Browse Topic: Drivetrains

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Backlash Evasion Strategy for Enhancing Vehicle Cornering Performance2026-01-0640To be published on 04/07/2026
This study presents a torque distribution control strategy for EVs with e4WD powertrain to overcome the trade-off between ensuring vehicle acceleration and deceleration responsiveness and mitigating backlash shock in the driving system. The deterioration of the drivability which occurs from the intrinsic hardware characteristics of the drivetrain is prevented by designing a response-priority drive mode in which neither front or rear motor torque is allowed to change its sign. Instead, in such drive mode, the front motor torque is only allowed to perform regenerative braking while the rear motor torque is only allowed to produce positive acceleration torque. In order to avoid sacrificing the maximum acceleration by applying such strategy, the mode transition function is implemented as well. In addition, in order to prevent backlash impact due to drivetrain compliance, variable offset torque based on drivetrain compliance model is evaluated in real time and applied to each motor command
Oh, JIWON, Lee, Ho Wook
Methodology for generating off-road tracks for powertrain simulation of off-road passenger vehicles2026-01-0275To be published on 04/07/2026
For off-road driving, particularly on steep grades and over barriers, the engine torque is a key design criterion of off-road vehicles. In conventional powertrains with combustion engines, mechanical all-wheel-drive systems combined with differential locks are used to distribute the torque demand between the front and the rear axle based on wheel-specific traction. With the growing market share of electric powertrains, off-road applications are becoming increasingly relevant for electric passenger cars. In comparison to conventional powertrains, electric all-wheel-drive configurations do not have a mechanical torque transfer between the two axles. If one axle experiences low traction, the second axle can rely on its own torque capability only. Transfer of unused torque of the slipping axle to the other one is not possible. The challenge, therefore, is to specify the right torque requirements for each axle for off-road driving while avoiding an over-dimensioning and high powertrain
Martin, Michael, Winkelheide, Jonas, Hartmann, Lukas, Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman
Analysis of the Impact on Ride Comfort from Splitting the Unsprung Mass in Vehicle Modeling2026-01-0212To be published on 04/07/2026
The study was conducted to investigate the differences in ride comfort analysis between treating the unsprung mass as a whole and modeling it separately. A classical two-degree-of-freedom single-wheel vehicle vibration model and a three-degree-of-freedom single-wheel vehicle vibration model with split unsprung mass were established, with their state-space descriptions determined. The fundamental vibration response quantities of both models were identified, and time-domain simulations under random road excitation were performed using Matlab/Simulink. The results indicate that the two modeling approaches exhibit minimal differences in ride comfort analysis for the sprung mass, but there are certain differences for the unsprung mass. Additionally, for the three-degree-of-freedom single-wheel vehicle vibration model with split unsprung mass, the axle-to-wheel mass ratio was introduced to analyze the changes in the fundamental vibration response quantities when the unsprung mass increases
Jie, Li, Wei, Deng
Impact of Instantaneous Center of Rotation Variability on Path Planning and Performance of Park Assist Systems2026-01-0053To be published on 04/07/2026
Parking assist systems are among the most widely adopted driver-assistance features in modern vehicles. A key component of these systems is the path planning module, which ensures accurate vehicle alignment within a parking slot while satisfying various constraints such as maintaining slot centering, avoiding collisions in confined spaces, minimizing maneuver count, and achieving the shortest feasible path. Multiple path generation techniques—such as geometric, polynomial-based, and search-based methods—have been developed to enable safe and efficient parking maneuvers. However, most of these approaches rely on the simplifying assumption that the vehicle’s instantaneous center of rotation (ICR) is fixed, typically located on the non-steering axle. In practice, the ICR is not constant and can vary significantly across vehicles due to several physical and kinematic factors, including steering geometry, tire slip characteristics, suspension configuration, and weight distribution
Awathe, Arpit, Patanwala, Abizer, Jain, Arihant, Varunjikar, Tejas
Dog Clutch actuator Control to mitigate NVH2026-01-0003To be published on 04/07/2026
Dog clutches have long been employed in the automotive industry across various applications, including transmission systems, transfer cases, axle disconnects, and hybrid driveline architectures. Their ability to provide direct mechanical engagement makes them ideal for torque transmission with minimal energy loss. However, the transition between engaged and disengaged states can introduce noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), which may be perceptible to vehicle occupants and affect overall driving comfort. A typical dog clutch relies on interlocking teeth for torque transfer, and its actuation can result in NVH due to factors such as friction between mating surfaces, backlash between engagement components, teeth-on-teeth contact during synchronization, and impact forces during clutch engagement. This paper presents Stellantis’s approach to controlling the actuator system to mitigate NVH effects during clutch engagement and disengagement, focusing on strategies that enhance drivability
Xu, Chengyi, Sagi, Rama Rohit Varma, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Verhun, Brandon
Experimental Evaluation of Metro Rail Bogie Frame through Bench Testing2026-26-05611/16/2026
Bogie frame is a main skeleton and structural member in railway system which is carrying all the loads such as Suspensions, Axles, wheels, car body, Motor, Gear box etc. The frame is subjected an exceptional and service stresses in Vertical, Longitudinal, Lateral and twist directions throughout the service life which should be withstand for a life span of 30 years without failure. The purpose of this project is to determine the Structural integrity of the Metro rail bogie frame in consideration with EN13749 standard. This paper is the outcome of bench testing of metro rail bogie frame with the application of multiaxial loading in static and dynamic campaign through which stress data is collected with strain gauge sensors and correlated with the FEA results at initial design phase. This helps to verify and evaluate the design and validate the quality of metro rail frame as per the requirement specified in EN13749:2021 European standard in early design stages.
