Browse Topic: Motorsports

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On Disturbance-Aware Minimum-Time Trajectory Planning: Evidence from Tests on a Dynamic Driving Simulator10-10-03-00267/13/2026
This work aims to investigate how disturbance-aware, robustness-embedding reference trajectories translate into actual driving performance when executed by professional drivers in a dynamic driving simulator. The study compares three planned reference trajectories against a free-driving baseline (NO-REF) to assess the trade-offs between lap time (LT) performance and steering effort: NOM, the nominal time-optimal trajectory; TLC, a track-limit-robust, time-optimal trajectory obtained by tightening margins to the track edges; and FLC, a friction-limit-robust, time-optimal trajectory obtained by tightening against axle/tire saturation. All reference trajectories share the same minimum LT objective with a small steering-smoothness regularizer, and are evaluated with two professional drivers driving a high-performance car on a virtual track. The reference trajectories stem from a disturbance-aware minimum-LT framework recently proposed by some of the authors, where worst-case disturbance growth is propagated over a finite horizon and used to tighten tire-friction and track-limit constraints, preserving performance while delivering probabilistic safety margins. LT and steering energy (SE) are evaluated as indicators of driving performance and steering effort, respectively, while RMS values of lateral deviation, speed error, and drift angle are used to characterize driving style. The results reveal a Pareto-like trade-off between LT and SE: NOM achieves the shortest LT, but with the highest SE, TLC minimizes SE at the expense of longer LT, while FLC lies near the efficient frontier, markedly reducing SE relative to NOM with only a minor LT increase. Removing reference trajectories (NO-REF) leads to both higher SE and longer LT, confirming that trajectory guidance improves pace and control efficiency. Overall, the findings highlight reference-based and disturbance-aware planning, particularly the FLC variant, as effective tools for training and for achieving fast yet stable trajectories.
Masoni, Matteo, Palermo, Vincenzo, Gabiccini, Marco, Gulisano, Martino, Previati, Giorgio, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Comolli, Francesco, Mastinu, Gianpiero, Guiggiani, Massimo
Data Fusion Techniques for Optimizing Motorsport Aeromap Generation: A Survey2026-01-50587/7/2026
This paper reviews data fusion strategies for generating aerodynamic databases and evaluates their suitability for motorsport aeromaps, with emphasis on the operational constraints specific to Formula One. A structured survey and classification of the state of the art is presented, grouping approaches into (i) surrogate-agnostic methods, (ii) kriging-based methods, and (iii) neural network–based methods. In addition, the survey explores advanced techniques currently underutilized in aerodynamic database applications but that show promise. These methodologies are discussed in the context of addressing limitations inherent in traditional approaches, such as dependency on nested sampling plans and linear correlation assumptions between low- and high-fidelity datasets. The review indicates that, although multi-fidelity data fusion is well established in aerospace aerodynamic database generation, its direct translation to motorsport requires additional considerations. In the Formula One context, the most plausible deployment may involve fusing legacy and current datasets, rather than combining low- and high-fidelity evaluations of the same geometry. This shift in premise could increase exposure to negative transfer and therefore necessitate additional methods to minimize it. This study provides one of the first motorsport-focused reviews and syntheses of data fusion methods for aerodynamic database generation. It is intended to guide motorsport engineers and researchers toward more efficient and effective aeromap generation strategies. Collectively, the findings establish a foundation for subsequent phases of a broader project to minimize the number of data points required to generate an aeromap, with the present survey constituting the first part of that effort.
Ongley, Thomas James Henry, Teschner, Tom-Robin, Ashton, Neil, Siampis, Efstathios
Interpretable Tire Force Modeling for Formula Student Vehicle Dynamics and Lap Time Applications2026-01-07627/1/2026
Accurate tire models are a key enabler for vehicle dynamics simulation, control design, and lap time optimization, particularly in the context of Formula Student race cars, where vehicle setups and tire characteristics differ significantly from production vehicles. State-of-the-art tire models, such as Pacejka’s Magic Formula, generally provide high prediction accuracy. However, their predefined functional structure and large number of coupled parameters are designed for broad applicability across many tire types rather than for specific racing tires. This often results in limited interpretability, nontrivial parameter identification, and unnecessary model complexity for specialized applications such as Formula Student. This paper presents a data-driven approach for deriving compact and physically interpretable tire force models using symbolic regression. The proposed method employs an intelligent tree search to systematically explore the space of mathematical expressions and identify models that optimally balance prediction accuracy and structural simplicity. In contrast to black-box machine learning approaches, the resulting models consist of explicit mathematical expressions that enable physical interpretation and efficient evaluation. The methodology is applied to experimental tire test bench data, focusing on the lateral force – slip angle relationship at constant vertical load. In a first step, the symbolic regression algorithm is utilized to derive a set of candidate mathematical expressions. These models are subsequently benchmarked against 200 independent data sets comprising various tire types and vertical loads. The evaluation reveals that the identified models approximate the measured tire behavior with accuracy comparable to, and in many cases exceeding, the Magic Formula, while exhibiting lower model complexity. The results demonstrate that symbolic regression can uncover alternative tire models that better represent the characteristics of Formula Student racing tires than conventional approaches. Owing to their compact structure and physical consistency, the derived models are particularly well suited for real-time vehicle simulations, parameter studies, and control-oriented applications in Formula Student vehicle development.
Anselment, Marcel, Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan
Numerical Investigation of Inverted Airfoils in Ground Effect for Motorsport Applications01-19-01-00046/25/2026
Ground effect plays a critical role in enhancing the aerodynamic performance of race cars by increasing downforce without a proportional rise in drag. Despite its importance, the influence of airfoil geometry on inverted airfoils operating in ground proximity remains underexplored in open literature. This study addresses this gap through a detailed numerical investigation of chord-dominated ground effect using two-dimensional Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) simulations. A range of NACA four-digit airfoils is systematically analyzed to isolate the effects of camber, thickness, and camber location on aerodynamic performance in ground proximity. Results show that increased camber enhances downforce and efficiency both in and out of ground effect; thinner airfoils yield higher downforce and efficiency in ground effect; and forward camber locations outperform rearward ones in maximizing downforce contrary to out-of-ground-effect trends. Detailed pressure distribution and flow separation analyses explain the underlying mechanisms, offering actionable guidelines for optimizing ground effect airfoil design in motorsport.
Chowdhury, Rohan, Shukla, Dhwanil
Sealing integrity in a FORMULA 1 LIMITED-SLIP DIFFERENTIAL26AUTP06_026/1/2026
High-temperature hydraulic control in a Formula 1 drivetrain requires dimensional stability, controlled sealing force, and resistance to wear under sustained pressure cycling. Inside the limited-slip differential, the sealing architecture plays a defined mechanical role in maintaining consistent torque management under race conditions. In Formula 1, drivetrain reliability and performance are closely linked. The limited-slip differential (LSD) governs torque distribution between the rear wheels, allowing controlled transfer of power to the wheel with greater available grip. By limiting speed difference across the rear axle, the differential contributes directly to traction and cornering behavior, particularly where grip levels vary across the vehicle. At the center of this assembly is a hydraulic actuator that clamps a friction clutch inside the differential. The actuator modulates clutch engagement to redirect torque as grip levels change through corner entry, mid-corner load transfer, and acceleration on exit. Its performance depends on precise hydraulic control, which in turn depends on sealing integrity. Within this system, seal integrity is paramount, as significant leakage could cause a catastrophic loss of system function and force the team to retire the car.
