Browse Topic: Occupant protection

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Injury and Kinematics of Obese PMHS in Frontal Impacts with Reclined Seating09-14-01-00035/4/2026
Objective: This study investigated injury outcomes and body kinematics in obese occupants exposed to frontal impacts while seated in reclined postures. With increasing interest in non-traditional seating configurations and a growing population of obese vehicle occupants, the objective was to evaluate how seat stiffness and restraint features influence injury patterns and whole-body excursions. Methods: Nine obese post-mortem human surrogates (PMHS; mean age: 64 years, stature: 1.70 m, body mass: 102 kg, BMI: 35 kg/m2) were tested under frontal impact conditions simulating a delta-V of 50 kph. All specimens were seated on a spring-controlled seat with a 45° reclined seatback and restrained by a three-point belt system with pretensioner and load limiter. Three configurations were evaluated: (1) stiffer seat, (2) softer seat, and (3) stiffer seat with a knee bolster 100 mm from the knees. Each subject underwent one test. Whole-body kinematics were captured using a VICON motion analysis
Somasundaram, Karthik, Yoganandan, Narayan, Pintar, Frank
Characterization of Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking Acceleration in Modern Light Vehicles: Potential Implications for Occupant Safety09-14-01-00075/4/2026
The objective of this study was to characterize and compare pedestrian automatic emergency braking (PAEB) pulses in modern light vehicles to understand the loading environment that vehicle occupants are being exposed to during PAEB maneuvers. PAEB tests (n = 8008) conducted using 2018–2023 vehicle model years were analyzed. Pulse, vehicle, and impact characteristics (e.g., jerk, peak acceleration, pedestrian scenario, etc.) were derived from each PAEB test. Two k-means clustering analyses were used to group PAEB pulses with and without target collisions based on their similarity between characteristics. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests were performed on the PAEB pulse characteristics to examine differences between clusters (p < 0.05). Two non-collision clusters (NC1 and NC2) were identified for PAEB pulses without collisions: NC1 had a statistically significant lower jerk (0.8 ± 0.4 g/s) and peak acceleration (1.0 ± 0.1 g) compared to NC2 (1.6 ± 0.8 g/s and 0.9 ± 0.1 g
Witmer, Maitland, Kidd, David, Graci, Valentina
Assessing the Influence of Reclined Vehicle Seatback Configurations with and without a Belt-Positioning Booster on Child Posture via Pressure Mapping09-14-01-00045/4/2026
Objective: This study sought to implement pressure mapping methodology to assess variation in children’s center of force positions in reclined vehicle scenarios. Methods: Thirty-four children between 4 and 12 y (8.1 ± 2.0 y) were statically evaluated on a vehicle seat across two seating conditions (with and without a backless booster) and three seatback recline conditions (25°, 45°, and 60°). Center of force was recorded using pressure sensors attached to the seating surface. Average center of force fore/aft positions were calculated and transformed into the vehicle coordinate system using 3D coordinate measurements. Descriptive statistics and repeated measures ANOVA were used to assess variation in center of force position across seating and recline conditions, with subject included as a random effect. Results: Center of force fore/aft position varied (p < 0.05) with recline condition, seating condition, and the recline/seating condition interaction term. On the booster, the average
Baker, Gretchen H., Connell, Rosalie R., Graci, Valentina, Mansfield, Julie A.
Securing Child Restraint Systems in Motor VehiclesJ1819_202604 (Current)4/13/2026
The scope of this SAE Recommended Practice is to promote compatibility between child restraint systems and vehicle seats and seat belts. Design guidelines are provided to vehicle manufacturers for certain characteristics of seats and seat belts and to child restraint system (CRS) manufacturers for corresponding CRS features so that each can be made more compatible with the other. The CRS accommodation fixture (see Figure 1) is used to represent a CRS to the designers of both the vehicle interior and the CRS for evaluation of each product for compatibility with the other. The features of the accommodation fixture are described as each is used.
Children's Restraint Systems Committee
Development of Automotive Hood Using Multi-Material Double Injection Molding – An Overview2026-01-04764/7/2026
This paper presents the multidisciplinary development of a hybrid automotive hood manufactured using double-shot injection molding with overmolded brackets. Conventional steel and aluminum hoods, while structurally reliable, pose challenges in terms of weight reduction, pedestrian head protection, and manufacturing cost. Composite and thermoplastic alternatives supported by computational analysis and advanced molding processes provide opportunities to address these challenges. Finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to evaluate torsional and bending stiffness, locking load, and crashworthiness, while pedestrian headform simulations following ECE R127 and EEVC WG17 guidelines were conducted to assess compliance with safety regulations. Adhesion and bonding strength of overmolded polymer–polymer interfaces were studied to validate manufacturing feasibility. Results confirm that hybrid hoods fabricated using multi-material double-shot molding can achieve weight reductions of up to 30
Ganesan, Karthikeyan, Seok, Sang Ho, Jo, Hyoung Han
Quasi-Static Head Restraint Pull-Tests to Assess Retention Performance: Maximum Load and Damage Characteristic2026-01-05644/7/2026
Head restraint requirements and designs have evolved to minimize the delay in head support and reduce differential loading in the neck. As a result, head restraints have become bigger and more angled forward, sitting, closer to the occupant’s head. Head restraints separation from seatbacks are sometimes observed in the field. Are head restraint detachments resulting from occupant comfort issues prior to the crash, occupant loading during the crash or were they removed by emergency personnel for extrication? Understanding the retention strength of head restraints and the type of evidence left behind by a forced removal may help researchers resolve the question of how a head restraint may be found post-crash separated from the seat. Quasistatic pull tests were conducted to measure vertical retention capabilities, compare vertical adjustment and release mechanisms, and document deformation and damage. Eighteen different front seat head restraint designs were evaluated. The model years
Parenteau, Chantal, Burnett, Roger, Davidson, Russell
Potential Regulatory Approaches for Occupant Safety in Automated Vehicles with Unique Seating Configurations – Part 2: Interior Safety Sensing and Messaging Proposals2026-01-05764/7/2026
