Browse Topic: Drivetrains

Items (1,808)

Coupled Lateral-Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics Modeling to Predict the Loads Experienced by Side Gears in the Differentials

2025-01-8519

04/01/2025

Lumped parameter vehicle dynamics models are generally used in early design and development of vehicles due to simplicity and computational efficiency. In the literature, these models are generally divided into longitudinal, lateral, and vertical dynamics. Most of these formulations are limited to bicycle models with the vehicle represented as a lumped mass but seldomly coupled lateral-longitudinal lumped parameter models are proposed. In this paper, a coupled lateral-longitudinal lumped parameter model is developed that can be used to investigate the loads (torque & speed) experienced by the side gears in the differential. Side gears are connected to the left and right wheels through half shafts (axle shafts) and are in-mesh with pinion gears as part of a differential assembly. The differential experiences torque loading during all driving conditions but the pinion gear starts to rotate (mesh with side gears) when there is speed difference left to right (turning, split-mu, gravel, off

Sondkar, Prashant, Karra, Anudeep, Sandhu, Jaspal, Fischer, Charles

Fixture Stiffness Impact on Spindle Coupled Multi-Axial Input Durability Test for Front or Rear Axle with Non-isolated Subframes

2025-01-8256

04/01/2025

The half vehicle spindle-coupled multi-axial input durability test has been broadly used in the laboratory to evaluate the fatigue performance of the vehicle chassis systems by automotive suppliers and OEMs. In the lab, the front or rear axle assembly is usually held by fixtures at the interfaces where it originally connects to the vehicle body. The fixture stiffness is vital for the laboratory test to best replicate the durability test in the field at a full vehicle level especially when the subframe of the front or rear axle is hard mounted to the vehicle body. In this work, a multi-flexible body dynamics (MFBD) model in Adams/Car was utilized to simulate a full vehicle field test over various road events (rough road, braking, steering). The wheel center loads were then used as inputs for the spindle coupled simulations of the front axle with a non-isolated subframe. Three types of fixtures including trimmed vehicle body, a rigid fixture with softer connections and a rigid fixture

Gao, Jianghua, Smith, Derek, Zhang, Xin, Yu, Xiao

A Steering Control Method Applicable to an Eight-Wheeled Planetary Laboratory

2025-01-8305

04/01/2025

In future planetary exploration missions, the Eight-Wheeled Planetary Laboratory (EWPL) will have sufficient capacity for tasks but will experience significant lateral slips during high-speed turns due to its large inertia. Modern technology allows for independent steering of all eight wheels, but controlling each wheel's steering angle is key to improving stability during turns. This paper introduces a novel rear-axle steering feed-forward controller to reduce sideslip. First, a mathematical model for the vehicle's steering is established, including kinematic equations based on Ackermann steering. Feed-forward zero side-slip control is applied to the third and fourth axles to counteract the side-slip angle of the center of mass. A multi-body dynamics model of the EWPL is then built in Chrono to evaluate the turning radius and optimize steering angle ratios for the rear axles. Finally, a steady-state cornering simulation on loose terrain compares the performance of the proposed

Liu, Jun, Zhang, Kaidi, Shi, Junwei, Yang, Wenmiao, Zhang, Yunqing, Wu, Jinglai

Bicycle Pitch-over Reconstruction Analysis

2025-01-8684

04/01/2025

During a pitch-over event, the forward momentum of the combined bicycle and rider is suddenly arrested causing the rider and bicycle to rotate about the front wheel and also possibly propelling the rider forward. This paper examines the pitch-over of a bicycle and rider using two methods different from previous approaches. One method uses Newton’s 2nd Law directly and the other method uses the principle of impulse and momentum, the integrated form of Newton’s 2nd Law. The two methods provide useful equations, contributing to current literature on the topic of reconstructing and analyzing bicycle pitch-over incidents. The analysis is supplemented with Madymo simulations to evaluate the kinematics and kinetics of the bicycle and rider interacting with front wheel obstructions of different heights. The effect of variables such as rider weight, rider coupling to the bicycle, bicycle speed, and obstruction height on resulting kinematics were evaluated. The analysis shows that a larger

Brach, R. Matthew, Kelley, Mireille, Van Poppel, Jon

A Torque Distribution Strategy for the Six-Wheeled Lunar Rover

2025-01-8308

04/01/2025

As a crucial tool for lunar exploration, lunar rovers are highly susceptible to instability due to the rugged lunar terrain, making control of driving stability essential during operation. This study focuses on a six-wheel lunar rover and develops a torque distribution strategy to improve the handling stability of the lunar rover. Based on a layered control structure, firstly, the approach establishes a two-degree-of-freedom single-track model with front and rear axle steering at the state reference layer to compute the desired yaw rate and mass center sideslip angle. Secondly, in the desired torque decision layer, a sliding mode control-based strategy is used to calculate the desired total driving torque. Thirdly, in the torque distribution layer, the optimal control distribution is adopted to carry out two initial distributions and redistribution of the drive torque planned by the upper layer, to improve the yaw stability of the six-wheeled lunar rover. Finally, a multi-body dynamics

Liu, Pengcheng, Zhang, Kaidi, Shi, Junwei, Yang, Wenmiao, Zhang, Yunqing, Wu, Jinglai

Systematic Design Considerations of Motor Selections for EV Powertrain Abstract

2025-01-8508

04/01/2025

As one of the most important design choices in the powertrain design cycle, motor selection is conventionally performed according to given automotive requirements. Motor-related powertrain design parameters like gear ratio, power output ratio between different axles, are excluded from the motor design process. In this paper, three comparative studies are performed to investigate the impact of these motor-related powertrain design parameters on the motor performance and the weight/cost/efficiency of the entire EV powertrain. In the first study, three PM motor designs—characterized by high, medium, and low rated speeds—will be assessed for a two-axle EV using various gear ratio configurations. The same motor design will be used for both axles. In the second study, five motor designs with varying power and ratings (PM, non-PM) but identical rated speeds will be evaluated for a two-axle EV, permitting different power ratings for the front and rear axles. The design trade-offs between motor