Clarke, Andrew
From Racing Car to Rocket Tank26AERP06_086/1/2026
German startup Blackwave is building carbon parts for rocket tanks. Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany Carbon fiber has become indispensable in high-performance industries such as automotive engineering and aerospace. It's lightweight, extremely durable, and can be shaped in almost any way. The start-up Blackwave, founded at the Technical University of Munich (TUM), specializes in this versatile composite material. What began with custom components for sports cars and aircraft has evolved into the development of high-pressure tanks for space applications. As is so often the case in engineering, a small detail determines technological progress. In the case of rockets, it is the high-pressure tanks that are specially designed for the fuel systems. As rockets are designed to be as light as possible, they lose structural stability when the fuel tanks, known as primary tanks, are emptied. A trick is used to counteract this: alongside fuel combustion, noble gases are released from internal high-pressure tanks, known as secondary tanks. These gases fill the resulting empty space, maintaining structural integrity.
A Comparative Assessment of Fuel Cell and Battery Powertrains for Formula Student Electric Applications2026-01-50324/27/2026
The organizers of the most prominent Formula Student competitions have recently initiated a preliminary feasibility study on the application of hydrogen-based propulsion technologies in future single-seater race vehicles. These include electric powertrains with electrochemically converted hydrogen in fuel cell–powered vehicles, competing within the electric championship league. Based on the initial set of regulations, this study presents a model-based comparison between battery-powered (BEVs) and fuel cell–powered electric vehicles (FCVs) for Formula Student. The analysis is conducted using energy, power, and efficiency metrics from four candidate models of propulsion systems, implemented in an open and publicly available MATLAB script: two BEVs with varying battery capacities, and two FCVs employing different hybridization strategies. The aim of this study is to pinpoint and quantify the advantages and disadvantages of each technology for the Formula Student use case, and to identify the optimal solution combining the different requirements of maximum acceleration and endurance race.
Martoccia, Lorenzo, Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, d’Adamo, Alessandro
Enhancing the Aerodynamic Performance of Diffusers in High-performance Vehicles Using Trapped Vortex Cavities2026-01-50274/9/2026
Motivated by the inclusion of active flow control provisions in the 2026 Formula One regulations, and building upon previous studies of Trapped Vortex Cavity (TVC) implementation in inverted front wings, this paper investigates the effectiveness of TVC as a flow control mechanism applied to vehicle diffusers. Both active and passive configurations were considered for three diffuser geometries: a base straight-line diffuser, an inverted airfoil-shaped diffuser, and a diffuser inspired by a Formula One car. The study employed numerical simulations to evaluate the aerodynamic performance and the potential benefits of integrating TVC systems. Across all types of diffusers, the implementation of a circular TVC cavity resulted in a significant improvement in the lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD). In the active flow control configuration, a 10% improvement was observed in the straight diffuser under a limited mass-flow rate. With optimized cavity positioning and radius, the airfoil-shaped and Formula One-inspired diffusers achieved improvements of 38.9% and 54.6%, respectively, under the same flow conditions. Passive flow control also demonstrated notable aerodynamic benefits without additional energy input. Compared to the original diffuser configurations, performance gains of 8%, 23.6%, and 12.9% were recorded for the straight, airfoil-shaped, and Formula One-inspired diffusers, respectively. The results suggest that the integration of a TVC system in the diffuser could effectively enhance aerodynamic performance by strengthening suction effects and promoting secondary pressure recovery, regardless of diffuser geometry.
Ming Kin, NG, Teschner, Tom-Robin
Study of the Vortex Flow over a Generic Open-Wheel Race-Car2026-01-06494/7/2026
Open wheel race cars present a challenge to the aerodynamic designer because of the numerous wakes and vortices created by the various body components. The present study follows the development of a high-downforce race car and investigates possible vortex manipulations to increase its aerodynamic efficiency. The tools used for this study involved computational fluid dynamics and small-scale wind tunnel testing. Once the basic geometry of the racecar was finalized, cost effective measures were tested to improve its downforce to drag ratio. As an example, by fine tuning the position of different body components, such as the rear wing location relative to the underfloor diffuser exit, vehicle’s aerodynamic performance can be modified. The results of both the wind tunnel and the computational investigations indicated that such simple modifications can positively improve the race-car downforce to drag ratio. Also, once the baseline vehicle’s geometry was frozen and observing that the largest aerodynamic surface on the car is its underfloor, different vortex generators attached below the underfloor were tested to increase the vehicle’s downforce. The above modifications between the baseline racecar, and the car with the underfloor vortex generators resulted in a gain of 8.12% in downforce and 8.24% in lift to drag ratio.
Okpysh, Christian, Katz, Joseph, Shute, Robin
Simulation Study on a Neural Tire Model Based on Grouped Feature Learning2026-01-06454/7/2026
The tire model is a crucial component in the design of the K-characteristic of FSAE racing car suspensions, and directly influences the achievement of maximum cornering lateral force. Not only do the slip angle, vertical load, tire pressure, and camber angle affect the mechanical characteristics of the tire, but temperature is also an important influencing factor when FSAE vehicle tires operate at high speeds. However, the modeling process of traditional tire models based on temperature characteristics is often very complex. The FSAE tire test code (FSAE TTC) already has a large amount of official sample data, which provides a basis for data-driven neural network models. This study implemented a hybrid modeling methodology, constructing two cascaded feedforward neural networks that combine the physical interpretability of the Magic Formula tire model with the nonlinear approximation capabilities of neural networks. The first network model uses slip angle, vertical load, tire pressure, and camber angle as input features, while the second uses tire temperature, ambient temperature, and ground temperature. The first network model simulates the magic formula model of the tire, and the second fine-tunes the lateral force, aligning moment, and overturning moment based on temperature characteristics. It prevents secondary input features (such as temperature) from being completely dominated by primary input features, facilitating the explanation of the influence of the two feature groups on tire characteristics. The accuracy and robustness of the model are suitable for the engineering requirements of FSAE. During the Formula Student China competition, based on on-track measured data, the tire model was co-simulated with VI-CarRealTime to quickly calculate the tire pressure required to achieve maximum lateral force. This effectively saved practice time before the race and helped the team achieve a third-place finish.
Liu, Xiyuan, Wang, Shenyao, Li, Mingyuan, Huang, Jiayu
Simulation Study on Rear-Wheel Steering Control of FSAE Vehicles Based on Temporal Convolutional Network2026-01-06504/7/2026
The Formula SAE (FSAE) race track is characterized by a large number of corners, making cornering performance a key factor affecting lap time. Based on the proportional control strategy for rear-wheel steering angles, this paper proposes a steering angle optimization method using a Temporal Convolutional Network (TCN). The TCN model features a faster training speed than traditional sequential neural networks. In addition, dilated convolutions enable an exponential expansion of the receptive field without increasing computational costs, making it particularly suitable for capturing the temporal dependencies of vehicle states. By processing vehicle dynamic parameters including front-wheel steering angle, vehicle speed, yaw rate and sideslip angle, the model calculates the correction value of the rear-wheel steering angle. This correction value is then superimposed with the reference value of the rear-wheel steering angle derived from the proportional control strategy, which serves as the control value for rear-wheel steering. Rear-wheel steering can reduce the turning radius during low-speed driving and enhance the racing car’s stability during high-speed cornering. This method was validated on a typical race track via CarSim-MATLAB co-simulation, resulting in reduced lap time. To meet the real-time computing requirements of FSAE, MATLAB was used to simulate the discretization results of vehicle parameters such as vehicle speed and front-wheel steering angle, generating a Look-Up Table for rear-wheel steering angles, which provides a feasible solution for real-vehicle tests. The racing car is equipped with a manual switch for the driver to operate. The driver can manually turn the rear-wheel steering function on or off when cornering or whenever they deem it necessary.
Liu, Xiyuan
Simulink DevOps Evolution: Bridging Interactive Platforms for Accelerated Model-Based Workflows2026-01-00804/7/2026
This paper builds on last year’s paper presenting DevOps automation in the context of model-based development. Following that paper, we interviewed Simulink users in passenger automotive, motorsports, commercial vehicles, aviation, rocketry, and industrial automation. We discovered that much of the benefit of DevOps platforms to reduce product development cycle time relies on their interactive features. We prototyped new tools to bridge interactive DevOps Git-based platforms with model-based development workflows, and then gathered reactions from another round of interviews. Here we present these interactive DevOps workflows with the feedback from these interviews to contextualize how engineering teams could adopt them to accelerate their own model-based workflows.