This paper contains Part 2 of a two-part paper series proposing potential regulatory approaches for occupant safety in Automated / Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) with unique seating configurations (stagecoach and campfire seating). Part 2 focuses on interior safety sensing, associated messaging, and ride control approaches both prior to and during a ride. Assessments are also proposed after significant vehicle braking and crash events. The proposed conditions are to be assessed in a static vehicle environment with humans segmented by occupant size and an infant dummy. On the vehicle seat and on the vehicle floor occupant detection conditions are proposed along with restraint usage detection conditions for vehicle seat belt usage, Child Restraint Seat (CRS) usage, CRS seat belt usage, and Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children (LATCH) system usage. These conditions may be detected by sensors / computer algorithms and human monitoring and thus are technology agnostic. The topics of animal
Thomas, Scott
Potential Regulatory Approaches for Occupant Safety in Automated Vehicles with Unique Seating Configurations – Part 1: Occupant Protection Proposals2026-01-05784/7/2026
Some Automated / Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) have unique seating configurations (stagecoach and campfire seating) which present expanded occupant safety challenges. Significant portions of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) do not yet align with AVs containing unique seating. This paper series takes the NHTSA occupant safety standard approach for conventional forward-facing seat vehicles where many compliance evaluations are in the frequently occupied front row and expands it to stagecoach and campfire AVs where the rear seating row is anticipated to be frequently occupied. The approaches proposed are from a logic-based safety-focused analysis and in many cases previously published material. The goal of this paper series is to offer regulatory proposals that enable equivalent performance for these AVs to existing forward-facing seating vehicle occupant safety standards and meet Executive Order 13045 on child safety
Thomas, Scott
HaloBus: Edge Computing-Enabled Real-Time Boarding and Exit Detection for Enhanced Transportation Safety Using Lightweight AI2026-01-05554/7/2026
This paper proposes HaloBus, an innovative, edge-computing solution designed to mitigate this risk by detecting student boarding and exiting in real time using lightweight AI based methods. A persistent challenge in elementary school transportation is the issue of missing students after they exit their buses, which disproportionately impacts low-income households. Current safety systems place the burden of implementation on individual households, often requiring independent methods. Common methods include applications on a personal device or a small tracker. However, not everyone can afford these options, and ensuring child safety is a primary concern for parents and caregivers. That is why HaloBus was invented. The system employs YOLOv5us—an Ultralytics-enhanced, anchor-free, split-head architecture that offers a superior accuracy speed trade-off. By providing real-time, on-device alerts, HaloBus enables immediate intervention to prevent a student from being left behind, thereby
Getz, Grayson, Zadeh, Mehrdad, Tan, Teik-Khoon
Guidelines for Interior Material Selection to Enhance Thermal Safety in Electric Vehicles2026-01-02494/7/2026
The advancement of electric vehicles necessitates a rigorous focus on passenger cabin safety, particularly concerning the severe thermal hazard of a lithium-ion battery thermal runaway. Unlike internal combustion engine vehicles, electric vehicles require interior materials that provide superior thermal resistance to slow heat propagation, delay autoignition, and minimize smoke and toxic gas emissions, thereby securing a survivable evacuation window. This paper examines the application of the lumped-capacitance thermal model and the derived thermal time constant (τ) as a foundational framework for evaluating and selecting cabin materials. This approach enables a quantitative, physics-based ranking of materials—including seat composites, sound-deadening layers, electrical insulation, and carpet assemblies—based on their intrinsic ability to delay their own temperature rise under transient heat flux. By integrating materials with a high τ and elevated critical failure temperatures, this
El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Taha, Nahla, Asar, Mona, Sheta, Mai
Machine Learning Based Meta-Analysis of IIHS Moderate Overlap Frontal Crash Test for Rear Seat Occupant Safety Performance2026-01-05794/7/2026
A machine learning (ML)-based meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate rear seat occupant safety performance in the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) Moderate Overlap Frontal (MOF) 2.0 crash test. ML models were trained on historical IIHS crash test data to predict rear passenger injury metrics using vehicle architecture, restraint system characteristics, crash pulse parameters, and vehicle kinematics as input features. The models demonstrated high predictive accuracy and were subsequently used in a Sobol sensitivity analysis to identify critical design parameters influencing injury outcomes. The analysis revealed that rear passenger injury metrics were most sensitive to restraint system parameters. Specifically, crash pulse magnitude was the dominant factor for head injury metrics, pretensioner activation time for neck tension force, and lap belt force for the Neck Injury Criterion (Nij). For chest-related metrics—sternum deflection, dynamic belt position, and maximum belt
Lalwala, Mitesh, Kim, Wonhee, Furton, Lisa, Song, Jay
Revisiting Rear Seat Safety: Field Evaluations of Relative Injury Risk Across Seating Positions and the Integration of Advanced Rear Seat Belt Systems2026-01-05614/7/2026
Despite advances in crash avoidance, occupant restraint systems remain crucial in protecting the motoring public. Following decades of improvement in occupant protection, including several supplemental restraint systems for front seat occupants, the safety of rear seat occupants has recently undergone scrutiny. Studies evaluating rear seat occupant injury risk via field crash data have reported reduced relative safety in rear seating positions and alluded to advanced rear seat restraints, such as pretensioners and load limiters, as potential solutions. While the pursuit of novel technologies has historically improved occupant outcomes, evaluation of new systems in both controlled laboratory environments and field crashes is necessary to understand potential consequences of widespread introduction. This study analyzed the prevalence of advanced seat belts (load limiters and pretensioners) in the rear seating positions in the U.S. fleet. Additionally, occupant injury risk was compared
Rapp van Roden, Elizabeth Ann, Miller, Bruce, Pearson, Joseph, Williamson, James, Brown, Thomas
Effective Design Method for Lightweight Suite of Seats Considering Crashworthiness and Cost2026-01-04934/7/2026
This paper presents a methodology for designing and evaluating lightweight, crashworthy aircraft seats that meet 21g crash safety standards and injury criteria. Four seat classes—double economy, single economy, premium economy, and business—were developed using a modular design strategy focused on part commonality (family of parts) and manufacturability. A shared family of structural components was implemented across all seat types, with dimensional modifications applied only, when necessary, due to differences in seat width or height. In such cases, the same material systems and design principles were used to ensure consistency and reduce manufacturing complexity. The designs were evaluated using finite element simulations to verify performance under aerospace crash conditions. Each seat configuration was validated against regulatory crashworthiness criteria and injury thresholds, including pelvic, lumbar, and femur compressive forces, as well as head injury criteria (HIC) values. The