Movahed, Ehsan, Godbehere, Jonathan, Jia, Yijiang

Application of Model-Based Horizon Prediction to Enhance Control Algorithm Performance by Compensating for Time Delays in Automotive Drivelines

2025-01-8574

04/01/2025

Accurate estimation of crucial quantities in automotive drivetrain systems is essential for optimizing performance, durability, and emissions. However, the presence of time delays, arising from tasks scheduling and communication latency between control units, can significantly hinder the effectiveness of advance control algorithms. Closed-loop performance is often limited by the equivalent time delay between the control action command, its effect on the system, and the measurement of the reaction. Frequently, commands and measurements originate from different sources, requiring precise coordination to accurately estimate the driveline response. This paper presents a novel model-based approach that integrates Kalman filtering with horizon prediction techniques to effectively address time-delay compensation. By leveraging the descriptive capabilities of physics-based models, the proposed method enables to overcome synchronization misalignment between commands, actuations and measurements

Rostiti, Cristian, Patel, Nadirsh, Catkin, Bilal

Real-time Terrain Analysis for Off-road Autonomous Vehicles

2025-01-8343

04/01/2025

One challenge for autonomous vehicle (AV) control is the variation in road roughness which can lead to deviations from the intended course or loss of road contact while steering. The aim of this work is to develop a real-time road roughness estimation system using a Bayesian-based calibration routine that takes in axle accelerations from the vehicle and predicts the current road roughness of the terrain. The Bayesian-based calibration method has the advantage of providing posterior distributions and thus giving a quantifiable estimate of the confidence in the prediction that can be used to adjust the control algorithm based on desired risk posture. Within the calibration routine, a Gaussian process model is first used as a surrogate for a simulated half-vehicle model which takes vehicle velocity and road surface roughness (GD) to output the axle acceleration. Then the calibration step takes in the observed axle acceleration and vehicle velocity and calibrates the Gaussian process model

Lewis, Edwina, Parameshwaran, Aditya, Redmond, Laura, Wang, Yue

Comprehensive Gear Shift Schedule of Heavy-Duty Commercial Electric Trucks Based on Dual Axle Driving

2025-01-8510

04/01/2025

A heavy-duty commercial electric truck is equipped with dual axles, with the middle axle driven by an electric motor and a three-speed transmission and the rear axle driven by an electric motor and a two-speed transmission. To consider the dynamic and economy performance of the whole vehicle, as well as the gear distribution characteristics in the vehicle operation, a comprehensive shifting schedule based on the cross-particle swarm algorithm is proposed. By establishing the longitudinal dynamics model of the truck, the optimal power shift schedule and the optimal economics shift schedule of each of the two transmissions are studied. Under the standard test conditions, an optimal gear control strategy based on the dynamic programming algorithm considering the shift interval is proposed, and the shift schedule for the standard conditions is derived through the hierarchical clustering method. Furthermore, with 0-100 km/h acceleration capability and specific energy consumption as the

Guo, Jun, Zhang, Yunqing, Wu, Jinglai

Concept of an Electromechanical Brake-By-Wire System for Battery-Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8804

04/01/2025

Brake-by-wire systems have received more and more attention in the recent years, but a close look on the available systems shows, that they have not reached full by-wire level yet. Most systems are still using hydraulic connections between main cylinder and the brake calipers on at least one axle to ensure functional safety. Mostly, this is the front axle, since the front brakes have to convert more kinetic energy during braking manoeuvers. Electromechanical actuators are currently used for rear brakes in hybrid brake-by-wire applications solely, since a loss of the front brake calipers can lead to severe conditions and control loss of the vehicle during braking. Further, the higher mass of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) leads to much higher braking forces on both axles and to increased sizes of the electromechanical calipers. This article presents a concept for a brake-by-wire system for battery electric vehicles, which features electromechanical brake actuators on all corners and a

Heydrich, Marius, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin, Stoev, Julian, Lecoutere, Johan

Evaluation Method for the Impacts of Truck Platoons Lateral Control on Pavement Performance

2025-01-7152

02/21/2025

The introduction of autonomous truck platoons is expected to result in drastic changes in operational characteristics of freight shipments, which may in turn have significant impacts on efficiency, energy consumption, and infrastructure durability. Since the lateral positions of autonomous trucks traveling consecutively within a lane are fixed and similar (channelized traffic), such platooning operations are likely to accelerate damage accumulation within pavement structures. To further advance the application of truck platooning technology in various pavement environments, this study develops a flexible evaluation method to evaluate the impact of lateral arrangement within autonomous truck platoons on asphalt pavement performance. This method simplifies the impact of intermittent axle load applications along the driving direction within a platoon, supporting platoon controllers in directly evaluating pavement damage for different platoon configurations. Specifically, a truck platoon

Wenlu, Yu, Ye, Qin, Chen, Daoxie, Min, Yitong, Chen, Leilei

Definition and Measurement of Torque Biasing Differentials

J2817_202502 (Current)

02/08/2025

This SAE Recommended Practice covers passive torque biasing axle and center differentials used in passenger car and light truck applications. Differentials are of the bevel gear, helical gear, and planetary types, although other configurations are possible.

Drivetrain Standards Committee

Design and Development of Range Extended-Hybrid Power Train for Two-Wheeler

2025-28-0194

02/07/2025

Environmental awareness is being fostered in every sector, with particular emphasis on the automotive industry. Conventional internal combustion engines are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions and health issues. Researchers are looking for alternative technologies to reduce carbon footprint and for a green environment. In this study, electric drivetrain is designed for 20% range extension and retrofitted in conventional two-wheeler. An effective control technique has been developed, thoroughly tested, and effectively implemented on the two-wheeler. The hybrid drivetrain architecture is assessed for complexities such as the required space for the battery and the location for fitting the electric motor. During low-speed conditions, the electric motor reduced the emissions and minimized fuel consumption. Consequently, the overall utilization of internal combustion engines at low-speed conditions has decreased, leading to a decrease in the vehicle's fuel consumption and exhaust gases.