Mathews, Jon, Ferrero, Sergio, Tamrawi, Ahmed, Sauceda, Jeremias
Topology Optimization of Multibody Structures Considering Inertial Loads Using an Equivalent Static Displacement Framework2026-01-05014/7/2026
Topology optimization (TO) of dynamic structures has traditionally been constrained to single-body components and simplified harmonic load assumptions. Extending TO to multibody dynamic systems (MBS) remains challenging due to complex coupling between inertia, mass distribution, and joint constraints. This paper presents an inertia-aware topology optimization framework that integrates mass moment of inertia (MMI) constraints within an enhanced Equivalent Static Displacement (ESD) methodology. Building upon the authors’ previously developed ESD framework, the proposed approach — termed Inertia-Augmented Equivalent Static Displacement (IA-ESD) — explicitly incorporates inertial effects arising from accelerations and joint interactions. The approach enables dynamically consistent optimization by coupling design-dependent inertia tensors with equivalent static displacements derived from nonlinear multibody dynamics. Case studies involving an MBB beam and a piston–connecting rod assembly demonstrate that accounting for MMI constraints yields lighter, stiffer, and dynamically balanced multibody topologies. The proposed method establishes a foundation for inertia-aware structural design with applications in aerospace, automotive, and robotics engineering.
Gupta, Aakash, Tovar, Andres
A Comprehensive Review of Aerodynamics and Safety of Sports Cars10-10-03-00203/31/2026
As motorsports evolve with technological advancements, aerodynamics plays a crucial role in race car performance. This review examines the impact of aerodynamics on car design and its evolution, presenting a statistical analysis of existing sports cars. We highlight key performance factors like engine power, top speed, drag, and weight. The key contribution of this review is the critical synthesis of the safety-performance trade-off, especially linking aerodynamic optimizations to the stability and safety of sports cars. Furthermore, we explore mathematical modeling of vehicle aerodynamics to enhance the understanding of performance aspects such as top speed, acceleration, cornering, and braking. This article also provides a review of recent active and passive aerodynamic devices to assist researchers in selecting designs, with an emphasis on the importance of ground effect. We also present recent numerical methods, particularly 3D simulations. The statistical data can help researchers determine optimal design parameters. Lowering drag enhances top speed, reducing weight improves acceleration, and increasing downforce shortens braking distance. Compared to passive devices, active aerodynamic devices offer greater adaptability, providing enhanced downforce and stability.
Eftekhari, Hesam, Al-Obaidi, Abdulkareem Sh. Mahdi, Eftekhari, Shahrooz
Experimental Investigations on Appendages of a Racing Motorcycle2026-01-50112/20/2026
In this experimental work, a detailed analysis of the wind tunnel measurements on scaled motorbike models equipped with different front wings was performed considering four wing configurations operating at different Reynolds numbers and roll angles. Global forces acting on the models were measured by a high-resolution dynamometric balance, while velocity fields in the wake were measured by means of the Particle Image Velocimetry technique. Throughout the paper, overall models’ performances are investigated, demonstrating similar behavior for drag coefficients and various trends for lift coefficients. The without- and single-wing configurations were shown to have positive sign, and conversely, the double- and closed-wing cases—with negative sign—generated downforce due to the presence of significant upward velocities, which in turn modified the wake shape. Furthermore, the improvements in closed-wing configuration compared to without- and single-wing ones were noticeable, while slight enhancements were observed for the double-wing case. It is evidenced how PIV technique can be used to advance the wing design by capturing the wake velocity and circulation. The proposed simple geometrical configurations are feasible at low costs and with easy manufacturing.
Moscato, Giorgio, Romano, Giovanni Paolo
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - The Power of Model-Based Battery Engineering135552/12/2026
Battery development is typically a lengthy and difficult process, but one company is proving that it doesn't have to be. Listen in as we sit down with Gavin White, Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer, About:Energy, to discover how model-based design and advanced simulation are revolutionizing battery development -- cutting timelines by up to 70%. You'll also learn about the creation of The Voltt database, a game-changing resource for engineers and manufacturers. From motorsports to satellites to microgrids in developing regions, this conversation is proof that batteries are shaping the future of energy, technology, and society. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - SAE: Where Meaningful Relationships Take Shape135531/30/2026
Curious how SAE can open doors in the automotive industry and beyond? Listen in as we sit down with Dean Case, Membership Director, SAE SoCal, whose 45-year journey in the automotive industry is packed with stories of racing, engineering, and community building. From joining SAE as a Cal Poly student to shaping the future of motorsports and electric vehicles at Mazda, Ford, and Nissan, learn how SAE International became a springboard to building lifelong connections and uncovering new opportunities. Whether you're a student, engineering professional, or automotive enthusiast, this conversation is packed with inspiration, practical advice, and proof that SAE provides a firm foundation for meaningful relationships that last. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Modelling and Simulation of Key Vehicle Dynamics Parameters for a Conceptual Race Car2026-26-00851/16/2026
Vehicle dynamics is a vital area of automotive engineering that focuses on analyzing how a vehicle responds to driver inputs and external factors like road conditions and environmental influences. Achieving optimal performance, safety, and ride comfort requires a detailed understanding of longitudinal, lateral, and vertical dynamic behavior. The objective of this paper is to develop and validate the model of a concept Race car and evaluate its vehicle dynamics behavior using IPG CarMaker, a high-fidelity virtual testing environment widely used in industry. The model incorporates a range of vehicle parameters, including suspension parameters like spring and damper characteristics, mass distribution, tire properties and powertrain parameters. The performance evaluation is done as per standard guidelines, including Constant Radius turn test, Sine Steer test and other standard tests like Acceleration, Braking along with Ride and Comfort classification. The key parameters that are calculated and validated are vehicle accelerations in the principal axes, stopping distance, yaw velocity and yaw velocity gain, vehicle roll characteristics, steering parameters, ride and driver comfort metrics. Validation of simulation outputs is achieved through comparison with empirical data obtained from literature and mathematical calculations based on vehicle dynamics principles. The test results show a close correlation between mathematical and simulated values, therefore accurately predicting vehicle behavior.
Agrewale, Mohammad Rafiq B., Vaish, Ujjwal
Development of a Data Acquisition System for an Electric Formula SAE Vehicle2025-36-015112/18/2025
The acquisition of sensor data is essential for the operation and validation of the SAE vehicle. This system must be capable of converting analog data into digital form and communicating with the sensors. To this end, printed circuit boards (PCBs) were designed and manufactured, incorporating electromagnetic interference mitigation solutions through various analog filters, in order to ensure the integrity of the acquired signals. Data conversion and communication were implemented using a microprocessor from the STM32 family, with efficient transmission of the processed data carried out via the CAN protocol.