Tormal, Uday Bapurao, Sinnarkar, Nitin, Shinde, Vikram
Analysis and Optimization of Noise and Vibrational Performance of an Electric Axle2026-26-03401/16/2026
As the electric mobility landscape evolves, there is a growing emphasis on addressing the Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) challenges associated with electric drivetrains. The absence of an IC engine in EVs shifts the focus to other noise contributors such as gear meshing, electric machine operation, and structural vibrations. Despite the known influence of micro-geometry on gear dynamics, current optimization practices often rely on empirical adjustments or standard guidelines without fully utilizing advanced computational methods to predict and optimize NVH performance. There exists a pressing need for a systematic approach to analyze and optimize gear micro-geometry to reduce noise and vibration in high-speed e-axle applications. This research aims to bridge that gap by investigating the relationship between micro-geometry optimization and NVH characteristics of an e-axle. Through detailed modelling and optimization techniques, this research aims to identify optimal gear micro
Ankit, Priyadarshi, Kulkarni, Krishna, Momin, Vaseem
Clutch Thermal Adequacy Assessment in Repeat Restart Launch Conditions on Gradient2026-26-04341/16/2026
The clutch is a mechanical device that connects and disconnects engine power to the drivetrain through the clutch disc and cover assemblies. The disc, with friction material linings is mounted on the transmission shaft, transmits power when clamped between the flywheel and cover assembly. During operation, wear occurs due to speed differences and slippage between the engine and transmission. Clutch performance is evaluated under repeat restart conditions on steep gradients to assess thermal durability and reliability in commercial vehicles. The repeat restart test on a 12% gradient replicates truck launches under full load, where excessive slippage generates heat that may lead to friction material wear or failure if critical temperature limits are exceeded. To address the high cost and time of physical testing, a 1D thermal simulation was developed using GT Suite. The model replicates 90 repeat vehicle launches on a 12% gradient in first gear, integrating driver inputs and drive cycles
Munisamy, Sathishkumar, Chollangi, Damodar, Mane, Sudhir
Modelling and Analysis of Hypoid Gear Churning Loss in Rear Drive Axle: The Role of Oil Viscosity and Empirical Parameters2026-26-05081/16/2026
This definitive study investigates the variation of churning losses occurring with hypoid ring and pinion gear sets and factors that determine energy dissipation in these mechanisms. An in-depth investigation confirms that viscosity is critical, particularly because of its significant temperature-dependent variations. Furthermore, the study rigorously analyzes the data's experimental parameters to examine churning losses. These losses result from the interaction between the rotating gears and the lubricating oil, contributing to notable inefficiencies in the overall drivetrain. A robust and highly effective model has been developed to address this issue comprehensively. It accounts for variable oil viscosity with temperature and integrates key empirical parameters that reflect observed behaviours in gear systems. The study employs a multidimensional approach to examine how oil density impacts hydrodynamic resistance, which is key to understanding lubricant flow under varying conditions
Khan, Aliya Javid, Praveen, Abhinav, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, AP, Baaheedharan
Hypoid Gear Performance Redefined: Addressing Scoring & Whine Noise Concerns2026-26-00781/16/2026
Rear drive vehicles transfer power to the rear wheels through the Gear Carrier Assembly, which is fit at the central section of the Rear Axle. The Gear Carrier Assembly includes hypoid ring and pinion gears, set at the heart of the system. However, one of the common issues with hypoid gears is gear scoring and whine noise, both of which can seriously affect durability and reduce the overall performance of a vehicle. In this study, the focus is on design changes as well as process improvements to address these problems and at the same time improve gear reliability. On the design side, changes such as refining the macro geometry, upgrading materials, and modifying the heat treatment cycle were carried out. These helped in improving properties like contact stress resistance, bending and impact strength, and also reduced motion transmission error (MTE). From the process point of view, careful control over carburizing, hardening, and quenching temperatures, along with adjustments in
Praveen, Abhinav, Deshpande, Praveen, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, Parmar, Mayur, Karle, Nilesh, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Pagar, Pawan
Comparative Study of EV Transmission Performance Used in Various Vehicle Segments2026-26-05841/16/2026