Gray, Savannah, Orr, Mathew, Shi, Yifan, Park, Taeil, Lee, Jake, Wotten, Erik, LeFrancois, Richard, Huang, Yuhao, Patel, Anuj, Kim, Hansu, Burns, Nicholas, Jalayer, Shayan, Grant, Robert, Kok, Leo, Hansen, Eric, Kim, Il Yong
Injury Risk Analysis of Occupant with Different Lower Limb Postures under the Frontal Impact Sled Conditions2026-01-05724/7/2026
To investigate the characteristics of injuries sustained by occupant with different lower limb postures under the frontal impact sled conditions. Using the finite element method a series of simulation analyses were conducted on THUMS (Total Human Model for Safety) AM50 human body model with four different postures, including standing posture, lower limb bent at 100°, 90°, and crossed forward-backward, under the frontal impact scenario at 56 km/h in this study. The simulation results indicated that the overall injury risk predicted by the THUMS AM50 huma body model with lower limb crossed forward-backward was higher than that predicted by the model with other postures. The values of injury criteria including of HIC (Head Injury Criterion), head resultant acceleration, and thoracic VC (Viscous Criterion) predicted by the THUMS AM50 huma body model with lower limb crossed forward-backward were highest in these series simulations. Also, the biomechanical responses, including stress or
Li, Dongqiang, jiang, Yejie, Tan, Chun, Li, Yanyan, Li, Yihui, Wu, Hequan, Jiang, Binhui, Zhu, Feng
Application of DFSS for Optimizing Thermal Protection in Electric Vehicles during Battery Thermal Runaway Events2026-01-01424/7/2026
Battery thermal runaway is a major safety concern in electric vehicles because of the extreme heat and hazardous gases released during cell failure. These venting events can quickly raise the temperature of the battery enclosure and cabin floor, threatening occupant safety. To address this challenge, this study employs the Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) methodology to design and optimize a thermal protection system that delays and limits heat transfer to the cabin. A physics-based transient heat-transfer model was combined with DFSS principles to systematically evaluate insulation materials, shield layouts, surface emissivity, and layer geometry. An L-18 orthogonal array was used to identify key parameters and quantify their influence on thermal robustness. The optimized architecture reduced cabin-floor temperature rise under severe runaway conditions (600–900 °C vent gas), meeting occupant-egress safety requirements. Findings confirm DFSS as an effective framework for developing high
El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Asar, Mona, Taha, Nahla, Sheta, Mai
Enhanced CAE Methodology to Predict Bolt Shear Failure Using Multi-Layer Approach2026-01-04894/7/2026
Automotive seat system is one of the most complex systems in vehicle for its technical and functional requirements. Seat is designed to meet all regulatory requirements subjecting it to multiple tests with loading patterns which caters to the occupant safety. Varied loading and load path for different test requirements cause seat bolts to experience tensile, compressive, bending moments and shear loading. Shearing along bolt length is one of the common failure modes observed during design validation by physical tests. In the world of CAE, there is an industry approach to find the bolt failures at nut and head for all kind of loads. But shear failures along varied bolt lengths are not accurately predictable as multiple sheet metal parts will transfer loads unevenly onto bolt length and it becomes challenge to find which component is leading to shear failure. Hence by adding multiple rupture layers across the bolt length shear and its location could be predicted. Further, to resolve the
RJ, Jethendra, Chiu, Li-Ban
Statistical Assessment of Pretensioner and Load Limiter Effects on the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD Response in Frontal Impacts2026-01-05504/7/2026
Enhancing child occupant protection requires a clear understanding of how seatbelt restraint parameters influence crash injury metrics. Real-world vehicles mostly include pretensioner and load limiter technologies to mitigate injuries, but rear seat restraints often do not include these. The FMVSS No. 213 test bench closely represents current restraint systems but does not involve such active vehicle restraint features. This study explores the response of the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD to evaluate potential injury mitigation under FMVSS No. 213 frontal sled test conditions. A simulation-based full factorial design was implemented in LS-DYNA to vary pretensioner retraction, retractor load-limiting thresholds, and webbing payout, with injury measures including head acceleration, head excursion, chest compression, and abdominal pressure twin sensors (APTS). Statistical evaluation using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer post-hoc tests quantified main and interaction
Khattak, Mohid Muneeb, Bendig, Colleen, Louden, Allison, Noll, Scott
Aircraft Tow BarARP1915E (Current)2/12/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) specifies dimensional and physical requirements of tow bar connections to tractor and aircraft (see Figure 1). It is applicable to all types of commercial transport category aircraft tow bar. The purpose of this SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) is to standardize tow bar attachments to airplane and tractor according to the mass category of the towed aircraft, so that one tow bar head with different shear levels can be used for all aircraft that are within the same mass category and are manufactured in compliance with AS1614 or ISO 8267.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Crashworthiness of WC19 Wheelchairs in Horizontal Dynamic Aircraft Seating Tests09-14-02-00011/23/2026
At present, commercial air travel rules do not allow people to sit in their own wheelchairs during flight. However, airline seating often does not meet medical needs. In response to current requests to allow this seating option, we researched the crashworthiness and safety of wheelchairs for potential use in aircraft. For motor vehicle travel, many wheelchairs meet voluntary standards for crashworthiness and safety per RESNA WC19. This project assesses whether WC19-compliant wheelchairs can meet FAA aircraft seating standards when secured using 4-point tiedowns. For the FAA horizontal impact testing, computer modeling indicated that a trapezoidal sled pulse was sufficient to represent the more typical triangular pulse, and that due to the flexibility of the tiedown webbing, the effect of the simulated pitch/roll element was minimal. During the initial two horizontal impact tests, fracture of the left front wheelchair caster was observed. The remaining five wheelchairs were tested with
Klinich, Kathleen D., Manary, Miriam A., Boyle, Kyle J., Vallier, Tyler, Orton, Nichole R.