David, Mateus Padilha, Andrade, Fernanda Matsumoto Lima, Sousa Oliveira, Ivan, Carvalho, Luis Pedro Feio, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio, Santos Neto, Pedro José
A Structured Approach to Tire Selection in Formula SAE: Balancing Performance and Requirements2025-36-017112/18/2025
Tires are fundamental components of Formula SAE race cars, serving as the only point of contact between the vehicle and the track. Their performance directly influences critical aspects such as handling, stability, cornering behavior and lap times, making tire selection a vital factor in vehicle dynamics. However, choosing the optimal tire is a complex challenge due to the wide range of available options and the need to balance multiple performance parameters. While many studies analyze tire behavior, few focus specifically on the demands of Formula SAE vehicles. Those that do often rely on overly complex methodologies or subjective assumptions, resulting in a lack of practical and systematic approaches to decision-making. This study addresses this gap by developing a structured approach for tire selection, designed to meet the specific needs of Formula SAE teams. The proposed approach analyzes a typical Formula SAE endurance track, acceleration, skid pad, and autocross circuit to determine the most critical performance characteristics for an FSAE car. By identifying and ranking these key attributes, the study establishes a direct link between vehicle performance demands and the tire properties that influence them. This allows for a systematic evaluation of tire options, ranking them based on their effectiveness in meeting the identified performance priorities. Data from the Tire Test Consortium (TTC) and the vehicle’s MoTeC system provided the data for the simulations. MATLAB was then used to process and visualize the data, which, alongside vehicle dynamics theory, form the basis of this research. By minimizing reliance on subjective assessments and providing a clear, rational framework for tire selection, this study enables Formula SAE teams to make more informed decisions, ensuring that tire choices align with their performance objectives and competitive demands
Rocha Checheliski, Carolina Dias da, Martins, Mario Eduardo Santos, Hausen, Roberto Begnis
A Simulation and Design Approach of Battery Pack for Formula SAE Vehicles2025-36-014112/18/2025
The objective of this article is to present an approach for simulating and analyzing the battery pack in the Matlab/Simulink environment. The proposed approach investigates the expected performance of the vehicle with a given battery pack and powertrain configuration. For this purpose, an equivalent circuit model of a commercially available cell was used in the simulation. Additionally, track data from previous projects was employed, consisting of speed logs from Formula SAE competition test tracks, including the battery pack’s behavior in those same competitions. Based on these results, data processing was performed to estimate the expected behavior of a battery pack, considering weight, size, power, capacity, and other constraints. Since the goal is to observe the battery pack’s performance in the various Formula SAE events, past competition data was used to estimate the current car’s behavior. Therefore, the main contribution of this work is the presentation of a proper simulation procedure for sizing the battery pack in Formula SAE vehicles, aiming to predict range, estimate performance, and optimize the vehicle’s performance in different competition events.
Zackiewicz, Felipe Petrillo Fici, Trentin, Fernando Santos, Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Eustaquio, Rodrigo, Ribeiro, Santos Neto, Pedro José dos, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe
The Racing & High-Performance TireR-59412/17/2025
The Racing & High-Performance Tire originally published in 2003 and continues to be a best-seller. Following up on his first two books, Inside Racing Technology and Inside Racing: A Season with the PacWest CART Team, Paul Haney presents a new book revealing the complexities of tires, how they influence vehicle dynamics, and how to use tires in the engineering of racing and high-performance cars. More than 150 photos and drawings help the reader learn the colorful history and unique characteristics that make the pneumatic tire one of the world's most complex and useful products.
Haney, Paul
Dynamics Simulation Analysis of a Formula Racing Car with a Novel Rear Wing Based on Carsim2025-99-040312/10/2025
Because regular rear wings on race cars cannot meet all aerodynamic needs, this study tests a new active rear wing on a formula racing car. First, the paper explains the design and key features of the new wing, showing how it helps improve airflow and downforce. Then, the study builds a model of the racing car in Carsim software and adds the new wing to test its performance. After that, simulations compare the new wing to traditional ones, focusing on speed, grip, and handling. The results prove that the new wing makes the car faster and more stable in corners. This means the active rear wing is a better solution than fixed wings, and it could be useful for future race car designs.
Yu, Wanbo
Characterization of the Brake Linings Coefficient of Friction by Means of Instrumented Suspensions Equipped on a Hybrid Race Vehicle10-10-01-000411/8/2025
The knowledge of the brake linings coefficient of friction (BLCF) is crucial for the control of the braking moment in modern vehicles equipped with electric powertrains. In the case of race vehicles equipped with carbon–carbon brakes, the coefficient of friction exhibits great variations as a function of the main influencing factors, namely the pressure, the temperature, and the sliding speed at the pad–disc interface. In this work, a Le Mans Hypercar instrumented with more than 150 sensors was adopted to perform the characterization of the BLCF from racetrack acquisitions. The front and rear left suspensions of the vehicle were instrumented with strain gauge channels and position transducers to acquire the reaction loads at the upright and the orientation of the arms. Then, the geometric matrix method was implemented for calculating the moments at the upright from which the braking torque was derived without the need to know any of the wheel inertia, nor the driveshaft torque. Data from multiple acquisitions across different racetracks, operating temperatures, and ambient conditions were used to characterize the BLCF of the front and rear carbon brakes equipped on the vehicle. After implementing pre-processing steps aimed at improving data homogeneity, two friction maps were characterized for the front and rear systems, respectively. The friction maps were validated against new experimental data showing an average 3% error reduction over assuming a constant BLCF. Accordingly, the characterized friction maps can be integrated in the brake-by-wire system of the vehicle for accurate caliper pressure control through real-time estimation of the BLCF from commonly available sensor signals, such as caliper pressure, wheel speed, and disc temperature. In this context, the effectiveness of the friction maps was demonstrated by comparing the predicted brake moments with the torques measured by the instrumented suspensions, highlighting the advantages over assuming a constant BLCF.
Cortivo, Davide, Vendramin, Mattia, Dindo, Luigi
Simulation-Based System-Level Design Optimization for Formula SAE Vehicles2025-01-038010/7/2025
System-level design decisions in Formula SAE (FSAE) vehicles drive all downstream subsystem designs, yet these decisions are often based on historical precedent or anecdotal evidence rather than rigorous analysis. This work presents a simulation-driven methodology to support data-informed decisions early in the design process, specifically examining how overall vehicle parameters—such as engine power, vehicle mass, aerodynamic drag and lift, wheelbase, and track width—influence performance in a representative FSAE endurance scenario. Two types of lap-time simulation tools were used in this study: OpenLAP, a point-mass simulator, and ChassisSim, a transient 3D vehicle dynamics simulator that incorporates suspension geometry, yaw response, weight transfer, and steering effects. Initial simulations with OpenLAP were used to rapidly identify trends and guide early design decisions, while ChassisSim was used for detailed sensitivity analyses and to validate system-level trade-offs in a more realistic dynamic context. Sensitivity results from ChassisSim revealed that vehicle mass and tire grip have the strongest influence on lap time, followed by geometric and aerodynamic parameters. While increases in engine power do contribute to faster lap times, the results indicate that performance gains are more effectively achieved by reducing vehicle mass and optimizing grip. These findings suggest that lightweight, high power-to-weight ratio powertrains that minimally compromise tire grip should be favored over maximizing engine output alone. This work provides FSAE teams with a replicable framework for powertrain and chassis-level optimization through simulation. The approach not only enables teams to make more informed design decisions but also helps quantify trade-offs that directly affect dynamic performance, contributing to more competitive and efficient vehicle architectures
Hernandez, Andy Jose, Bachman, John Christopher
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-03419/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking performance. However, in motorsport applications, actuator dynamics are complex to identify, car-dependent, and, most importantly, time-varying due to factors like temperature changes and wear. These challenges make PID controllers based on nominal models less robust, both in terms of stability and tracking performance. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a robust architecture based on a cascade Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control (LADRC) scheme for an electro-hydraulic actuator. The architecture consists of an inner loop, based on a second-order LADRC, which controls the piston position, and an outer loop, which employs a first-order LADRC to regulate the pressure. Compared to standard PID controllers, the LADRC approach promises two key advantages: it is faster and easier to tune while offering increased robustness. The proposed control scheme is experimentally validated on a test bench using a state-of-the-art BBW system and a racing car hydraulic line highlighting an increased robustness compared to a standard PID scheme.