The transition to electric mobility has accelerated the evolution of drivetrain technologies, particularly in the design and performance of electric vehicle (EV) transmissions. Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs utilize simpler yet diverse transmission systems cater to specific performance, efficiency, and application requirements. The growing adoption of electric vehicles across diverse transportation sectors has intensified the need for optimized electric transmission systems as per vehicle requirements. This research presents a comparative study of electric transmission performance across various vehicle segments, including Passenger Cars, Small commercial Vehicle, Commercial three-wheelers and All-terrain vehicles. The study evaluates different transmission configurations namely single-speed and multi-speed, based on key performance metrics such as Drag loss and Efficiency. Through a combination of literature review, and performance benchmarking, the
Jain, Sankalp, P, Ekhesh
Design & Optimization of CV Shaft System to Address Powertrain Induced NVH Issues2026-26-03361/16/2026
The automotive industry is a crucial sector that plays a significant role globally. Government policies have a profound impact on this automotive industry in defining the regulatory standards and emission controls. Such regulations incentivized automakers to invest in research and development complying those standards towards reduction of vehicle emission which intern result in higher torsional vibrations and excitations amplitudes. To address the rising NVH related concerns in driveline system. Drive shafts (CV shafts) is an important component in power-train system in vehicle. Drive shaft’s main purpose to transfer torque from engines to wheels at multiple speeds with different articulation angles. The roughness generated by the engine follows a transfer path from engine to transaxle and transaxle to half shafts in monocoque vehicles which generates discomfort to the drivers whenever the vehicle is driven. The roughness can also be addressed by proper design of CV Shaft stiffness and
M A, Abdul Azarrudin, Jayachandran, Suresh kumar, Kumar, Shivani, Bhardwaj, Kinshuk, M, Devamanalan, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Ahire, Manoj
Novel Approach for Predicting Steering Rack Load Using Multi-Body Simulation2026-26-03781/16/2026
In the initial stages of a vehicle development program, the sizing of various components is a critical deliverable. The steering system, in particular, requires a precise estimation of the rack load for the appropriate sizing of the rack and assists units. Accurately predicting the load on the system during the early stages of development is challenging, especially in the absence of benchmark or legacy data. Commonly used processes for estimating parking steering effort often employ simplistic approaches that may fail to account for parameters such as tire size, vertical stiffness, and steering geometry, leading to reduced accuracy. This paper introduces an advanced methodology for predicting steering rack loads, which incorporates considerations such as contact patch size and pressure variation, as well as the tire jacking effect. The methodology involves mathematical modeling of the contact patch using mesh-grids, utilizing common inputs available in the early stages of vehicle
Shirke, Umesh, Dabholkar, Aniruddh, Bardia, Vivek, Srivastava, Harshit, Prasad, Tej Pratap
Incorporation of Strain Hardening and Sheet Thinning Effects during Forming Process for an Accurate Prediction of Buckling Loads on Sheet Metal Axle Parts2026-26-03911/16/2026
In the automotive industry, during the early phase of development, numerical prediction of strength and durability of chassis parts become crucial as these predictions help in design optimization, selecting the appropriate material and identifying potential issues before physical prototypes are built. One of the crucial simulation requirements is the prediction of accurate load carrying capacity or bucking load of axle links. When it comes to the sheet metal axle links there is a deviation in the hardware test and CAE results for load carrying capacity due to the non-integration of forming effects in the numerical simulation, resulting in overdesign of parts, increased costs and development time. This study aims to address these challenges by integrating forming effects experienced by the part during forming process into static strength simulations. These effects include plastic straining, which contributes to material strain hardening and local thickness changes that lead to thinning
R B, Govind, Selvaraj, Nirmal Velgin
Efficiency Improvement of an Electric Vehicle e-Transaxle through Gear, Bearing, and Lubricant Optimization Strategies2026-26-00531/16/2026