Crash Pulse Characterization for the Passenger Vehicle Fleet in India2026-26-00291/16/2026
A crash pulse is the signature of the deceleration experienced by a vehicle and its occupants during a crash. The deceleration-time plot or crash pulse provides key insights into occupant kinematics, occupant restraints, occupant loading and efficiency of the structure in crash energy dissipation. Analysing crash pulse characteristics like shape, slope, maximum deceleration, and duration helps in understanding the impact of the crash on occupant safety and vehicle crashworthiness. This paper represents the crash pulse characterization study done for the vehicles tested at ARAI as per the ODB64 test protocol. Firstly, the classification and characterization of the crash pulses is done on the basis of the unladen masses of the vehicles. The same are further analysed for suitability of mathematical waveform models such as Equivalent Square Wave (ESW), Equivalent Triangular Wave (ETW), Equivalent Sine Wave (ESW), Equivalent Haversine Wave (EHSW) as well as EDTW (Equivalent dual trapezia
Mishra, Satish, Kulkarni, Dileep, Borse, Tanmay, Mahindrakar, Rahula Ashok, Mahajan, Rahul, Jaju, Divyan
Integrated Evaluation of Pre-Crash Braking and Crash Injury Outcomes Using Human Body Models and ATDs2026-26-00191/16/2026
Traditionally, occupant safety research has centered on passive safety systems such as seatbelts, airbags, and energy-absorbing vehicle structures, all designed under the assumption of a nominal occupant posture at the moment of impact. However, with increasing deployment of active safety technologies such as Forward Collision Warning (FCW) and Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB), vehicle occupants are exposed to pre-crash decelerations that alter their seated position before the crash. Although AEB mitigates the crash severity, the induced occupant movement leads to out-of-position behavior (OOP), compromising the available survival space phase and effectiveness of passive restraint systems during the crash. Despite these evolving real-world conditions, global regulatory bodies and NCAP programs continue to evaluate pre-crash and crash phases independently, with limited integration. Moreover, traditional Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) such as Hybrid III dummies, although highly
Pendurthi, Chaitanya Sagar, THANIGAIVEL RAJA, T, Kondala, Hareesh, Sudarshan, B.Sudarshan, Nehe, Vaibhav, Rao, Guruprakash
Influence of Impact Configuration on Rear Compartment Intrusion and Structural Countermeasures2026-26-04621/16/2026
The impact configuration has a strong influence on the rear seat survival space intrusion pattern during severe rear-impact collisions. The relative contributions of rear seat pan forward intrusion versus rear seatback intrusion vary depending on the nature of the crash. In underride impacts, the rear wheels are pushed forward into the occupant survival space from below, causing the rear seat-pan to move forward and upward relative to the vehicle interior. Conversely, override impacts tend to produce direct seatback intrusion into the rear compartment. This study used a validated computer model from the NHTSA website to simulate various types of rear compartment intrusions under different impact configurations. The analysis also assessed structural countermeasures designed to minimize occupant survival space intrusion. The results demonstrate that underride impacts primarily drive the forward motion of the rear wheels into the structure, establishing load paths that lead to structural
Thorbole, Chandrashekhar, Vhanaje, Manoj G, Eknath Chopade, Santosh
Achieving Robust Sensing Performance for Six-Airbag Systems: Design Approaches and Validation Techniques for Side Sensing2026-26-00301/16/2026
The proposal of GSR 16(E) in India promotes six airbags in passenger vehicles, aiming to enhance occupant safety. In parallel, the new Bharat New Car Assessment Program (BNCAP) outlines performance protocols that demand robust airbag deployment strategies to achieve a five-star safety rating. One of the critical challenges in meeting both regulatory and consumer safety expectations is the optimal packaging of the airbag Electronic Control Unit (ECU) and its associated impact sensors. These must perform reliably across regulatory tests, BNCAP protocols, and real-world accident scenarios. The location of side acceleration ‘g’ side impact sensors—whether mounted on the side sill, B-pillar, C-pillar, or door structures—is pivotal to achieving consistent and timely side airbag deployment. These sensors must also demonstrate immunity to false triggers or missed events in both static and dynamic misuse and abuse conditions. Ensuring robust sensor performance under these varied conditions is
Kudale, Shailesh, Rao, Guruprakash, wayal, Virendra, Goswami, Tarun
Adaptive Restraints for Equitable Protection2026-26-00151/16/2026
Real-world crashes involve diverse occupants, but traditional restraint systems are designed for a limited range of body types considering the applicable regulations and protocols. While conventional restraints are effective for homogeneous occupant profiles, these systems often underperform in real-world scenarios with diverse demographics, including variations in age, gender, and body morphology. This study addresses this critical gap by evaluating adaptive restraint systems aligned with the forthcoming EURO NCAP 2026 protocols, which emphasize real-world crash diversity and occupant type. Through digital studies of frontal impact scenarios, we analyze biomechanical responses using adaptive restraints across varied occupant demographics, focusing on head and chest injury (e.g., Chest Compression Criterion [CC]). This study used a Design of Experiments (DOE) approach to optimize occupant protection by timing the actuating of these adaptive systems. The results indicate that activating
satija, Anshul, Suryawanshi, Yuvraj, Chavan, Avinash, Rao, Guruprakash
Multi-Material Front Structures: A Pathway to Safer and More Sustainable Vehicle Design2026-26-04561/16/2026
Frontal crash structures play a vital role in occupant safety, but traditional designs often involve a trade-off between structural strength and weight efficiency. In the pursuit of safer and more sustainable mobility, this study explores a physics-based methodology that leverages the principle of dynamic equilibrium to guide the integration of dissimilar materials in front-end vehicle structures. Specifically, examined a novel configuration wherein aluminum High-pressure die cast (single HPDC part) is introduced which covers swan neck region as well as the base of the front longitudinal member, while retaining steel in the frontal crush zone. This arrangement aims to redistribute crash loads and control deformation mechanisms, enabling improved energy absorption without compromising structural integrity. To evaluate the proposed strategy, a series of detailed finite element simulations were conducted using LS-DYNA, a widely adopted tool for vehicle crash analysis. The results reveal
Revanth, Goshika, Bhagat, Milind, Joshi, Vikas, Mankhair, Abhijit, Sudarshan, B.Sudarshan, Kollipara, Jahanavi
Safer Trucks for India: Smart Tech Fusion2026-26-00311/16/2026
Commercial vehicle sector (especially trucks) has a major role in economic growth of a nation. With improving infrastructure, increasing number of trucks on roads, accidents are also increasing. As per RASSI (Road Accident Sampling System India) FY2016-23 database, commercial vehicles are involved in 42% of total accidents on Indian roads. Involvement of trucks (N2 & N3) is over 25% of total accidents. Amongst all accident scenarios of N2 &N3, frontal impacts are the most frequent (26%) and causing severe occupant injuries. Today, truck safety development for frontal impact is based on passive safety regulations (viz. front pendulum – AIS029) and basic safety features like seatbelts. In any truck accident, it is challenging rather impossible to manage comprehensive safety only with passive safety systems due to size and weight. Accident prevention becomes imperative in truck safety development due to extremely high energy involved in front impact scenarios. The paper presents a unique