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Thermal Characterisation of a High-Power Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell and Surface Temperature Prediction for Motorsport Applications2025-24-01429/7/2025
Accurate cell thermal characterisation is vital for battery modelling and thermal management, especially in motorsport, where minor temperature estimation errors can have severe consequences. Conventional methods for determining key thermal parameters, such as the specific heat capacity, often require costly calorimeters or destructive testing. Recent studies propose an alternative approach using a 1D lumped thermal network to solve the thermal balance of a heat-generating cell. However, these studies often overlook critical aspects of the heat generation equation, particularly the entropic term, which is essential for capturing nonlinear thermal behaviour, especially under dynamic cycling conditions. This study presents a cost-effective approach for rapid cell thermal characterisation and accurate surface temperature prediction. A pouch LCO cell was first tested to determine the entropic coefficient, followed by experiments under two convective conditions to evaluate its specific heat capacity. An optimisation problem was then formulated to identify the remaining thermal parameters. The thermal model was integrated with a first-order Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM), which provided the voltage response necessary for heat generation calculations. The training data for cell surface temperature predictions included two dynamic load and power tests designed to replicate a motorsport environment. The model demonstrated high accuracy (RMSE < 0.5°C) across a wide range of operating conditions, confirming its robustness. This study provides valuable insights for motorsport battery applications and reinforces the need to standardise thermal parameter determination to improve research comparability.
Sciortino, Davide Domenico, Schommer, Adriano, Costa, Andre
How Battery Simulation Is Taking High-Performance EV Development to New HeightsTBMG-535288/1/2025
In today’s electric age, the definition of ‘high-performance’ is being rewritten, courtesy of electric sports cars, supercars, and hypercars pushing limits that were once thought impossible to reach. Even Formula 1, quite surprisingly to many, has embraced electrification by integrating hybrid electric systems at the pinnacle of motorsport. Every jaw-dropping 0 to 60 mph time or record-breaking lap is backed by a battery system engineered with precision. Increasingly that precision is driven by simulation technology.
Q&A25AUTP08_138/1/2025
Lyten is best-known as the developer of next-gen lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery technology. SAE Media spoke with Keith Norman, Lyten's chief sustainability officer, on how 3D Graphene is getting Lyten to branch out into motorsports.
Blanco, Sebastian
Automation and Optimization of the Design and Development Process for a Formula Student Racing Car Suspension2025-01-02707/2/2025
The design, development, and optimization of modern suspension systems is a complex process that encompasses several different engineering domains and disciplines such as vehicle dynamics simulation, tire data analysis, 1D lap-time simulation, 3D CAD design and structural analysis including full 3D collision detection. Typically, overall vehicle design and suspension development are carried out in multiple iterative design loops by several human specialists from diverse engineering departments. Fully automating this iterative design process can minimize manual effort, eliminate routine tasks and human errors, and significantly reduce design time. This desired level of automation can be achieved through digital modeling, automated model generation, and simulation using graph-based design languages and an associated language compiler for translation and execution. Graph-based design languages ensure the digital consistency of data, the digital continuity of processes, and the digital interoperability of all engineering software tools along the product life cycle (PLC). In this context, they are used to automate the design and development of a suspension system for a Formula student racing car. The automated design consists of an inner design loop for simulating suspension system properties, including a 1D lap-time simulation, and an outer loop for the 3D shape optimization of the modeled anti-roll bar geometry, including 3D collision detection. These nested loops are executed automatically, optimizing the vehicle's kinematics through a particle multi-swarm optimization algorithm. This generic design automation approach for suspension systems leads to improved design quality in significantly less time and at a lower cost.
Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan
Early Detection of the Loss of Control of Motorsport Vehicles10-09-03-00296/30/2025
The article investigates how to detect as quickly as possible whether the driver will lose control of a vehicle, after a disturbance has occurred. Typical disturbances refer to wind gusts, obstacle avoidance, a sudden steer, traversing a pothole, a kick by another vehicle, and so on. The driver may be either human or non-human. Focus will be devoted to human drivers, but the extension to automated or autonomous cars is straightforward. Since the dynamic behavior of vehicle and driver is described by a saddle-type limit cycle, a proper theory is developed to use the limit cycle as a reference trajectory to forecast the loss of control. The Floquet theory has been used to compute a scalar index to forecast stable or unstable motion. The scalar index, named degree of stability (DoS), is computed very early, in the best case, in a few milliseconds after the disturbance has ended. Investigations have been performed at a dynamic driving simulator. A 14 DoF vehicle model, virtually driven by a real human driver, was employed. A number of evasive maneuvers have been examined, both for understeer and oversteer vehicles. The early detection of the loss of control is possible. The sensing of the loss of control could be enhanced with respect to a classical ESP, although a more in-depth investigation is needed. Some issues referring to the robustness of the computation of the DoS are still to be investigated. Nonetheless the DoS seems already applicable for motorsport vehicle and drivers.
Della Rossa, Fabio, Fontana, Matteo, Giacintucci, Samuele, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero, Previati, Giorgio
Design of a Reactive-Style Muffler for a Formula SAE Race Car2025-01-00245/5/2025
The noise generated by high-performance vehicles like Formula SAE (FSAE) race cars, presents a significant challenge in adhering to strict competition noise regulations. In this study two muffler designs were created: muffler design 1 and 2. Each design utilized two chambers to generate destructive interference, targeting two dominant exhaust frequencies of the Honda CBR600RR engine to maximize transmission loss and reduce sound pressure levels (SPL) below the FSAE-mandated range of 103 dBC at idle and 110 dBC at all other operating conditions. For each design, the exhaust noise and muffler performance were simulated using GT-Suite, allowing for an evaluation of noise attenuation across engine speeds. Experimental testing was conducted to validate the GT-Suite model and assess the effectiveness of muffler design 1. This testing involved measuring the SPL with a calibrated microphone, both with and without the designed muffler. Muffler design 1 was based on the dominant exhaust frequencies from the engine-out simulations while muffler design 2 was based on the engine-out experimental measurements. The simulation results showed all muffler designs were below the FSAE mandated SPL at idle and the high engine speed condition. The experimental testing showed that muffler design 1 was 7 dBC above the high engine speed FSAE mandated SPL. The experimental SPLs from engine-out and muffler design 1 were -6 to 1 dBC and 1 to 11 dBC above the idle and the high engine speed test values, respectively, from the simulations. Based on the comparison of the simulation and experimental results from engine-out and muffler design 1, the experimental SPLs were predicted to be below the FSAE requirement for muffler design 2. Therefore, muffler design 2, designed from the dominating experimental exhaust frequencies, achieved superior noise reduction compared to muffler design 1.
Labao, Kai, Middleton, Nicholas, Nuszkowski, John
Optimization of Gusset Geometry for Racecar Frame Design2025-01-50335/1/2025
This research optimizes sheet metal gusset geometry to support a suspension pickup point in a Formula SAE racecar. The sheet metal gusset design incorporates an external radial cut-out and an internal triangular cut-out, each of which can be adjusted in size to optimize the stiffness to mass ratio. A finite element analysis was set up using a heavy braking load case, which applied 3900 N to the suspension point being supported by the gusset. A parametric optimization (finite element analysis) was run in SolidWorks to gather mass and stiffness data for each of the 143 designs under the prescribed load case. The parametric optimization was run on both a simulated front hoop and a test fixture, which showed a similar trend in their results. Experimental testing was performed on three designs. The gusset profiles were waterjet and TIG welded to the test fixture tube frames. The results of the test agreed with the simulation results with a discrepancy of less than 10% in all cases. The results of the parametric optimization were then analyzed using the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) optimization method in MATLAB and an optimal design set was found. Any design in this set has the minimum mass for its given stiffness. This process can be used to determine the design with the maximum stiffness/mass ratio for any given stiffness requirement and is accurate to within 10% of the simulated value. The optimization method is not limited to specific gusset geometry and can be used to reduce the mass of any gusset with known loading conditions.