Improving transaxle efficiency is vital for enhancing the overall performance and energy economy of electric vehicles. This study presents a systematic approach to minimizing power losses in a single-speed, two-stage reduction e-transaxle (standalone) by implementing a series of component-level design optimizations. The investigation begins with the replacement of conventional transmission oil with a next-generation low-viscosity transmission fluid. By adopting a lower-viscosity lubricant, the internal fluid resistance is reduced, leading to lower churning losses and improved efficiency across a wide range of operating conditions. Following this, attention is directed toward refining the gear macro-geometry to create a gear set with reduced power losses. This involves adjustments to parameters such as module, helix angle, pressure angle, and tooth count, along with the introduction of a positive profile shift. These modifications improve the contact pattern, lower sliding friction, and
Agrawal, Devesh, Bhardwaj, Abhishek, Bhandari, Kiran Kamlakar
Power Loss Evaluation in 4WD Axle & Correlation with Testing Results2026-26-01071/16/2026
In tractors, efficiency is predominantly influenced by the transmission system, with transmission elements being the major contributors to power losses. Enhancing efficiency necessitates monitoring these power loss areas. Transmission power loss refers to the reduction in power from the engine to the final drive elements. Various parameters and factors affect these losses, and analyzing these conditions helps identify and improve the components that contribute most to driveline efficiency. This study correlates analytically calculated power loss with losses measured during testing under different load conditions. Additionally, critical parameters contributing to power loss in gears, bearings & in seals have been identified, and theoretical relationships have been established.
Jayapal, Jayaraj, Mahapatra, Soumya Ranjan, Sethi, Suvendu Kumar, Joshi, Shrikant, Bange, Prashant
Revolutionary EV Motors Innovation in E-Mobility in Depth Analysis of Emerging Technologies, Comparative Insights & Their Ground Breaking Impact on Electric Vehicle Performance2026-26-00731/16/2026
This paper delivers a forward-looking data-driven assessment of the transformative innovation in electric vehicle motor systems with targeting breakthroughs in the power density, energy efficiency, thermal robustness, manufacturability & better intelligent control. A rigorous Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) framework is done to systematically evaluate and defining the rank of emerging motor technologies across eight weighted performance indicators. The findings reveal that which design strategies & material advancements offering the greatest potential for redefine propulsion performance that enabling lighter more compact & more efficient drivetrain capable of sustained high power operation. High ranking solution exhibit strong alignment with the industry's push toward scalable, low cost & rare earth-independent systems while other are identified as high risk/high reward pathway requiring targeted research to overcome critical problems. By integrating engineering performance
Jain, Gaurav, Premlal, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Optimization of Propeller Shaft Design to Eliminate Launch Undulation (Lateral Shake) and Vibration Level2026-26-03341/16/2026
During vehicle launches in 1st gear, a lateral shake (undulation) and a pronounced metallic hitting noise were observed in the underbody. The noise was identified as the propeller shaft's second universal joint (UJ) yoke striking the fuel tank mounting bracket. Sensitivity to these issues varied with acceleration inputs: light pedal input during a normal 1st gear launch on a flat road resulted in minimal undulation, whereas wide open throttle (WOT) conditions in 1st gear produced significant lateral shake and intensified hitting noise. Further investigation revealed that the problem persists across all gears and occurs consistently during normal driving conditions, with continuous impact between the propeller shaft yoke and the fuel tank mounting bracket. Extensive experimental measurements at the vehicle level indicated that these issues were primarily caused by the center-mounted propeller shaft joint deviating from its central position and rotating eccentrically under torque. This
Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kumar, Sarvesh, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Senthil Raja, T, B, Prem Prabhakar, M, Kiran
Multispeed EV Transmission – Gear Shift Simulation and Validation2026-26-01571/16/2026