Banad, Chandrashekhar B, Devunuri, Suresh, Nair, Jayashri Narayanan, Hadagali, Balappa, Prasad, Gvl

Machining Studies on AISI 4140 Steel as Automotive Axle and Drive Shafts in Automobile via Numerical Simulation

2024-01-5232

12/10/2024

This study focuses on machining automobile parts such as drive shafts and axles made of low alloy steel AISI 4140. The influence of cutting inserts geometrical parameters, viz., relief angle (RIA), rake angle (RAA), and nose radius (NA) are studied by designing experiments using Taguchi’s methodology. Numerical simulation is conducted using DEFORM-2D; a suitable L9 orthogonal array (OA) is considered for this work for varying combinations of inputs, and the resultant cutting force, maximum principal stress, and tool life are determined. Adopting a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio minimizes the outputs for better machining conditions and achieves high-quality components with precision, tolerance, and accuracy. The ideal conditions obtained from the S/N ratio are RAA of 6°, RIA of 3°, and NR of 0.6 mm. Analysis of variance presents that the NR influences the resultant cutting force, wear depth, and work piece damage 73.51%, RAA following by 23.99%, and RIA by 2.03% achieved with a R2 value of

Senthilkumar, N.

Rear Twist Beam Optimization by Cross Beam and Bush Orientation Technique to Meet Performance Targets

2024-28-0269

12/05/2024

Born Electric SUVs generally feature a high centre of gravity (CG) with greater rear axle weight. They use sophisticated multi-link suspension, which offers large scope for ride comfort and handling optimisation. The development costs and time associated with the process will position the vehicle in a premium segment. Usually, the twist beam (RTB) is used in lower rear axle weight category vehicles due to its simple design and cost effectiveness. This study showcases exploration for implementation of RTB on higher weight category vehicles, which usually uses multi-link suspension. The limitation of the twist beam is to exhibit lateral force compliance oversteer during cornering, due to large moment arm from wheel centre to twist beam bush. Lack of lateral stiffness when compared to multi-link suspension causes delayed rear axle yaw response. It also has reduced scope in ride-handling optimization due to its simple structure and kinematics. So, in order to maximize the performance

Prabhakara Rao, Vageesh, Rasal, Shraddhesh, Asthana, Shivam, M, Sudhan, Vellandi, Vikraman

Electromagnetic Interference Measurement Study from Various Electric Drive Train

2024-28-0138

12/05/2024

The article presents radio frequency electromagnetic emission measurement results from a Vehicle semi-anechoic chamber (VSAC) with different electric drivetrains under loading conditions. The measurements are conducted based on AIS 004 part-3 and CISPR 12 standard guidelines in which radiated broadband emissions in the frequency range of 30 MHz to 1 GHz using quasi-peak detector is measured [1, 2, 3]. Categories of vehicles such as Two-wheeler and three-wheeler drivetrains are selected for this study. Typically, the measurements are done with no road loading condition as per standard recommendation. However, in this paper, we studied the effects of loading conditions with the help of a chassis dynamometer. The study examines and discusses how various vehicle architectures behave under different conditions.

Mulay, Abhijit B, M, Gokul, Patel, Jinay M

Honda pioneering new manufacturing tech for Zero electrified platform

24AUTP12_12

12/01/2024

Honda has long been at the cutting edge of mobility and tech, with everything from the Asimo robot of 20 years ago to plans for reusable rockets to launch lightweight satellites into orbit. During a Tech Day event in early October in Tochigi, Japan, the Japanese automaker announced further details of its upcoming Honda 0 architecture (Honda calls it “Honda Zero” but writes it with the number), its first in-house electric platform designed from the ground up. Honda also discussed some of the advanced manufacturing techniques it's pioneering to reach its core design and technology tenants.

Bassett, Abigail

Development and Experimental Validation of a Physics-Based Identification and Mitigation Strategy for Torsional Vibratory Behavior in Medium-Duty Commercial Vehicle Drivelines

02-18-01-0001

11/08/2024

Torsional vibration generated during operation of commercial vehicles can negatively affect the life of driveline components, including the transmission, driveshafts, and rear axle. Undesirable vibrations typically stem from off-specification parts, or excitation at one or more system resonant frequencies. The solution for the former involves getting the system components within specification. As for the latter, the solution involves avoiding excitation at resonance, or modifying the parameters to move the system’s resonant frequencies outside the range of operation through component changes that modify one, or more, component inertia, stiffness, or damping characteristics. One goal of the effort described in this article is to propose, and experimentally demonstrate, a physics-based gear-shifting algorithm that prevents excitation of the system’s resonant frequency if it lies in the vehicle’s range of operation. To guide that effort, analysis was conducted with a numerical simulation

Dhamankar, Shveta, Ali, Junaid, Parshall, Evan, Shaver, Gregory, Evans, John, Bajaj, Anil K.

Energy Efficiency Evaluation of a Hybrid Electric Tractor-Semi-Trailer Prototype

2024-01-4319

11/05/2024

The objective of the project was to evaluate the energy efficiency of a hybrid electric tractor-semi-trailer combination prototype. The prototype was developed for log hauling application by integrating an existing tractor with an electric semi-trailer to improve fuel consumption and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. One of the conventional axles of the quad axle semi-trailer was replaced with a drive axle powered by an electric motor. Tests were conducted on a 105 km test route with a maximum difference in elevation of 355 m, including a hilly section with a length of 89 km. The results indicated fuel savings ranging from 10.5% to 14% per test run, with an average fuel savings of 12% when the electric drive axle was engaged. The hybrid electric tractor semi-trailer consumed 17.5% less fuel up-hill and 9.4% less down-hill. Throughout each test run, the battery’s state of charge fluctuated, averaging between 88% at the start and 52% at the end. Prior to each run, the batteries were

Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Mercier, Steve, Bonsi, Adime Kofi

Q&A

24AUTP10_12

10/01/2024

During a recent Bosch tech showcase, we spoke with Joe Dear, engineering manager for electric propulsion systems at Linamar. The Guelph, Ontario-based parts manufacturer is no stranger to building unsung components for the auto industry, including gears, camshafts, connecting rods, and cylinder heads. The Linamar team was demonstrating a modified Ram 2500, a collaboration between Bosch and Linamar, that was outfitted with a prototype electric powertrain and new e-axles: a rigid axle on the rear (with a Bosch motor and inverter) and a steering axle up front.