Burggraf, Jacob, Willerth, Stephanie Michelle, Yu, Bosco
On the Application of Trapped Vortices in Motorsport Application for Improved Aerodynamic Performance Using Passive and Active Flow Controls2025-01-50294/15/2025
New regulations introduced by the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (FIA) for the 2026 Formula 1 season mark the first instance of active flow control methods being endorsed in Formula 1 competition. While active methods have demonstrated significant success in airfoil development, their broader application to grounded vehicle aerodynamics remains unexplored. This research investigates the effectiveness of trapped vortex cavity (TVC) technology in both active and passive flow controls, applied to a NACA0012 airfoil and an inverted three-element airfoil from a Formula 1 model. The investigation is conducted using numerical methods to evaluate the aerodynamic performance and potential of TVC in this paper. In the single-airfoil case, a circular cavity is placed along the trailing edge (TE) on the suction surface; for the three-element airfoils, the cavity is positioned on each airfoil to determine the optimum location. The results show that the presence of a cavity, particularly with active flow control, significantly improves the lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD) for both the single airfoil and the three-element airfoils. A maximum enhancement of 1160% was recorded for the single airfoil, while the three-element airfoils saw an improvement of 313% compared to their original configurations. However, when the TVC was placed in positions other than the TE of the mid-airfoil, a performance reduction was observed, even with active blowing applied. The passive flow control approach, which requires no additional energy input, yielded a modest improvement of 3.52% for the NACA0012 airfoil. However, passive control underperformed due to unstable vortex interactions with each airfoil element for the inverted three-element airfoil case. Even with optimal placement and geometrical modifications, the maximum CL/CD ratio for passive control was only 96% of the original CL/CD of the unmodified three-element airfoils, suggesting that passive flow control is less effective here compared to active flow control.
Ng, Ming Kin, Teschner, Tom-Robin
T.R.I.C.K. 2.0: Enhanced Vehicle Dynamics Analysis and Estimation Harnessing Advanced Vehicle Sensors10-09-03-00254/9/2025
Automotive signal processing is dealt with in several contributions that propose various techniques to make the most out of the available data, typically for enhancing safety, comfort, or performance. Specifically, the accurate estimation of tire–road interaction forces is of high interest in the automotive world. A few years ago the T.R.I.C.K. tool was developed, featuring a vehicle model processing experimental data, collected through various vehicle sensors, to compute several relevant virtual telemetry channels, including interaction forces and slip indices. Following years of further development in collaboration with motorsport companies, this article presents T.R.I.C.K. 2.0, a thoroughly renewed version of the tool. Besides a number of important improvements of the original tool, including, e.g., the effect of the limited slip differential, T.R.I.C.K. 2.0 features the ability to exploit advanced sensors typically used in motorsport, including laser sensors, potentiometers, and load cells installed on shock absorbers, anti-roll bars, and brake pressure sensors. Such information is harnessed in purposely-devised novel methodologies for estimating key quantities including roll angle, aerodynamic forces, and camber angle, all affecting tire–road interaction forces and friction ellipses. This is made possible by a completely modular structure of the tool able to employ the most accurate formulation depending on the sensors actually available.
Napolitano Dell’Annunziata, Guido, Farroni, Flavio, Timpone, Francesco, Lenzo, Basilio
Optimization Design of Formula E Racing Car Transmission and Wheel System2025-01-85054/1/2025
The paper provides a detailed analysis of the transmission system design under the single motor drive scheme, with a focus on the 2024 Formula SAE (FSAE). The selection of the motor type is determined based on race rules and battery box output power limits. In terms of transmission ratio design, this study takes into account the car's power, balancing acceleration ability and maximum speed to determine an optimal transmission ratio through theoretical calculations and empirical values. Furthermore, it explores how to optimize overall drive system performance by considering technical parameters, power requirements, economic considerations of each system assembly, and validates these findings through software simulations. Notably, significant improvements in reliability are achieved with the newly designed transmission system and wheel rim system while also proposing lightweighting methods for key components. We have carried out extensive verification in both simulation and real vehicle test phase, which proves the superiority of our proposed design scheme.
Wang, Liuxin, Li, Chengfeng, Zhu, Xiran, Liu, Minmin
Study on Ergonomic Design Optimization and NVH Characteristics of Baja Racing Car2025-01-86124/1/2025
As a kind of off-road racing car, the driving condition of Baja is extremely bad. In order to allow the driver to control the vehicle well in complex working conditions, it is particularly important to provide a comfortable and convenient driving space and handling space for the driver. In this paper, firstly, RAMSIS is used to carry out the ergonomics verification of the racing car from the comfort analysis, reachable area analysis and visual field analysis, and optimize the design of the cockpit layout of the Baja racing car. Then the NVH characteristics of the Baja racing car frame are studied, and the 12-order modal results are obtained by finite element analysis and simulation. Then the natural frequency of the frame is measured by experiments, and the experimental results are verified to match the theoretical values. The research shows that the above steps can design a comfortable driving posture and operating space for the racer and provide experience for the future layout of the cockpit of Baja racing cars.
Liu, Silang
Research and Structural Optimization of Lattice Core based on Monocoque of Formula Student Racing Car2025-01-80034/1/2025
Monocoque is a kind of integrated shell structure technology, which has gradually become the primary choice for various racing teams to make car bodies because of its advantages of small specific gravity and high specific strength. The unit of the monocoque is a carbon fiber composite sandwich structure, which is composed of two layers of carbon fiber skin inside and outside and core material between them. The inner and outer layers of the carbon fiber skin are stacked with carbon fiber composite materials of different directions and types.In this project, we plan to optimize the shape of the monocoque shell using the surface design software Alias, select core materials of different materials and structures, more advanced layups, and obtain feasible layup sequences and core material types through Ansys simulation and Matlab collaborative optimization, which will be verified by three-point bending experiments. Different from the previous lightweight work based a lot on experience, this project improves the lightweight level and strength of the whole vehicle from two more scientific aspects: modeling design and layup and core design.It is noteworthy that we will innovatively try the lattice core material, which has the characteristics of low relative density and high specific strength, and has complexity and designability, compared with the traditional aluminum honeycomb or the foam board, and has more room for optimization. And explore the possibility of using lattice sandwich in some areas, such as the bottom plate, side anti-collision area, etc., and even the whole monocoque.
Cheng, Zhu H., Liu, JJ
A Design of Electric Drive System for All-Wheel Drive Formula Student Racing Car to Improve Racing Performance2025-01-80054/1/2025
This paper introduces an innovative in-wheel electric drive system designed for all-wheel drive Formula Student Electric racing cars. The system utilized AMK's DD5-14-10-POW-18600-B5 model as the driving motor, with a gearbox transmission ratio of 13.2 determined through Optimum Lap simulation. A two-stage gear reducer was integrated into a unified hub-spoke assembly, which connected directly to the ten-inch carbon fiber rim. In this paper, three conventional FSEC planetary gear reducer shafting designs are introduced, and a new shafting structure is proposed. Then the four structures are compared in multiple dimensions. Subsequently, we designed the shafting of the gear group, determined the size parameters of the shafting structure and the bearing type, and completed the verification. The planetary carriers were integrated with the wheel-edge suspension columns. Meanwhile, a special floating brake disc mounting method was employed, which increased the brake disc's heat capacity by more than 15% compared to traditional rivet-fixed floating brake discs, thereby enhancing the brake disc's heat dissipation performance. . This integration allowed the entire electric drive system to be housed within the wheel, resulting in a weight reduction of over 10% and an improvement in overall aerodynamic performance by approximately 5%, compared to conventional designs where the planetary gearboxes are integrated within the suspension columns. Throughout the design process, the strength and stiffness of each subsystem were simulated using ANSYS. Furthermore, MASTA was employed to construct the overall reducer model, simulate the transmission system, and optimize gear modifications, ensuring the safety and reliability of the electric drive system. To further guarantee effective gear lubrication within the gearbox, a gearbox model was built based on the Particleworks platform, and a gearbox lubrication simulation was performed. To further verify the effect, we will make an electric drive system test bench and apply it to the 2025 season racing car of the WUTE team of Wuhan University of Technology and participated in the Formula Student Electric China (FSEC).