The advancement of electric vehicle (EV) transmission systems is currently a prominent trend aimed at decreasing carbon emissions and providing eco-friendly transportation alternatives. Most of the EV transmissions are single speed, but research conducted on multi speed EV transmissions show higher efficiency, good performance, high speed and torque demand when compared with single speed counterparts. Most of the multi speed EV transmissions that are developed are of non-synchromesh type, which have direct effect on NVH, driving dynamics and durability of drivetrain components. Due to aforementioned factors, gearshift analysis becomes critical for development. Simulation model is developed at early development phase for initial feedback. Using the feedback, drivetrain can be optimized furthermore and test on physical parts can be conducted for final verification. This paper provides a simulation based approach for modelling non-synchromesh two speed EV transmission using Simulation X
Kansagara, Smit, Thambala, Prashanth, Sutar, Suresh, Todtermuschke, Karsten, Patel, Hiral
Correlation of Power Rating for Battery Electric Vehicles: Simulation vs. Test Validation in Accordance with Regulatory Compliance2026-26-05751/16/2026
Accurate power and energy assessment in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) requires high-fidelity simulation models that reflect real-world performance. This study presents a power rating correlation of the BEV model in compliance with the GTR 21[1] standard, validating the simulation’s accuracy against physical test data. Simulations were conducted using Matlab and Simulink based Simulation tool to estimate Electric Drive Module (EDM) power at the motor output and gearbox input under standardized conditions. The operating parameters were shared with the testing team to ensure consistency; however, the initial test results deviated by approximately 4% to 5% from the simulation target. To address this delta, EDM speed and vehicle speed were optimized, achieving a close alignment with the simulation and meeting the power rating targets. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between the simulation and test data, confirming the model’s accuracy and reliability. This study underscores
Mahajan, Prasad, Kesarkar, Sidhesh, Ali, Shoaib
Machine Learning Approach to ISO Road Class Prediction Using Multiple Linear Regression2026-26-06671/16/2026
The inertial profiler methodology is traditionally employed in RLDA (Road Load Data Acquisition) to measure road profiles and classify test routes into ISO road classes. However, this approach demands significant time and effort during instrumentation. Also, during data acquisition, laser height sensor data is affected especially during adverse conditions such as rainy seasons or on surfaces with improper reflectivity. Additionally, substantial resources are required for data processing to convert raw measurements into road classifications. To address these challenges, an initial attempt was made to establish a relationship between axle acceleration responses and road profiles, enabling axle acceleration measurements during RLDA to predict ISO road classes. However, this approach relied on a simple linear model that considered only axle acceleration responses, rendering the predictions susceptible to inaccuracies due to varying parameters such as vehicle speed. To overcome these
P, Praveen Kumar, P, Dayalan, Sriramulu, Yoganandam
Evaluation of Driveline NVH Performance Using Linear Dynamic Finite Element Simulation2026-26-03221/16/2026
Automotive driveline design plays an important role in defining a vehicle’s Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) characteristics. Driveline system, responsible for torque transfer from the engine/transmission to the wheels, is exposed to a wide spectrum of vibrational excitations. The industry’s shift toward turbocharged engines with fewer cylinders while maintaining the equivalent torque and power has led to increased low-frequency torsional vibrations. This paper presents some key design considerations to drive the NVH design of a driveline system using linear dynamic FE simulations. Using an E-W All-Wheel Drive driveline architecture with independent suspension as a case study, the influence of various subsystem modes on driveline NVH performance is examined. The paper further explores the strategies for vibration isolation, motion control, and mode management to identify the optimal bushing rates and its location. Furthermore, it examines the ideal bushing specifications for
Joshi, Atul Kamalakarrao, Subramanian, MANOJ
Propeller Shaft Yoke Phase and Inclination Angle Optimization in Passenger Vehicles through Analytical Method2026-26-03481/16/2026
The customer perception of ride comfort with vehicle performance is the most important aspect in a vehicle design. The ride comfort and vehicle performance are influenced by driveline components i.e. propeller shaft phase angle, inclination angle and critical frequency of the driveline system. The optimization of the driveline system is essential to ensure the efficient and smooth power transfer. Propeller shaft is one of the critical components in the driveline to influence the vehicle performance. Propeller shaft characteristics influenced by several factors like vehicle max torque, propeller shaft joint type, materials properties, UJ phase and inclination angle and shaft unbalance value. The optimization of the above parameter within the tolerance limit enables to meet the required performance standard. Various methodologies are available to optimize these parameters to enhance the vehicle performance and comfort leads to customer satisfactions. This study focuses on the analytical