Joshi, Kedar Shrikant, Gadekar, Ganesh, Date, Atul, Koralla, Sivaprasad
Characterization and Material Card Calibration of PU Foam Under Various Strain Rates for Crash Simulation2026-26-04641/16/2026
PU foam shows a excellent energy absorbing dissipation properties during impact load so it commonly used in car seats, cabin and crash protection system. Specifically, in vehicle seats PU foams play a critical role in protecting occupants during crash scenarios by absorbing energy, distributing forces, and improving seatbelt performance, additionally providing countermeasures for head impact protection. The movement of the seat and the direction of the force during crash testing are highly unpredictable. The material behaviour of PU foam is captured using an isotropic, hyper-elasticity-based constitutive model available in LS-DYNA through MAT_083. This model is designed to take into account the foam's compressibility, sensitivity to strain rates, low Poisson's ratio, and hysteresis. The characterization of a PU foam with a nominal density of 65 kg/m3 was performed using quasi-static compressive testing of 0.01/s and dynamic compressive testing of 1/s,13/s, 120/s, as well as a quasi
Gaurav, Ashish Kumar, Krishnamoorthy, Kunju, Varatharajan, Senthilkumaran
Rear-Facing Infant Seat Structural Integrity and Crashworthiness under Front Seatback Loading in Rear-Impact Collisions2026-26-05541/16/2026
Rear-facing infant seats that are positioned behind front outboard vehicle seats are at risk of being compromised by the rearward yielding of occupied front seat seatbacks during rear-impact collisions. This movement can cause the plastic shell of the infant seat to collapse and deform, increasing the risk of head injuries to the infant. Current designs of rear-facing infant seats typically do not consider the loading effects from the front seatback during rear-impact situations, which results in weak and collapsible shell structures. Moreover, regulatory compliance tests, such as FMVSS 213, do not include assessments of rear-facing infant seats under realistic rear-impact conditions. as the bench used for the regulatory test lacks realistic vehicle interior components. This study emphasizes the need for revised testing methodologies that employ sled tests with realistic seatback intrusion conditions to facilitate the development of improved infant seat designs. Research shows that
Thorbole, Chandrashekhar
Investigating Pelvic Locking and Torso Kinematics Using Human Body Models in Frontal Impact Scenarios2026-26-00021/16/2026
Occupant Safety systems are usually developed using anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs), such as the Hybrid III, THOR-50M, ES-2, and WorldSID. However, in compliance with NCAP and regulatory guidelines, these ATDs are designed for specific crash scenarios, typically frontal and side impacts involving upright occupants. As vehicles evolve (e.g., autonomous layouts, diverse occupant populations), ATDs are proving increasingly inadequate for capturing real-world injury mechanisms. This has led to the adoption of computational Human Body Models (HBMs), such as the Global Human Body Models Consortium (GHBMC) and Total Human Model for Safety (THUMS), which offer superior anatomical fidelity, variable anthropometry, active muscle behaviour modelling, and improved postural flexibility. HBMs can predict internal injuries that ATDs cannot, making them valuable tools for future vehicle safety development. This study uses a sled CAE simulation environment to analyze the kinematics of the HBMs
Raj, Pavan, Rao, Guruprakash, Pendurthi, Chaitanya Sagar, Nehe, Vaibhav, Chavan, Avinash
Geometrical Assessment of the Curtain Airbag Coverage in Indian Passenger Vehicles2026-26-00211/16/2026
Curtain airbags are the most effective protective systems to prevent severe/fatal head injuries in side collisions with narrow objects such as poles or trees. One of the important parameters of curtain airbags is the inflated zone i.e. the coverage area of the airbag, which decides the extent of head protection for occupants with different anthropometries in different seating rows. EuroNCAP first introduced the concept of Head Protection Device Assessment (HPDA) in 2015., In addition to the performance requirements in the dynamic test, EuroNCAP started assessing the deployed curtain airbag/s for its area coverage and verification of inflated zones for various anthropometries over occupant rows. In India, there is now a near total adoption of curtain airbags as standard fitment by the OEMs. Further, introduction of Bharat NCAP (BNCAP), a Perpendicular Pole Side Impact test is conducted for assessing the effectiveness of curtain airbags in a dynamic test, but currently, does not perform
Jaju, Divyan, Kulkarni, Dileep, Mahajan, Rahul
Experimental Evaluation of High Energy Impact Test of Wheel Rim2026-26-05041/16/2026
High energy impact testing using free fall mass is a crucial method for evaluating the structural integrity, and safety performance of automotive components subjected to sudden impact forces. This study focuses on assessing critical parts such as wheel rims, suspension knuckles, commonly exposed to unintentional impacts during vehicle operation, maintenance, or collisions. The test involves dropping a standardized mass from predetermined heights onto the component to simulate real-world impact scenarios. Key performance indicators include deformation, crack propagation, fracture resistance, and energy absorption capacity. Wheel rims and knuckles are evaluated for their ability to maintain structural integrity under localized impact without compromising vehicle handling or safety. Seats and related interior structures are tested to ensure occupant protection during crash-like events. Other components, such as brackets, mounts, or housings, are included based on functional criticality
Roham, Prasad, Bagade, Mohan, Sinnarkar, Nitin, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram
Real-Time Helmet Detection and Closed-Loop Enforcement System for Two Wheelers2026-26-06501/16/2026
Asian countries capture a significant share of global two-wheeler usage, with India consistently ranking among the top three countries. 2 wheelers are a significant portion of road traffic and contribute heavily to the national burden of road fatalities. Despite regulatory mandates, helmet non-compliance remains widespread due to limited enforcement reach and behavioural inertia. The current strategies for enforcement, such as traffic policing or external camera-based surveillance, are reactive, infrastructure-dependent, are ineffective at scale. To address these limitations, we propose system that will detect if the user is wearing the helmet. The system is designed and packaged to be integrated into the 2-wheeler directly and then execute functions in real-time for helmet noncompliance. The software algorithm is an AI-powered, vision-based system that leverages deep learning techniques for helmet detection. This model is enforced with a custombuilt dataset accommodating cultural and
Kandimalla, Om Mahalakshmi, Shah, Ravindra, Karle, Ujjwala
Enhancing EV Battery Safety: Progressive Crushing and Energy Absorption Technique2026-26-01891/16/2026
A crash energy absorption technique and method improve the safety and structural integrity of electric vehicle battery packs during collisions, complying with global regulations. This analysis details an assembly featuring a battery housing for mounting battery cells, a crash member connected to the battery housing's periphery, and flexural members linked to the crash member. The flexural members are designed to absorb impact forces by deforming and storing potential energy during sudden impacts. This approach ensures energy is stored within the flexural elements and then transferred to the battery cells through progressive crushing. The design effectively delays intrusion, enhances battery safety, and minimizes cell-level damage. This solution improves occupant safety and prevents thermal runaway incidents while maintaining the battery's overall performance and reliability in EVs.