Guo, Ruijie, Zeng, Junhao, Yang, Yuancai, Hou, Yijie, Zhu, Zhonghui, Xiong, Jiaming
Development and Performance Optimization of Formula SAE Racing Active Ground Effect System Based on Fan Drive2025-01-80014/1/2025
For Formula SAE cars, a significant increase in downforce can enable the car to score more points in the race and enhance the competitiveness of the vehicle. This paper focuses on the development of an active ground effect system driven by fans for the FSAE racing car. The system is designed to considerably increase the downforce of the racing car through the forced airflow generated by the fan, enable the dynamic adjustment of the aerodynamic balance of the racing car during the driving process, and achieve the vertical force control on the racing wheels, thereby improving the performance of the racing car. The Star-CCM+ software was employed to conduct CFD simulation to investigate the influence of different flow fans on downforce and optimize the layout and position of the fan. Due to the limited power that the car can carry, the paper will also simulate and calculate the range of pneumatic balance adjustment and vertical force control capability provided by the different openings of the fan, and develop strategies for the utilization of the fan system in the race to enhance the operational efficiency of the system. Subsequently, the mechanical and electrical components required for the system are developed to meet the requirements of lightweight and stability. The system is anticipated to increase the downforce of the car by over 50% and provide a sufficiently wide balance adjustment platform. Finally, lap speed simulation is carried out to verify, evaluate the pros and cons of the system, and compare the lap time of the car without the system to ensure that the system can enable the car to obtain more points in the race.
Yang, Chengyue
Establishment of Failure Simulation Models for Bonding of Carbon Fiber Laminated Skins and Cores in Monocoque Structures Based on Formula Student Racing Cars2025-01-80064/1/2025
In Formula SAE , the primary function of the frame is to provide structural support for the different components and withstand the applied load. In recent years, most Formula Student teams worldwide to adopt monocoque made of carbon fiber composites, which are lighter and stronger. Enhancing the mechanical performance of carbon fiber laminates has been a key focus of research for these teams. In three-point bending tests, significant stress at the adhesive layer between the skin and the core material at both ends of the laminate, often lead to potential adhesive failure. Consequently, experimental boards often exhibit delamination between the outer skin and the core material, and premature core crushing, which compromises the mechanical performance of the laminate and fails to pass the Structural Equivalency Spreadsheet. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the influence of the bonding factor of toughened epoxy prepreg film on the mechanical properties of the laminated plate. This paper introduces adhesive failure factors into the simulation model, establishes a comprehensive simulation framework based on the bonding performance of GXA-120 toughened epoxy prepreg film, and validates it through actual three-point bending tests, aiming to improve the accuracy of laminate experimental simulations and thereby enhance the efficiency of laminate design for the teams.
Ning, Zicheng
Design and Evaluation of an Adjustable Ackermann Rate Steering System for Formula Student Racing Cars2025-01-80004/1/2025
FSAE is a competition designed to maximize car performance, in which the steering system is a key subsystem, and the steering system performance directly affects the cornering performance of the car. The driver relies on the steering system for effective handling, which is also crucial for cornering and achieving faster lap times. Therefore, while improving the performance of the steering system, it is crucial to match the vehicle design to the driver's habits. Traditionally, steering systems typically use an Ackermann rate between 0% and 100% to offset the slip angle caused by tire deformation, thus achieving the purpose of reducing tire wear. Calculations have shown that a 40-60% Ackermann rate provides a similar compensation effect with little difference in tire wear. The traditional steering design method also does not consider the driver's driving habits and feedback, which is not conducive to the improvement of the overall performance of the car. In FSAE's figure-of-eight loops and high-speed obstacle avoidance courses, the need to balance steady-state and transient performance poses a challenge to traditional designs.This paper presents an adjustable Ackermann rate steering system for Formula Student Racing Cars. By selecting an Ackermann rate between 40% and 60%, a comprehensive approach to analyze and optimize the system was employed. Adams Car software was used to analyze the parameter changes of the steering system, while CarSim software was utilized for vehicle model simulation to further analyze performance variations. The design was implemented through a dedicated steering knuckle, allowing for Ackermann rate adjustments based on driver feedback. To further validate the design's effectiveness, it was applied to the 2024 WUTE team of Wuhan University of Technology and participated in the Formula Student Electric China (FSEC). Through a combination of simulation and human-car-track closed-loop experiments, this design is demonstrated significantly enhances the overall performance of the vehicle and improves steering adaptability across different track configurations.
Wu, Hailin, Li, Mingyuan
Development and Validation of a Rear Head Surround Foam Performance Specification for Stock Car Racing2025-01-83534/1/2025
Over the last two decades many improvements have been made in stock car racing driver safety. One of these is the head surround, which is rigidly secured to and an integral part of the NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, LLC) seating environment and serves as an effective restraint for head protection during lateral and rear impacts. However, previous head impact material specifications were optimized for moderate to severe impacts and did not address low severity impacts that occur frequently during typical driving, such as race restart vehicle nose-to-tail contact. This study focused on developing a test methodology for comprehensive evaluation of rear head surround materials for low, moderate and severe impacts. Specifically, this study aimed to formulate a specification that maintains previous material performance during high speed impacts, while decreasing head accelerations at low speed impacts. Quasi-static and dynamic drop tower testing of sample materials were used to analyze the energy absorption capabilities of various materials. Finite element material models were developed to assess the effects of foam thickness on head kinematics. Anthropomorphic test device (ATD) empirical sled testing was used to analyze material responses in the full NASCAR seating environment. In drop tower testing, the new materials achieved nearly a 33% reduction in peak acceleration for 2.2 m/s (5 mph) impacts compared to the baseline materials while maintaining original peak acceleration and rebound velocity performance at 5.8 m/s (13 mph). Empirical sled testing confirmed equal performance to the baseline materials at high velocity, as well as a 5 to 15 G decrease in peak resultant head acceleration at low speed depending on comparison samples. Study findings resulted in updates to the NASCAR rulebook including increasing the minimum thickness of the original rear head surround foam material and the use of the newly specified alternate foam materials in the field. The alternate foams drop test requirements include 24 total drop tests on 12 test samples per material evaluation, at two speeds (2.2 and 5.8 m/s) and two temperatures (21° and 50° C). The repeated impacts are conducted at the same test speed, for each temperature, on the same sample. Material performance evaluations include peak acceleration, maximum rebound velocity, and flame retardancy.
Gray, Alexandra N., Harper, Matthew G., Mukherjee, Sayak, Patalak, John P., Gaewsky, James
Optimal Investigation About Cab of BSC Racing Car Based on Ergonomics2025-01-86694/1/2025
In the Baja race, off-road vehicles need to run under a variety of real and complex off-road conditions such as pebble road, shell pit, stone bad road, hump, water puddle, etc. In the process of this high-intensity and high-concentration race, the unoptimized design of the cab in ergonomics will easily cause the driver's visual and handling fatigue, so that the driver's attention is not concentrated. Cause the occurrence of security accidents. Moreover, lower back pain, sciatic nerve discomfort, lumbar spine diseases and other occupational diseases are basically caused by uncomfortable driving posture and unreasonable control matching, and these have a lot to do with unreasonable ergonomic design. In order to solve these problems, firstly establish the human body model of the driver, and then build the BSC racing car model by using 3D modeling software Catia. Then use the ergonomics simulation software Jack to analyze the visibility, accessibility and comfort. Based on the simulation analysis, provide a more scientific and effective cab optimization scheme, to improve the driving comfort and safety, and provide experience and technical reference for the future development and progress of Baja racing.
Liu, Yuzhou, Liu, Silang
Numerical Investigation on Motorsport Overtake Manoeuvre in Crosswind Conditions2025-01-87734/1/2025
Existing technical literature has primarily focused on the upstream wake effects of single-seater race cars during overtaking, often neglecting the critical factor: crosswinds. This study presents a quantitative computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of how crosswinds impact the aerodynamic loads of interacting race car models during an overtake manoeuvre. For numerical validation purposes, a wind tunnel experimental campaign was carried out on a 35%-scale hill climb race car model to evaluate aerodynamic forces and wake pressure mappings at different ride heights. RANS-based simulations were performed to assess the impact of crosswinds (β = 2°, 6°, 10°) on an isolated race car. Subsequently, a quasi-static approach was used to quantify the effect of crosswind (β = 10°) on an overtaking car under different path strategies. The findings indicated that the overtaking car's performance remained largely stable when a driver opts for overtake paths against the crosswind direction (i.e., 'clean freestream' side). However, when the overtaking paths are favourable to the crosswind (i.e., 'dirty freestream' side), the overtaking car's performance is significantly affected by wake interference throughout the entire overtaking trajectory.