Blanco, Sebastian

GEARING UP A NEW ELECTRIFIED TRUCK

24TOFHP08_04

08/01/2024

Eaton and BAE Systems have collaborated to create an electric powertrain featuring BAE electronics and an Eaton four-speed transmission. One of the advantages that OEMs have long touted for battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) has been the elimination of components like the transmission. The instant torque that an electric motor can supply often mitigates the need for any sort of torque multiplication beyond what the chosen axle ratio can provide. However, what the industry has found is that this concept has its limitations in certain use cases. When asked to haul heavy loads over sustained grades or at freeway speeds, a direct drive BEV powertrain rapidly begins losing efficiency and range. Of course, batteries and motors can be scaled up to handle heavier loads, but these methods add both cost and weight to vehicles for which these numbers are already major concerns.

Wolfe, Matt

Wheel End Assembly and Axle Spindle Interface Dimensions - Truck and Bus

J2475_202407 (Current)

07/26/2024

This recommended practice contains dimensions and tolerances for spindles in the interface area. Interfacing components include axle spindle, bearing cones, bearing spacer, and seal. This recommended practice is intended for axles commonly used on Class 7 and 8 commercial vehicles. Included are SAE axle configurations FF, FL, I80, L, N, P, R, U, and W.

Truck and Bus Wheel Committee

Axle Flange Sources of Driveline Imbalance: Calculation Methods from Runout and Location Error, with Validation

05-17-03-0020

06/19/2024

The axle, or differential, flange is understood to be a large source of vehicle driveline imbalance, or unbalance, through defining the center of rotation of a driveshaft. The tolerances and methods of manufacturing and assembly are therefore very important. The aim of the current investigation, is to understand and quantify the imbalance contributions from flange radial and axial runout, along with location error between the driveshaft and axle flange. An overview of the measured radial and axial runouts from a population of 100 axle assemblies is presented, including correlation of the imbalance amplitude distributions to some standard probability density functions. It was found from the investigation, that it is important to understand the nature of any source of runout, relative to any subassembly/component-level balancing, in modeling the transfer function from runout to imbalance loading. Methods for calculating the imbalance of an assembled driveline are presented, which include

Leslie, Andrew C., Liew, Andrew, Baddeley, Viv, Dent, Solomon, Meehan, Paul A.

A Hybrid Method for Characterization and Improvement of NVH Performance of Axle System

2024-01-2950

06/12/2024

The axle system is a major contributor for road induced vehicle interior noise. However, it is challenging to characterize the NVH performance of the axle system because it is coupled with both the tire/wheel and the body structure. In this article, we introduce a global approach to control the NVH performance of the axle system. The force transmissibility based on the blocked force concept was defined as the indicator of NVH performance of the axle system. A hybrid method combining test and simulation was developed to assess the intrinsic NVH performance of the axle system. The force transmissibility of the axle system is the blocked force generated by the axle system at the body mounting points with a unit of input force on the wheel. It can be simulated easily by FEM with rigid boundary conditions. However, measuring the blocked forces of the axle system is much more complex because it requires very stiff boundary conditions, which are difficult to realize on a realistic test rig

Wang, Shanjin, Gagiu, Constantin

Integrated Chassis Control for Energy-Efficient Operation of a 2WD Battery-Electric Vehicle with In-Wheel Propulsion

2024-01-2550

04/09/2024

Battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) require new chassis components, which are realized as mechatronic systems mainly and support more and more by-wire functionality. Besides better controllability, it eases the implementation of integrated control strategies to combine different domains of vehicle dynamics. Especially powertrain layouts based on electric in-wheel machines (IWMs) require such an integrated approach to unfold their full potential. The present study describes an integrated, longitudinal vehicle dynamics control strategy for a battery electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) with an electric rear axle based on in-wheel propulsion. Especially the influence of electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and torque blending control on the overall performance are discussed and demonstrated through experiments and driving cycles on public road and benchmarked to results of previous studies derived from [1]. It is shown that the approach improves energy efficiency and energy recovery

Heydrich, Marius, Mitsching, Thomas, Gramstat, Sebastian, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin

Analysis and optimization for generated axial force of Adjustable Angular Roller tripod joint

2024-01-2887

04/09/2024

The tripod constant velocity joint (CVJ) has been widely used in mechanical systems due to its strong load-bearing capacity, high efficiency, and reliability. It has become the most commonly used plunging-type CVJ in automotive drive-shaft. A generated axial force (GAF) with a third-order characteristic of driven shaft speed is caused by the internal friction and motion characteristics in a tripod joint. The large GAF has a negative impact on the NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) characteristics of automobiles, and this issue is particularly prominent in new energy vehicles. A multi-body dynamic model of the Adjustable Angular Roller (AAR) tripod CVJ is developed to calculate and analyze the GAF. To describe the internal motion of the AAR tripod CVJ, the contact interactions between the roller and the track or the trunnion were modeled using non-linear equivalent spring-damping models for contact collision forces and modified Coulomb friction model for friction. An axial force test

