the front bearing, slightly less damage was required to create the same amount of noise that was heard on the rear of the vehicle.
Picchi, Ciro, Cooley, Benjamin, Sutherlin, Robert
Pneumatic Tire/Wheel/Runflat Assembly Qualifications for Military Tactical Wheeled VehiclesJ2014_202207 (Historical)7/6/2022
This SAE Standard applies to all combinations of pneumatic tires, wheels, or runflat devices (only as defined in SAE J2013) for military tactical wheeled vehicles only as defined in SAE J2013. This applies to original equipment and new replacement tires, retread tires, wheels, or runflat devices. This document describes tests and test methodology, which will be used to evaluate and measure tire/wheel/runflat system and changes in vehicle performance. All of the tests included in this document are not required for each tire/wheel/runflat assembly. The Government Tire Engineering Office and Program Office for the vehicle system have the responsibility for the selection of a specific test(s) to be used. The selected test(s) should be limited to that required to evaluate the tire/wheel/runflat system and changes in vehicle performance. Selected requirements of this specification shall be used as the basis for procurement of a tire, wheel, and/or runflat device for military tactical wheeled vehicles.
Truck and Bus Tire Committee
Nomenclature - Wheels, Hubs, and Rims for Commercial VehiclesJ393_202206 (Current)6/20/2022
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes uniform engineering nomenclature for wheels, hubs, rims, and their components used in truck, bus, and trailer applications. This nomenclature and accompanying drawings are intended to define functional truck wheel, hub, and rim designs. For nomenclature specific to “passenger-type” disc wheels, refer to SAE J1982. The International Standard (ISO) nomenclature is shown in parentheses when different than SAE J393.
Truck and Bus Wheel Committee
Automotive and Heavy Duty Storage Battery VibrationJ3060_202206 (Current)6/2/2022
This SAE Standard serves as a guide for vibration testing procedures of Automotive and Heavy Duty storage batteries.
Starter Battery Standards Committee
2022 Ford F-150 Lightning redefines the pickup paradigm22AUTP06_096/1/2022
Just before the media test drives of the 2022 F-150 Lightning, the battery-electric variant of Ford's market-dominating light-duty pickup truck, the Lightning's specs were updated to reflect modest last-minute enhancements in horsepower and payload capacity. The freshly-extracted extra horsepower and payload are useful, but hardly necessary: the F-150 Lightning would've been plenty spectacular regardless. If the F-150 Lightning is the standard we can expect from “electrifying” what we're already familiar with, nobody will need to be dragged, kicking and screaming, into the EV future. Ford planners and engineers took the bull by the horns when it was decided the EV variant of a pickup that's sold some 40 million copies had to fulfill the same product brief - that is, offer essentially the same work-ready capabilities as every F-Series that's come before. Not only does the F-150 Lightning accomplish that, adding either the 98-kWh (standard range), SK Innovation-made lithium-ion battery or the 131-kWh extended-range battery offers all manner of new capabilities linked to having so much electricity onboard.
Visnic, Bill
GM's Hummer EV is like nothing else22AUTP06_106/1/2022
The revival of the Hummer brand has produced a vehicle that is concurrently of its time and a throwback to conspicuous consumption from the decade that spawned its predecessor. Like the original, there's no mistaking the GMC Hummer EV on the road for anything else. Thanks to its wide stance and distinct grille, even today's overfed full-size pickups shrink in the presence of GM's self-marketed “Supertruck.” The 2022 Hummer EV is a convergence of astonishing numbers: a 9,046-lb. (4101-kg.) curb weight, 1,000 hp, 11,500 lb-ft of torque (combined, at the wheels), and 18 feet (5.5 meters) long. Had the fictional scientists who visited the Jurassic Park laid eyes on the new Hummer, they may have similarly questioned if GM's engineers were so preoccupied with whether they could, they didn't stop to think if they should. However, more than 65,000 reservations to date have validated the company's decision to revive brand many once perceived as a dinosaur.