Makhija, Jai, Soares, Renan F.
Cost-Effective Sideslip Measurement: Beta for the People!2025-01-87964/1/2025
Vehicle sideslip is a valuable measurement for ground vehicles in both passenger vehicle and racing contexts. At relevant speeds, the total vehicle sideslip, beta, can help drivers and engineers know how close to the limits of yaw stability a vehicle is during the driving maneuver. For production vehicles or racing contexts, this measurement can trigger Electronic Stability Control (ESC). For racing contexts, the method can be used for driver training to compare driver techniques and vehicle cornering performance. In a fleet context with Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVS) any vehicle telemetry reporting large vehicle sideslip can indicate an emergency scenario. Traditionally, sideslip estimation methods involve expensive and complex sensors, often including precise inertial measurement units (IMUs) and dead reckoning, plus complicated sensor fusion techniques. Standard GPS measurements can provide Course Over Ground (COG) with quite high accuracy and, surprisingly, the most challenging measurement is the vehicle orientation. This study presents a low- or moderate-cost method for real-time vehicle sideslip estimation using Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Global Position System (GPS) receivers. The approach involves a pair of specialized GPS receivers with a moving base and moving rover RTK setup. RTK corrections are provided via an online wireless internet connection. The moving base is positioned at the vehicle's rear axle and the companion rover GPS device is located at the vehicle's center of gravity (CG). This arrangement provides both vehicle orientation and vehicle course over ground at 7Hz. RTK provides direct measurement of both quantities needed to compute vehicle sideslip in real time. The results demonstrate the feasibility of this approach and offers a practical solution for real-world automotive systems. A simple set of driving experiments demonstrate the method’s effectiveness. This approach is a cost-effective solution for sideslip estimation, with applications in ESC, CAVs, driver training and motorsports performance analysis.
Hannah, Andrew, Compere, Marc
Optimized Design and Analysis of a High-Performance, Track-Focused Quad Bike for the Indian Market2025-28-00612/7/2025
This paper presents a complete approach to the optimized design and analysis of a trach-focused quad bike suitable for the Indian market. The process of design integrates several analytical factors, including driver ergonomics, aesthetics, and strategic component placement, to establish optimum vehicle dimensions. The primary objective is to address the unique demands of the Indian terrain and user preferences through ensure comfort, functionality, and visual appeal. The selection process for tires and suspension geometry is precisely conducted with the advanced OptimumKinematics software. This optimization provides greater performance and stability that the vehicle can accurately manage a variety of road conditions. The space frame chassis of a vehicle’s core structure features, engineered to minimalize tubing and facilitate ease of fabrication, contributing to both structural integrity and weight reduction. A robust 600cc four-cylinder engine is selected that emphasizing an optimal power-to-weight ratio, guarantees both swiftness and power. Superior stopping distance achieved by carefully design the braking system to enhance safety and control. This project’s engineering focuses to meet rigorous performance and durability standards by the detailed design and analysis of structural components using SolidWorks software. Meticulously designed the suspension dynamics to enhance the handling and ride comfort. The stability during high-speed manoeuvres accomplished with the diligence results in a vehicle with a low center of gravity. Extreme torsional and bending stiffness is provided to chassis while designing to ensure that the vehicle remains rigid under various stresses. Structurally strong components, agile handling, and robust performance in quad bike resulted so far characterised by its lightweight. The speed, safety, and durability are essentially balanced by the design and making it an ideal for track focused devotees in the Indian market.
Thanikonda, Praveen Kumar, Shaik, Amjad, Tappa, Raju, Ratlavath, Ramu, Navar, Adarsh, Challa, Ajith Kumar
Numerical Study of Aerodynamic Flow and the Effects of Spoiler Wings on a Formula Student Race Car2024-01-52471/28/2025
Current work details the preliminary CFD analysis performed on custom-built race car by Team Sakthi Racing team as part of Formula SAE competition using OpenFOAM. The body of the race car is designed in compliance with FSAE regulations, OpenFOAM utilities and solvers are used to generate volumetric mesh and perform CFD analysis. Formula student tracks are typically designed with numerous sharp turns and a few long straights to maintain low speeds for safety. In order to enhance the cars’ performance in sharp turns, the race car should be equipped with aerodynamic devices like nose cone and wings on both the rear and front ends within the confines of the formula student racing rules. Thus, efficient aerodynamic design is highly critical to maximizing tire grip by ensuring consistent contact with the track, reducing the risk of skidding, and maintaining control, especially during high-speed maneuvers. In this work, the performance and behavior of the race car, both with and without the impacts of wing installation, are determined by the aerodynamic drag and downward forces as the flow passes over it. In conclusion, this preliminary analysis highlights the improved downward force due to the adoption of wings on both front and rear side of the vehicle.
Rangarajan, Kishore, Pushpananthan, Blesscin, Anumolu, Lakshman, Selvakumar, Kumaresh, Jayakumar, Shyam Sundar
Optimization of a 2-D Multi-Element Rear Wing on a Formula 1 Car2024-36-010312/20/2024
The aerodynamic force produced by external flows over two-dimensional bodies is typically decomposed into two components: lift and drag. In race cars, the lift is known as downforce and it is responsible for increasing tire grip, thereby enhancing traction and cornering ability. Drag acts in the direction opposite to the car’s motion, reducing its acceleration and top speed. The primary challenge for aerodynamicists is to design a vehicle capable of producing high downforce with low drag. This study aims to optimize the shape of a multi-element rear wing profile of a Formula 1 car, achieving an optimal configuration under specific prescribed conditions. The scope of this work was limited to a 2-D model of a rear wing composed of two 4-digit NACA airfoils. Ten control parameters were used in the optimization process: three to describe each isolated profile, two to describe their relative position, and two to describe the angles of attack of each profile. An optimization cycle by finite-differences was implemented, with the figure of merit being the maximization of the lift coefficient. In order to save computational effort, the viscous formulation was just used after obtaining an optimal design for inviscid flows. Besides, the turbulence model adopted in this work was the Spalart-Allmaras. Compared to the initial configuration, the optimized one showed significant improvements in aerodynamic performance, with increased downforce and reduced drag coefficient.
Souza Dourado, Guilherme, Hayashi, Marcelo Tanaka
Modeling and Simulation of an Electromagnetic Brake-by-Wire System for Formula SAE Vehicles2024-36-016912/20/2024
Electric vehicles represent a shift towards sustainability in the automotive industry, with the Brake-by-Wire (BBW) system as an innovation to enhance safety, and performance. This study proposes an electromagnetic BBW system for Formula SAE vehicles, optimizing an electromagnet with a genetic algorithm as the actuator. Through a selection process from a million individuals, the system was modeled. Integrated with electric motors using CarMaker® software, the optimized electromagnet surpassed the minimum required force of 228.08 N without reaching its nominal current of 12.5 A, achieving a force of 231.1 N for 150 W power, indicating an energy efficiency of 0.706 N/Watt. The system also exhibited a response time of 17.92ms for an 80 bar increase, 1.52 times better than compared systems. Simulation under varying braking intensities demonstrated dynamic behavior, with settling times for slow, moderate, and sharp braking at 193 ms, 62 ms, and 21 ms, respectively. Efficiency during different braking scenarios yielded energy recovery rates of 33.25%, 8.18%, and 5.34%, respectively. These results validate the proposed system.
Salgado, Vinícius Batista Alves, Gomes, Deilton Gonçalves, Andrade Lima, Cláudio
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