Wang, Yu, Shangguan, Wenbin, Wan, Lixiang, Hou, Qiufeng, Wu, Xiaoyong

Analysis of Low-Frequency Brake Noise for Drum Brakes on Semi-Trailers

2024-01-2895

04/09/2024

A road test on semi-trailers is carried out, and accelerations of some characteristic points on the braking system,axles,and truck body is measured,also brake pressure and noise around the support frame is acquired.The measured data was analyzed to determine the causes of the brake noise, and the mechanism of the noise of the drum brake of semi-trailers during low-speed braking was investigated. The following conclusions are obtained: (1) Brake noise of the drum brake of the semi-trailer at low-frequency is generated from vibrations of the brake shoes, axle, and body, and the vibration frequency is close to 2nd natural frequency of the axle. (2) Brake noise is generated from stick-slip motion between the brake shoes and the brake drum, where the relative motion between the brake drum and the brake shoes is changed alternately with sliding and sticking, resulting in sudden changes in acceleration and shock vibration. A multi-body dynamic model of the semi-trailer is established for

Tang, Hao, Shangguan, Wen-Bin, Kang, Yingzi, Zheng, Jing-Yuan, Lan, Wen-Biao

Fuzzy Control of Regenerative Braking on Pure Electric Garbage Truck Based on Particle Swarm Optimization

2024-01-2145

04/09/2024

To improve the braking energy recovery rate of pure electric garbage removal vehicles and ensure the braking effect of garbage removal vehicles, a strategy using particle swarm algorithm to optimize the regenerative braking fuzzy control of garbage removal vehicles is proposed. A multi-section front and rear wheel braking force distribution curve is designed considering the braking effect and braking energy recovery. A hierarchical regenerative braking fuzzy control strategy is established based on the braking force and braking intensity required by the vehicle. The first layer is based on the braking force required by the vehicle, based on the front and rear axle braking force distribution plan, and uses fuzzy controllers. Achieve one-time distribution of the front axle braking force; the second layer, according to the magnitude of the braking intensity, divides the braking conditions into light braking, moderate braking and emergency braking, and realizes braking under the three

Zhang, Yu

A methodology for modeling the thermal behavior of an electric axle in real driving cycles

2024-01-2588

04/09/2024

The thermal behavior of the electric axle is an essential indicator which requires certain attention during the development process. Due to the complexity of heat generation mechanism and heat transfer boundary conditions, it is difficult to accurately predict the axle’s temperature, especially in real driving conditions. In this paper, a comprehensive 1D model is developed to simulate its heat transfer process effectively and accurately. The heat transfer model is developed based on the thermal network method, and the electric axle is divided into thermal mass according to its heat transfer characteristics. The heat generation model, which accounts for meshing loss, bearing loss, churning loss, and windage loss, exchanges heat flux and oil temperature information with the heat transfer model to take into account the effect of lubricating oil temperature on power loss. Meanwhile, 3D simulation is established for the lubricating oil flow inside the axle and the air flow around it, from

Hu, Xiaoyu, Shao, Hengheng, Hou, Yuanjing, Sun, Wanyu, Liu, Hongwei, Zhang, Lin

Method for Root Bending Fatigue Life Prediction in Differential Gears and Validation with Hardware Tests

2024-01-2249

04/09/2024

An advanced multi-layer material model has been developed to simulate the complex behavior in case-carburized gears where hardness dependent strength and elastic-plastic behavior is characterized. Also, an advanced fatigue model has been calibrated to material fatigue tests over a wide range of conditions and implemented in FEMFAT software for root bending fatigue life prediction in differential gears. An FEA model of a differential is setup to simulate the rolling contact and transient stresses occurring within the differential gears. Gear root bending fatigue life is predicted using the calculated stresses and the FEMFAT fatigue model. A specialized rig test is set up and used to measure the fatigue life of the differential over a range of load conditions. Root bending fatigue life predictions are shown to correlate very well with the measured fatigue life in the rig test. Also fatigue life predictions are shown to correlate well with validation tests carried out on a full-scale axle

DeJack, Michael A., Tichy, Richard

Dynamic Performance Optimization of Ball Joints with Cross Groove for Automotive Driveshaft System

2024-01-2438

04/09/2024

The ball joint with cross groove offers both angular and plunging motion. When transmitting the same torque, the cross groove ball joint is lighter than other plunging Constant Velocity Joints (CVJs). It is crucial for the design of the joint and enhancing the contact fatigue life of the raceway to accurately estimate component loads of the ball joints with cross groove. In this study, the transmission efficiency of the joint and the peak value of contact force between ball and the track are used as evaluation indexes for characterizing dynamic performance of the joint. A multibody dynamic model of the joint is established to calculate its dynamic performance. In the model, the contact properties and friction characteristics of the internal structures were modeled, and a nonlinear equivalent spring and damping model was adopted for estimating the contact force. The transmission efficiency loss of the cross groove joint was measured and compared with the calculated values. Taking

Zhan, Haojing, Wan, Lixiang, Wu, Xiaoyong, Hou, Qiufeng, Shangguan, Wenbin

Research on the Anti-Shuffle Control for Hybrid Electric Vehicles in the Pure Electric Mode

2024-01-2713

04/09/2024

In hybrid vehicles, the drive motor is directly connected to the drive train and the inherent drive train damping is low. When subjected to external disturbance, the low damping characteristics of the transmission system may cause torsional vibration, which will continue to oscillate the transmission system and affect the driving performance of the vehicle. In this paper, we propose a harmonic injection wheel control method based on motor speed to suppress oscillations and improve the driving performance of hybrid electric vehicles. The harmonic injection control method based on motor speed is based on Fourier transform to decompose sinusoidal harmonics based on specific order of motor speed. RLS algorithm is used to estimate the amplitude and phase, and PI control is used to calculate the compensation torque for the actual amplitude and target amplitude. Simulation and test results show that the proposed control strategy is effective in suppressing oscillations. With the active

Jing, Junchao, Zhang, Junzhi, Liu, Yiqiang, Huang, Weishan, Dai, Zhengxing

A Review of Production Multi-Motor Electric Vehicles and Energy Management and Model Predictive Control Techniques