Amberkar S, Sunil, Lakshman singh, Meenakumari, Bodaindala, Anil Kumar
Enhancing Energy Absorption in Rear Impact Events through Rail Extension Design and Material Variations2025-36-009612/18/2025
Safety improvements in vehicle crashworthiness remain a primary concern for automotive manufacturers due to the increasing complexity of traffic and the rising number of vehicles on roads globally. Enhancing structural integrity and energy absorption capabilities during collisions is paramount for passenger protection. In this context, longitudinal rails play a critical role in vehicle crashworthiness, particularly in mitigating the effects of rear collisions. This study evaluates the structural performance of a rear longitudinal rail extender, characterized by a U-shaped, asymmetric cross-section, subjected to rear-impact scenarios. Seventy-two finite-element models were systematically developed from a baseline configuration, exploring variations in material yield conditions, sheet thickness, and targeted geometric modifications, including deformation initiators at three distinct positions or maintaining the original geometry. Each model was simulated according to ECE R32 regulation
Souza Coelho Freitas, Victor de, Pereira, Romulo Franco, Souza, Daniel Souto de
Impact of Harness Integrated Crash RestraintsF-0081-2025-02705/20/2025
ABSTRACT The Crashworthy and Escape Systems Branch at NAWCAD has been developing an integrated restraint harness concept for several years, with the intent of developing a novel method of providing improved occupant protection in a crash scenario. A series of tests was conducted on the Horizontal Accelerator at NAS Patuxent River to evaluate the performance of the prototype integrated-restraint system under MIL-STD-58095 conditions with the 50th percentile male Hybrid III Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD). While occupant flail was the primary metric being analyzed in this effort, ATD instrumentation was also captured, showing that the integrated restraint system demonstrated a significant reduction in head flail compared to five-point restraints while maintaining injury criteria within acceptable levels.
Anderson, Eric, Minnich, Shannon
Evaluation of Occupant Injury Risk in a Transport Aircraft Crash Test Environment02-18-02-00115/16/2025
Researchers at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center (LaRC) previously conducted a full-scale crash test of a Fokker F28 MK1000 aircraft to study occupant injury risks. The goal of the current study was to investigate the injury predictions of the Global Human Body Models Consortium (GHBMC) and Total Human Model for Safety (THUMS) occupant models in the tested aircraft crash condition and explore possible utilization of both human body models (HBMs) in this context. Eight crash conditions were simulated utilizing each of the models. The HBMs were positioned in two postures, a neutral upright posture with hands resting on the legs and feet contacting the floor and a braced posture with head and hand contact with the forward seat back. Head and neck injury metrics and lumbar vertebra axial force were calculated and compared for all simulations. Both HBMs reported similar kinematic responses in the simulated impact conditions. However, the GHBMC
Jones, Nathaniel, Putnam, Jacob, Untaroiu, Costin Daniel
Solving Vehicle Speed and Acceleration from Video Evidence Using Optimization2025-01-86834/1/2025
This paper introduces a method to solve the instantaneous speed and acceleration of a vehicle from one or more sources of video evidence by using optimization to determine the best fit speed profile that tracks the measured path of a vehicle through a scene. Mathematical optimization is the process of seeking the variables that drive an objective function to some optimal value, usually a minimum, subject to constraints on the variables. In the video analysis problem, the analyst is seeking a speed profile that tracks measured vehicle positions over time. Measured positions and observations in the video constrain the vehicle’s motion and can be used to determine the vehicle’s instantaneous speed and acceleration. The variables are the vehicle’s initial speed and an unknown number of periods of approximately constant acceleration. Optimization can be used to determine the speed profile that minimizes the total error between the vehicle’s calculated distance traveled at each measured
Snyder, Sean, Callahan, Michael, Wilhelm, Christopher, Johnk, Chris, Lowi, Alvin, Bretting, Gerald
Design of an Integrated Crash Safety Test Scenario: Rear-End Collision in SUBSEQUENCE of Emergency Braking2025-01-87474/1/2025
The integrated vehicle crash safety design provides longer pre-crash preparation time and design space for the in-crash occupant protection. However, the occupant’s out-of-position displacement caused by vehicle’s pre-crash emergency braking also poses challenges to the conventional restraint system. Despite the long-term promotion of integrated restraint patterns by the vehicle manufacturers, safety regulations and assessment protocols still basically focus on traditional standard crash scenarios. More integrated crash safety test scenarios and testing methods need to be developed. In this study, a sled test scenario representing a moderate rear-end collision in subsequence of emergency braking was designed and conducted. The bio-fidelity of the BioRID II ATD during the emergency braking phase is preliminarily discussed and validated through comparison with a volunteer test. The final forward out-of-position displacement of the BioRID II ATD falls within the range of volunteer
Fei, Jing, Wang, Peifeng, Qiu, Hang, Liu, Yu, Shen, Jiajie, Cheng, James Chih, Zhou, Qing, Tan, Puyuan
Application of 1.7GPa Martensitic Steel in Dash Lower Cross Member to Enhance Automotive Frontal Impact Safety2025-01-82184/1/2025