Wolfe, Matt
Speedometer and Odometer Systems for On-Highway VehiclesJ2976_202205 (Current)5/4/2022
This recommended practice is intended to provide industry technical personnel with an overview of vehicle speedometer system accuracy and offset requirements and odometer system accuracy requirements. Speedometer and odometer systems covered by this document are integrated into a vehicle's electrical and electronics system, assembled directly into the vehicle by the OEM, and use rotational data from at least one vehicle wheel that is appropriately converted into longitudinal vehicle speed and distance traveled information. This standard is limited to radial ply tires on new (as manufactured) cars, light trucks, and medium duty trucks. Other methods for measuring vehicle speed and distance traveled may be used provided they meet the performance recommendations herein. Any local market regulatory requirements must be met and shall supersede this document. Service parts are beyond the scope of this recommended practice.
Odometer and Speedometer Standards
OBD-II Scan ToolJ1978_202205 (Current)5/1/2022
SAE J1978/ISO 15031-4 specifies a complementary set of functions to be provided by an OBD-II scan tool. These functions provide complete, efficient, and safe access to all regulated OBD (on-board diagnostic) services on any vehicle which is compliant with SAE J1978/ISO 15031-4. The SAE J1978 content of this document is intended to satisfy the requirements of an OBD-II scan tool as required by current U.S. on-board diagnostic (OBD) regulations. The ISO 15031-4 content of this document is intended to satisfy the requirements of OBD requirements in countries other than the U.S., and includes functionality not required or not allowed in the U.S. This document specifies: A means of establishing communications between an OBD-equipped vehicle and an OBD-II scan tool. A set of diagnostic services to be provided by an OBD-II scan tool in order to exercise the services defined in SAE J1979/ISO 15031-5. SAE J1978/ISO 15031-4 does not preclude the inclusion of additional capabilities or functions in an OBD-II scan tool. However, it is the responsibility of the OBD-II scan tool designer to ensure that no such capability or function can adversely affect either an OBD-equipped vehicle, which may be connected to the OBD-II scan tool, or to the OBD-II scan tool itself. Differences in the SAE J1978 and ISO 15031-4 requirements are highlighted by bold italic text in the technical requirements sections of this document. Notable examples are: Current U.S. OBD regulations will permit ISO 15765-4 as an allowable OBD serial data link at 500 kbps only. Only those provisions of ISO 15765-4 that pertain to 500 kbps are required to be supported by an SAE J1978 diagnostic scan tool. Current U.S. OBD regulations will not allow greater than 20 V at the SAE J1962 connector. Only the Type A connector as defined in SAE J1962/ISO 15031-3 needs to be supported by an SAE J1978 diagnostic scan tool.
Vehicle E E System Diagnostic Standards Committee
Engineering a ‘MAVERICK’ HYBRID TRANSMISSION22AUTP04_034/1/2022
Ford Powertrain engineers marry their new in-house electric machine with the proven HF45 transmission - under aggressive vehicle program timing. Ford's 2022 Maverick combines many practical attributes that earned the new compact pickup its North American Truck of the Year title, among them a standard hybrid powertrain which delivers a 42-mpg city (37 mpg combined) EPA fuel economy rating. MCA (Maverick) program chief Chris Mazur called the truck's aggressive $20,000 base price “a rallying cry” and a “wildly audacious goal” for the development team. Their work included integrating and validating a new Ford-designed electric machine into the two-motor HF45 hybrid transmission, on what engineers describe as “a dramatically accelerated” timetable. “The biggest challenge for us was time,” Manny Barberena, the hybrid powertrain supervisor, told SAE Media. “Go-fast programs make engineers nervous, but we were able to overcome it by being efficient” - taking the learnings, development and base calibration from the Escape Hybrid powertrain that was basically carried over and applying it to Maverick. “It really minimized the amount of re-development,” he said. “We did have to do some tuning to make things work properly with this new transmission but it sure saved a lot of time in going from Escape to this program on the common C2 architecture. It enabled us to hit the ground running.”
Brooke, Lindsay
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