2024-01-2779

04/09/2024

This paper presents the characteristics of more than 260 trim levels for over 50 production electric vehicle (EV) models on the market since 2014. Data analysis shows a clear trend of all-wheel-drive (AWD) powertrains being increasingly offered on the market from original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). The latest data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) shows that AWD EVs have seen a nearly 4 times increase in production from 21 models in 2020 to 79 models in 2023. Meanwhile single axle front-wheel-drive (FWD) and rear-wheel-drive (RWD) drivetrains have seen small to moderate increases over the same period, going from 9 to 11 models and from 5 to 12 models, respectively. Further looking into AWD architectures demonstrates dual electric machine (EM) powertrains using different EM types on each axle remain a small portion of the dual-motor AWD category. However, these architectures have been shown to have energy savings of 1 % to 5 % over that of identical dual-motor

Allca-Pekarovic, Alexander, Kollmeyer, Phillip, Middleton, Mairi, Emadi, Ali

Measurement and Modeling for Creep Groan of a Drum Brake in Trucks

2024-01-2351

04/09/2024

An experiment is carried out to measure creep groan of a drum brake located in a trailer axle of a truck. The noise nearby the drum brake and accelerations on brake shoes, axle and trailer frame are collected to analyze the occurring conditions and characteristics of the creep groan. A multi-body dynamics model with 1/4 trailer chassis structures is established for analyzing brake component vibrations that generates the creep groan. In the model, the contact force between brake cam and brake shoes, the contact friction characteristics between brake linings and inner circular surface of brake drum, and the properties of chassis structure are included. Dynamic responses of brake shoes, axle and trailer frame during the braking process are estimated using the established model and the responses are compared with the measured results, which validate the model. Three conclusions of measurement and calculation are obtained. (1) The creep groan is usually generated when braking speed is lower

Zheng, Jing-Yuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin, Tang, Hao, Lan, Wen-biao

On the Investigation of Car Steady-State Cornering Equilibria and Drifting

2024-01-2764

04/09/2024

This paper proposes a thorough investigation of steady-state cornering equilibria for cars. Besides equilibria corresponding to normal driving behaviour - herein denoted as stable-normal turn, drifting is attracting increasing attention. When discussing drifting, it is typically assumed that yaw rate and steering angle have opposite signs, i.e. the driver is countersteering, and the rear axle is saturated. Interestingly, another unstable equilibrium is possible, herein referred to as unstable-normal turn. In this work, an attempt to give a comprehensive definition of drift is made. An inverse model is proposed to compute the driver inputs needed to perform a steady-state turn for a given radius and sideslip angle. The mathematical meaning of all equilibria is explored by linearizing the system and analyzing eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the resulting state matrices.

Righetti, Giovanni, Binetti, Elisabetta, Pinto de Castro, Ricardo, Lot, Roberto, Massaro, Matteo, Lenzo, Basilio

Wheel & Axle Disconnect Controls on Hybrid Electric Powertrains

2024-01-2776

04/09/2024

With the proliferation of electric vehicles in the market, it has become important for Automotive OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) to focus on delivering a higher driving range while also maximizing performance. One approach OEMs are actively considering in meeting this goal is to include a secondary drive axle disconnect into the powertrain which has the potential to improve the overall driving range by about 6-8.3% [4]. This paper outlines the need for a novel controls architecture to make the Powertrain controls software modular and to reduce the development time needed to provide robust powertrain control software. To do this, the electrified powertrain torque controls at STELLANTIS NV takes a decentralized controls architecture approach, by separating the axle disconnect controls subsystem (ADCS) from the primary path of torque controls. The ADCS takes in information such as the desired axle state and controls the axle disconnect actuators to achieve that state. It then

Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Verhun, Brandon, Xu, Chengyi, Sha, Hangxing, Tuller, Zachary, Patel, Nadirsh

Improve the Durability and Maintenance Feasibility of the Universal Joint Based on the Original Half-Shaft Foundation

2024-01-2441

04/09/2024

Based on the particularity of the racing field of the Baja SAE China, the Baja Racing Team of our university has adopted rzeppa universal joint for vehicle design and field competition in the semi-axle parts of the race car in previous years. In view of the complex conditions of the Baja Competition, such as gravity test, climb test, handling test, endurance test, etc., it is necessary to optimize and develop a more convenient maintenance model. Installation and use of better performance, more suitable for off-road conditions of the shaft. In this paper, based on the development dynamics of automobile axles and the transverse comparison of various axles, a kind of telescopic cross-shaft universal joint axles is designed by using CATIA software to model and simulate kinematics and dynamics by using ANSYS software. At the same time, the stress and strain of the model are continuously optimized according to the change of axle wheel Angle and the torque matching of Baja Racing. The object

Zhang, Hengyu, He, Li, Xiao, Miaoqi

Design and Optimization of Go-Kart Chassis

2023-01-5135

02/23/2024

A chassis is the main skeleton of a go-kart containing distinct components such as the engine, brakes, fuel tank, rear axle, etc. It supports the entire weight and load of the components, so it must be steady enough to withstand shock, twisting, vibration, and other stress. This paper reviews the study carried out on the chassis, highlighting the area where the Nodes, Primary and Secondary members, Horizontal and Vertical members, and Chassis stiffness support the jacking effect with the constraints of maximum Torsional stress, deflection, and critical regions under loading conditions. AISI 4130 is used as the chassis material. When dealing with the software, SolidWorks 2023 and Fusion 360 are used for designing the chassis whereas ANSYS 2022 is used for the analysis of the designed chassis. In order to reduce weight, improve material consumption, and provide an appropriate cross-section, a simulation technique was used in design optimization.

Vignesh, D., Sanchan Kumar, S., Saravanan, V., Sudhakar, M.