The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to a significant increase in vehicle mass due to the integration of large and heavy battery systems. This increase in mass has raised concerns about collision energy and the associated risks, particularly in high-speed impacts. As a consequence, crashworthiness evaluations, especially front-impact regulations, have become increasingly stringent. Crash speed between the vehicle and the Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier (MPDB) is increasing, reflecting the growing emphasis on safety in the automotive industry. Moreover, a new frontal pole crash scenario is under consideration for future regulatory standards, highlighting the continuous evolution of crash testing protocols. To ensure occupant protection and battery safety, manufacturers have traditionally used Hot Blow Forming technology for producing closed-loop dash lower cross member components. However, this process is both costly and energy-intensive, necessitating more
Lee, Jongmin, Kim, Donghyun, Jang, Minho, Kim, Geunho, Seongho, Yoo, Kim, Kyu-Rae
Examination of the Data Structures of the Bendix® Data Recorder2025-01-87124/1/2025
Bendix® EC-80™ and certain EC-60™ ABS control units contain an event data recorder called the Bendix® Data Recorder (BDR). Raw BDR data is obtained using commercially available software, however, the translation of the raw data into an event report has only been performed by the manufacturer. In this paper, the raw data structures of the commercially available datasets are examined. It is demonstrated that the data follows uniform and repeatable patterns. The raw BDR data is converted into a conventional report and then validated against translation reports performed by the manufacturer. The techniques outlined in this research allow investigators to access and analyze BDR records independently of the manufacturer and in a way previously not possible.
DiSogra, Matthew, Hirsch, Jeffrey, Yeakley, Adam
Analysis of the Event Data Recorder Vehicle System Data of a GM Vehicle Intelligence Platform Airbag Control Module (SDM50)2025-01-87144/1/2025
The primary function of an Airbag Control Module (ACM), referred to as the Sensing and Diagnostic Module (SDM) by General Motors (GM), is to detect crashes, discriminate crashes, evaluate crash severities, deploy the appropriate restraints, including airbags and pretensioners, and perform system diagnostics. A secondary function of the SDM is to act as an Event Data Recorder (EDR) which records data during the time periods just prior to (pre-crash) and during a crash event. This data consists of restraint and vehicle system data which is collected, processed, and stored in the EDR. Data stored in the EDR is intended to be retrieved after a crash. This data provides operational information on the vehicle’s occupant protection system and other vehicle systems to assess system performance, aid in crash reconstruction, and support improved vehicle safety. A series of vehicle test maneuvers were conducted while injecting a non-deployment crash pulse directly into the SDM to cause the SDM to
Smyth, Brian, Crosby, Charles L, Bickhaus, Ryan, Smith, James, Edmunds, Dustin, Floyd, Donald, Modi, Vipul, Outlaw, RaShawndra D., Wright, Jeff
Analysis of Occupants' Responses in Frontal Sled Tests under a Reclined Rigid Seat Environment2025-01-87344/1/2025
With the increasing adoption of Zero-Gravity Seats in intelligent cockpits, there is a growing concern over the safety of occupants in reclined postures during collisions. The newly released anthropomorphic test device (ATD), THOR-AV, has modified the neck, spine, and pelvis structures to better match reclined postures. This study aims to investigate the changes in kinematic response and injury metrics for occupants in reclined postures, through high-speed frontal sled tests utilizing the THOR-AV. The tests were conducted using an adjustable rigid seat with a zero-gravity characteristic and an integrated three-point seat belt. Six tests were performed across four seat configurations: Standard, Semi-Reclined, Reclined, and Zero-gravity postures. The input acceleration pulse for these tests was derived from the equivalent double trapezoidal waveform of the Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier (MPDB) test. Data from sensors and high-speed video were collected for analysis. The results
Wang, Qiang, Liu, Yu, Fei, Jing, Yang, Xiaoting, Wang, Peifeng, Bai, Zhonghao
A Chronology of Research and Events to-Date Significant to Occupant Protection in Rear-End Automobile Impacts2025-01-87254/1/2025
Theory and principles of occupant protection for automobiles in rear-end collisions have experienced significant evolution over the decades. Performance of the seatback, specifically the stiffness of the structure, during such a collision has been a subject of particular interest and debate among design engineers, accident reconstruction experts, critics, etc. The majority of current seat designs rely on plastic deformation of the seatback structure to protect the occupant from the dynamics of the crash. In attempt to highlight and provide background information for understanding this subject, this work highlights significant events, research, and publications over the past five decades to illustrate how this subject, automobile design, government regulation and public opinion has evolved. It is observed that technology and design for improving rear-impact protection has received less attention than collisions of other principal directions of force. The different types of
Warner, Wyatt
Load Cell Data Analysis from Frontal NCAP Tests to Assess Aggressivity and Compatibility of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles2025-01-87464/1/2025
A total of 368 frontal New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) tests (including 24 tests with Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)) with high-resolution load cell data were analyzed to investigate vehicle crash compatibility, especially between Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) and BEVs. An Indirect Frontal Crash Model (IFCM) for Full-Overlap (FO) Vehicle-to-Moving Deformable Barrier (V2MDB) using load cell data from frontal NCAP tests was developed to assess vehicle aggressivity. An analytical solution of the IFCM for FO/V2MDB was obtained and used to develop a new aggressivity metric. In addition, the Max. Standard Deviation (SD) of load cell forces was used to assess vehicle front-end homogeneity. In the case studies, vehicle compatibility was assessed by the new aggressivity metric and Max. SD, along with typical frontal crash metrics.