Kumar, Sarvesh, Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj
Simulation Driven Virtual Road Load and Accelerated Duty Cycle Generation for 3-Speed eAxle Systems2026-26-04011/16/2026
The transition from Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles to Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) introduces significant challenges in drivetrain development, particularly when historical road load data (RLD) is unavailable This study presents a methodology for virtually generating and processing road load data (RLD) to assess the durability of a new 3-speed electric axle (eAxle) design before building a physical prototype. Using AVL Route Studio, we simulated a range of driving conditions including urban, highway, and mixed-terrain routes, covering diverse global scenarios. These simulations produced high-frequency torque and speed data representative of real-world operation. Given that the raw dataset contained millions of points, direct use for fatigue assessment was impractical. To address this, the data was imported into Romax, where it was condensed into an accelerated duty cycle while preserving the cumulative fatigue damage patterns from the original dataset. Unlike
Ligade, Pratik, Khan, Nuruzzama Mehadi, Koona, Rammohan Rao
Parameter Estimation and Analysis of the Vertical Dynamics of an 8WD Military Vehicle2025-36-002812/18/2025
Vehicle dynamics encompasses a vehicle’s motion along three principal axes: longitudinal, lateral, and vertical. The vertical component is particularly susceptible to vibrational forces that can impair passenger comfort and overall performance, and the suspension system filters these vibrations. Engineers and designers conduct various studies to enhance quality and develop innovative designs in this context. However, when it comes to military vehicles, this system is often treated as classified. Consequently, the proposed work aims to determine the parameters of this system for a wheeled military vehicle with four axles. To achieve this, a mathematical model is proposed utilizing the concepts of power flow and kinematic transformers through a modular system, intended to serve as the foundation for solving an inverse problem to identify these parameters. This approach employs two stochastic methods, particle swarm optimization (PSO) and differential evolution (DE), and field tests to
de Oliveira, André Noronha, Bueno Caldeira, Aldélio, da Costa Neto, Ricardo Teixeira
Feasibility Analysis of a Hybrid CVT-Manual Transmission: A Comparative Performance Study2025-36-019712/18/2025
Transmission systems play a crucial role in vehicle performance, efficiency, and adaptability. Conventional transmissions, such as Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVTs) and Manual Transmissions (MTs), each offer distinct advantages—CVTs provide smooth gear transitions and optimized fuel efficiency, whereas MTs deliver superior driver control, mechanical simplicity, durability, and high torque efficiency. This study explores the feasibility of integrating a dual-mode CVT-MT transmission into passenger vehicles to enhance driving dynamics and fuel efficiency. The proposed system uses the first gear to improve initial acceleration, a critical factor in urban driving, stop-and-go traffic, and high-load scenarios where CVTs struggle with torque delivery. After launch, the drivetrain transitions into CVT mode, leveraging its continuously adjustable gear ratios for efficiency and smooth power delivery. A simulation model based on MATLAB / Simulink will analyze the performance of the
Baldi, Eduardo, Lopes, Matheus Carlos Sinobio Elias D, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão
Simplifying ELECTRIC DRIVELINES25TOFHP12_0212/1/2025
FEV has a solution to downsize and reduce the complexity of off-highway machines via its electrified planetary gearset architecture. IVT Expo 2025 in Chicago featured a summit where industry professionals presented and discussed the nuts and bolts of the technology that powers the off-highway vehicle industry. Electrification continues to be a centerpiece of these discussions, but OEMs and suppliers are beginning to supply answers to many of the questions that this challenge presents. During the expo, several presentations covered the integration of electric powertrains at the component and architecture level. One presented by Thomas Wellman, chief engineer, drivetrain systems, FEV North America, detailed an EPGS (electrified planetary gear-set) off-highway drivetrain architecture that is modular and scalable for a variety of powertrain configurations.