Determination of Helical Spring Coefficient of Electric Motor Micro-Truck Vehicle with Independent Suspension on Front Axle

2024-01-5020

02/12/2024

Load-carrying transportation has recently increased due to cargo and online home shopping. As a result, there is a growing demand for vehicles that can pass through narrow streets and carry loads for short distances. Electric vehicles are vital in the automotive industry due to their zero emissions and further promotion through new regulations. This study is focused on determining the spring coefficients of helical springs for a micro-truck vehicle, which will be used for cargo transportation and has a leaf spring with a specific spring coefficient on the rear axle and an independent double wishbone suspension system on the front axle. In addition to being vehicles with low weight values, micro-trucks have the axle capacity required for urban transportation due to their low track width and dimensions. Correctly determining the leaf spring is essential as it will directly affect the loads on the suspension system, wheel life, energy consumption, and comfort level. When determining the

Canpolat, Berkan, Akbaba, Mahir, Çifci, Erol, Doğan, Mehmet Ali

Virtual Prediction of Tractor Front Axle Load and Fatigue Life in Front Loader Application and Validating with Field Measurements

2024-01-5012

02/06/2024

When a specialty tractor is operated by mounting the front loader or backhoes, the loads are distributed proportionately to the front and rear axles. The maximum load and fatigue life were identified as the main parameters in predicting fatigue failure. This paper mainly focuses on predicting front axle loads and fatigue life in front loader applications. To design a new front axle for the loader application, an existing front axle assembly that was designed for orchard, sprayer, and small farm application is selected for study and to extend it for front loader application with minimal design modifications. The major challenge is to estimate the dynamic loads coming to the front axle due to the front loader application and validate it for a different set of load cases as per the design verification plan. Hence a methodology was framed to estimate the actual loads using MBD, validate with field measurements, and verify the new front axle design using those loads in FEA. This paper

Sekar, Prasanth, Varadarajan, Sivanesan, Balaji, N. T.

An Investigation on High Impact Torque of BEV and Driveshaft Robustness Improvements

2024-26-0334

01/16/2024

The inherent capacity of electric motors to generate substantial instant torque can lead to significant load reversals in electric vehicle driveshafts under specific road conditions and driving maneuvers, highlighting the need for targeted improvements in driveshaft design, particularly in optimizing joint sizing. This paper presents a systematic approach to investigate the root causes of a catastrophic driveshaft failure that occurred during specific vehicle tests on a road with multiple speed bumps, resulting in numerous high torque reversals. The objective was to enhance system robustness through changes in driveshaft design and the manufacturing process, coupled with a software calibration technique to reduce torque demands under such operating conditions. The process encompassed torque measurements at the vehicle level, failure replication on a test rig, and correlation with simulations. Sensitivity analyses of the manufacturing process preceded the finalization of design and

Singh, Deepak Vikram, Jacob, Abijith, Paua, Ketan, Vellandi, Vikraman, Mane, Yogiraj

A Research Work to Develop an E-Axle Generic DVP for the Indian Market Complying with Indian and International Standards

2024-26-0118

01/16/2024

The electric vehicle market in India has tremendous growth potential in the upcoming years and decades, attracting numerous automotive manufacturers, including Tier-1 suppliers, seeking to participate in this growth phase. Electric powertrains used in e-cars on Indian roads comply with BIS and AIS standards. However, these standards alone do not provide sufficient clarity on the complete list of tests required for developing an e-Axle through all stages of development. Developing the e-Axle in-house for the Indian market poses a significant challenge for OEMs and Tier-1 suppliers, as it will play a crucial role in overall profitability at high volumes in the long term. Adhering solely to the BIS and AIS standards may prove insufficient in fulfilling the developmental prerequisites of an electric axle (e-Axle) system. A comprehensive list of Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Traceable requirements for any e-Axle must be fulfilled through Performance, Functional, Durability

Ray, Rakesh Kumar, Vaither, G V N Selvavindhan

Detection of Unintended Vehicle Behaviour for Driver Safety

2024-26-0106

01/16/2024

The functional safety of electric vehicles has attracted a great deal of attention among automobile industries globally. A tricky yet necessary dual gamut of operational ease along with operational safety is something that cannot be ignored while using electric vehicles. Safety paired with vehicle reliability will go a long way in the market. Therefore, abnormal vehicle behavior due to factors such as unintended acceleration should not be kept in hindsight. Unintended acceleration is a phenomenon where the vehicle accelerates involuntarily without the knowledge of the driver which leads to accidents and fatal injuries. Thus, prior detection of unintended acceleration becomes mandatory for driver’s safety. Unintended acceleration is a result of various uncontrolled conditions like road driving conditions and system malfunction. This paper aims to estimate the load torque of a vehicle by utilizing the vehicle drive train model thereby ensuring the timely detection of unwanted

Ghube, Aditya Purushottam, Chauhan, Abhisha, Nidubrolu, Kranthi kumar

Development of Methodology for Accelerated Validation of Axle Components in Relation to Static Load Capacity

2024-26-0373

01/16/2024

The Indian automotive industry is striving towards more safe and durable vehicles. A need was felt to study the effect of changes in axle static loads on fatigue life of the axle components. Also, there was a need to develop generic test method, as there are no test standards or generic methods available in public domain for fatigue testing of commercial vehicle axles. The study was carried out to check direct effect of change in axle loads on various connections on axle, effect of suspension configuration and force distribution, Vehicle dynamics, etc. In this paper, an India specific generic load spectra was evaluated for accelerated laboratory validation. Paper discusses the methodology as; study of heavy commercial vehicle systems, road load data collection on identified test vehicles w.r.t. test matrix finalized, India specific test loads and load spectra development, normalization of axle load spectra w.r.t to static axle weights and arriving at test guidelines. Comprehensive

Kuwar, Virendra S, Thorat, Omkar, Bakal, Nikhil Rajendra, Joshi, Omkar Prakash, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram V, Sutar, Mohan, Potdar, Anil, Tak, Sachin, Nilangekar, Abhijit, Kulkarni, Milind

Impact of Toe and Thrust Angle Misalignment on Roll Behaviour of a Heavy Commercial Road Vehicle