Park, Chung-Kyu
The Influence of Reclined Seatback Angles on Occupant Injury Risks in Frontal Impacts2025-01-87324/1/2025
The reclined seatbacks will be increasingly used with the advanced technologies of the intelligent automobile. The occupant collision protection must rise to the challenge facing to the new impact scenarios. It is necessary to understand the injury mechanisms of the reclined occupants in order to design the resistant system and testing protection regulations. In this study, simulation tests were conducted for the Frontal Full Width Impact (FRB) and the Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier Frontal Impact (MPDB) as specified in the China New Car Assessment Programme (C-NCAP, 2021 version). The simulation used the biomechanical model of the 5th female occupant exhibiting the detailed anatomical structures and a seat model with large-angle seatback. The occupant injury risks and mechanisms with 25°, 45° and 60° seating postures were investigated by analyzing the kinematic and biomechanical parameters, and the influence of the seatback angle on occupant injury was discussed. The results
Wang, Yanxin, Pan, Ruyang, Lin, Yuyang, Liu, Yutao, He, Lijuan, Wang, Zhenqiang, zhu, he, Liu, Chong, Li, Kun, Lv, Wenle
Machine Learning-Enabled Optimization of Vehicle Restraint Systems – Demonstration in a Real-World Crash Scenario2025-01-87224/1/2025
Vehicle restraint systems, such as seat belts and airbags, play a crucial role in managing crash energy and protecting occupants during vehicle crashes. Designing an effective restraint system for a diverse population is a complex task. This study demonstrates the practical implementation of state-of-the-art Machine Learning (ML) techniques to optimize vehicle restraint systems and improve occupant safety. An ML-based surrogate model was developed using a small Design of Experiments (DOE) dataset from finite element human body model simulations and was employed to optimize a vehicle restraint system. The performance of the ML-optimized restraint system was compared to the baseline design in a real-world crash scenario. The ML-based optimization showed potential for further enhancement in occupant safety over the baseline design, specifically for small-female occupant. The optimized design reduced the joint injury probability for small female passenger from 0.274 to 0.224 in the US NCAP
Lalwala, Mitesh, Lin, Chin-Hsu, Desai, Megha, Rao, Shishir
Development and Validation of a Rear Head Surround Foam Performance Specification for Stock Car Racing2025-01-83534/1/2025
Over the last two decades many improvements have been made in stock car racing driver safety. One of these is the head surround, which is rigidly secured to and an integral part of the NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, LLC) seating environment and serves as an effective restraint for head protection during lateral and rear impacts. However, previous head impact material specifications were optimized for moderate to severe impacts and did not address low severity impacts that occur frequently during typical driving, such as race restart vehicle nose-to-tail contact. This study focused on developing a test methodology for comprehensive evaluation of rear head surround materials for low, moderate and severe impacts. Specifically, this study aimed to formulate a specification that maintains previous material performance during high speed impacts, while decreasing head accelerations at low speed impacts. Quasi-static and dynamic drop tower testing of sample materials
Gray, Alexandra N., Harper, Matthew G., Mukherjee, Sayak, Patalak, John P., Gaewsky, James
Comprehensive Injury Assessment of Reclined Occupants across Varied Seat Configurations with the THUMS Human Body Model2025-01-87394/1/2025
The development of autonomous driving technology will liberate the space in the car and bring more possibilities of comfortable and diverse sitting postures to passengers, but the collision safety problem cannot be ignored. The aim of this study is to investigate the changes of injury pattern and loading mechanism of occupants under various reclined postures. A highly rotatable rigid seat and an integrated three-point seat belt were used, with a 23g, 50kph input pulse. Firstly, the sled test and simulation using THOR-AV in a reclined posture were conducted, and the sled model was verified effective. Based on the sled model, the latest human body model, THUMS v7, was used for collision simulation. By changing the angle of seatback and seat pan, 5 seat configurations were designed. Through the calculation of the volunteers' pose regression function, the initial position of THUMS body parts in different seat configurations was determined. The responses of human body parts were output
Yang, Xiaoting, Wang, Qiang, Liu, Yu, Fei, Jing, Wang, Peifeng, Li, Zhen, Bai, Zhonghao
Assessment of Injuries in Rear Impacts2025-01-87274/1/2025
Rear impacts make up a significant portion of crashes in the United States. To date, regulations on rear impacts have focused on fuel system integrity and seat performance, while most research has focused on seat performance in relation to occupants’ injuries, with some analyses of crash severity and seat belt effects. The performance of seats and seat belts may vary depending on the size of the occupant. Understanding how occupant characteristics, as well as crash scenarios, affect injury outcomes can show opportunities for further enhancements in rear impact occupant protection. This paper presents analyses using survey weighted logistic regression models to understand the factors affecting serious injury outcomes (i.e., MAIS 3+) in rear impacts, exploring the potential for improving occupant outcomes. Three separate models are evaluated, focusing on 1) overall injury level, 2) head, neck, and cervical-spine injuries, and 3) thorax, abdomen, thoracic- and lumbar-spine injuries for
Greib, Joshua, Jurkiw, Renee, Kryzaniwskyj, Tanja, Owen, Susan, Van Rooyen, Paul, Whelan, Stacey, Williamson, John
Exploring Hybrid TPMS Designs for Improved Energy Absorption2025-01-87264/1/2025
Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) structures have gained significant attention in recent years due to their excellent mechanical properties, lightweight characteristics, and potential for energy absorption in various engineering applications, particularly in automotive safety. This study explores the design, manufacturing, and mechanical performance of both general and hybrid TPMS structures for energy absorption. Three types of fundamental TPMS unit cells—Primitive, Gyroid, and IWP—were modeled using implicit functions and combined to form hybrid structures. The hybrid designs were optimized by employing Sigmoid functions to achieve smooth transitions between different unit cells. The TPMS structures were fabricated using Selective Laser Melting (SLM) technology with 316L stainless steel and subjected to quasi-static compression tests. Numerical simulations were conducted using finite element methods to verify the experimental results. The findings indicate that hybrid TPMS
Liu, Zhe, Wang, MingJie, Guo, Pengbo, Li, Youguang, Lian, Yuehui, Zhong, Gaoshuo
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