2024-26-0056

01/16/2024

Heavy Commercial Road Vehicles (HCRVs) may be more susceptible to rollover incidents due to their higher centre of gravity position than passenger vehicles, and rollover is one of the significant causes of HCRV accidents. Therefore, variation in vehicle roll behaviour becomes crucial to the safety of an HCRV. Toe misalignment is a commonly observed phenomenon in HCRVs, and studying its impact on roll behaviour is important. In this study, the impact of the symmetric toe and thrust misalignment on the roll behaviour of an HCRV is analysed using IPG TruckMaker®, a vehicle dynamics simulation software. A ramp steer manoeuvre was used for the simulations, and the toe misalignment on a wheel was chosen from the range [-0.21°, 0.21°]. Variation in roll behaviour was quantified using the steering wheel angle at which one-wheel lift-off (OWL) occurred (SWAL). Additionally, an analytical model was formulated to predict OWL and the model predictions were compared with the results from IPG

Chandran, Amarchand, Grandhe, Roshan, Mukhopadhyay, Arko, Sharma, Mitanshu, Shankar Ram, C S

Drivetrain Pressure Spike Evaluation Methodology & Optimization: Simulation and Testing Correlation

2024-26-0277

01/16/2024

This paper presents a virtual analysis method for pressure spike estimation and optimization of hydraulic system architecture for off-highway applications with hydraulically actuated clutch. This pressure spike leads to a very high torque spike in driveline components during clutch pop-up conditions in puddling operations. These torque spikes lead to potential failure of driveline components i.e., gear, shaft, bearing and torsional damper during sudden engagement events. To assess the hydraulic system performance during clutch pop-up cornering conditions is very challenging and leads to compromise on operator safety in the paddy field. It is essential to develop a simulation methodology in a virtual environment to understand the system behavior during clutch pop-up condition and impact of various hydraulic system parameters. This paper describes a Model Based System Design (MBSD) approach for understanding hydraulic system pressure spike phenomenon and dynamic response. Pressure spike

Memane, Nilesh, Kumar, Suneel, Veerkar, Vikrant

E-Drive System Selection Criterion for EV Commercial and Passenger Vehicles Segments

2024-26-0253

01/16/2024

Climate change due to global warming are major concerns. Electric vehicles are one of the promising technologies to curb the climate change by reducing CO2 emissions significantly. Electric vehicle component selection is a complex process, which has to fulfil multiple requirements with trade-off between performance & efficiency, efficiency & cost, performance & NVH, packaging & performance etc. In addition, E-drive selection in passenger & commercial vehicle is different due to application difference. Hence, it is a great challenge to select right E-Drive comprising motor, MCU and overall gear ratio to meet EV program constraints and targets. This study focuses on criterion used for selecting an E-Drive system comprising motor, MCU and overall gear ratio for electric vehicles in commercial and passenger vehicle segments. The automotive market in India is analysed and the most popular vehicles in CV and PV segments with comparable kerb weights have been identified; small commercial

Jadhav, Vaibhav V., Shendge, Raman S., Warule, Prasad B., Wani, Kalpesh S.

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Analysis for e-Motors and Controllers of Electric Two-Wheelers

2024-26-0098

01/16/2024

The Indian government has been promoting electric vehicles through various policy initiatives, such as offering incentives and subsidies to EV manufacturers and consumers, establishing charging infrastructure across the country, and setting ambitious targets for EV adoption. These measures aim to reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels, mitigate air pollution, and promote sustainable mobility. As a result, the demand for electric vehicles across India is steadily increasing, and the country is emerging as a lucrative market for EVs globally. An electronically commuted brushless DC (BLDC) motor usually functions for traction in electric two-wheelers. Electric vehicles need to comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements. During the EMC compliance of electric two-wheelers, it is certain that the BLDC motor and its controller play an important role. This paper presents the BLDC motor and controller’s Radiated Emission (RE) performance at Electronic Sub-Assembly (ESA

Pawar, Sneha Ravindra, Desai, Manoj Madhukar

Study on Contribution of Bogie Suspension Seating Configurations & V-Rod Forces on Life of Heavy Duty Bogie Rear Axle Casing – Analysis Using Road Simulator

2024-26-0362

01/16/2024

The Heavy Duty live rear axles in commercial vehicle helps to transmit the drive to the rear wheels and also carries vehicle load. The rear axle along with wheel assembly consists of axle casing, differential unit, half shafts, wheel hub, brake drum, brake chamber and wheels. It is one of the major safety critical element in any commercial vehicle. Based on the suspension type, rear axle housing also carries V rod & radius rod mountings & Spring Seat /Wear pad / Rubber Bolster (in case of bogie suspension). This paper abbreviates the contribution of bogie suspension seating configurations & V-rod Forces on life of heavy duty bogie rear axle casing. In-service DRT hot spot observations were reported on heavy duty rear axle on few models with bogie suspension. In order to find the root cause, devising a proper testing and analysis method is of prime importance. An extensive effort was made to device test methodology based on customer application and field visits. The test methodology

Arumugam, Paramasivam, Nagarajan, Gopikannan, N, Mahendra, Muthu Kumar, Pandurangan

Unique Optimization Approach of Axle Component and Its Weld Life Improvement

2024-26-0316

01/16/2024

Axles are a prominent part of automotive design. Along with a power transmission and differential system, axles support a vehicle’s weight and road-load reactions. Axles carry different attachments such as brakes and suspensions using brackets. Welds play an important role in design and longevity of bracket assemblies. Welds can be susceptible to fractures caused by intrusions akin to cracks and/or discontinuities, compounded by stress concentration due to weld profile and welding processes. Additionally, the simultaneous optimization of both brackets and welds remains a challenge with limited available methods. While topography or shape optimization techniques can enhance bracket robustness by minimizing compliance as the objective, this approach might inadvertently elevate the likelihood of weld fracture if weld dimensions are not concurrently updated. In this endeavor, compliance is used to improve weld life without affecting bracket robustness by using the Vertex Morphing

Wagh, Pranav, Sutar, Mohan, Nilangekar, Abhijit

Items per page:

1 – 50 of 1808