Wolfe, Matt
Enhancing Tipper Stability during Descent with Dynamic Angle Adjustment2025-28-027611/6/2025
Tippers transporting loose bulk cargo during prolonged descents are subject to two critical operational challenges: cargo displacement and rear axle lifting. Uncontrolled cargo movement, often involving loose aggregates or soil, arises due to gravitational forces and insufficient restraint systems. This phenomenon can lead to cabin damage, loss of control, and hazardous discharge of materials onto roadways. Simultaneously, load imbalances during descent can cause rear axle lift, increasing stress on the front steering axle, resulting in tire slippage and compromised maneuverability. This study proposes a dynamic control strategy that adjusts the tipper lift angle in real time to align with the descent angle of the road. By synchronizing the trailer bed angle with the slope of the terrain, the system minimizes cargo instability, maintains rear axle contact, and enhances braking performance, including engine and exhaust braking systems. Computational modelling is employed to assess the
Vijeth, Abhishek, Bhosle, Devidas Ashok, Cherian, Roshni, Dash, Prasanjita
Digital Simulation of Rear Axle Brake Lines Articulation for Commercial Vehicles2025-28-025711/6/2025
This paper focuses on defining the optimal length of rear axle brake lines (flexible polyamide tubes) for commercial vehicles by simulating the lines digitally by considering tube behavior and various axle articulation conditions. Currently, the length of rear axle brake lines are predominantly defined with the help of a physical mockup by articulating axle conditions in a vehicle. This approach requires actual components such as frame, axle, suspension, etc., which consumes considerable time and cost. Through technological advancements, prototyping can be reduced and convergence on digital to build can be achieved through digital simulation. This paper explores tube properties, axle configurations and definitions, and various methods of digitally simulating line articulation. Boundary conditions, space reservations and design criteria for pneumatic routing are defined for the type of line designed. Digital simulation of rear axle brake lines articulation was performed and compared
Duraiswamy, Rupesh, Sankaran, Bhargav, Raj, Santhosh
Design and Development of a Novel Automatic Powershift Transmission for Battery-Electric Vehicles2025-32-009611/3/2025
The increasing adoption of battery-electric propulsion in two- and 3-wheelers, small cars, and four-wheeled delivery vehicles has created a growing demand for technological advancements to improve their autonomy. Due to cost and weight constraints, these vehicles cannot incorporate highly sophisticated electric motors, as seen in the premium car sector. Therefore, achieving the best possible efficiency in urban and extra-urban commuting requires innovative solutions. One promising approach is the integration of a two-speed transmission into the drivetrain, which allows for load point shifting within the electric motor’s operating map. This strategy significantly reduces energy consumption while maintaining optimal performance. The presented research focuses on the design and development of a simple, cost-efficient two-speed transmission that provides a viable alternative to direct drive systems. While direct drive configurations are highly efficient, they often lack flexibility in
Tromayer, Juergen, Stückler, David, Kirchberger, Roland
Finite Element Analysis and Test Validation of New Cummins Agricultural Structural Engine2025-28-037610/30/2025
Cummins Inc. is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and distributes engines, filtration, and power generation products. This paper presents an overview of the design, analysis and testing carried out by Cummins to demonstrate the capability of a new structural engine for an agricultural tractor application. In general applications, the powertrain assembly is mounted onto a vehicle chassis via vibration isolators. Due to tight packaging constraints in agricultural tractors, leaving no room for the chassis rails. The engine in conjunction with the transmission and a front axle carrier becomes an integral member of the vehicle chassis. This leads to the engine being directly subjected to the wide range of agricultural tractor application specific loads. Multiple analysis lead design (ALD) iterations were carried out using cutting edge CAE software such as Ansys, Dassault Systems fe-safe, and PTC Creo to ensure all elements of the complex acceptance criteria
Pathak, Arun Jyoti
Strength Analysis of Non-Power Wheelsets of CRH5 EMU Based on ANSYS Workbench2025-99-007210/17/2025
In order to study the strength of the non-power wheelset of CRH5 EMU, a three-dimensional digital model was established, and the finite element analysis software ANSYS Workbench was used to establish the non-power wheelset finite element model of CRH5 EMU. For the axle and wheel of the train, based on the European EN13103 and International Union of Railways UIC510-5 standards respectively, Calculate the load value of the axle and wheel under each working condition and load it to the corresponding position, and then simulate and analyze the stress distribution and deformation results of the wheel and axle, and evaluate and analyze them.
Huang, Zhenqing
System Design of Drivetrain for a Baja SAE Four-Wheel Drive Vehicle2025-01-506910/16/2025
A solid, reduced-weight drivetrain system with improved maneuverability was developed and tested by the Desert Hare Off-road Team from South Dakota State University (SDSU) for the 2024 Baja SAE Competition. Based on an analysis of previous competition results, driver feedback, and competition requirements, the designed drivetrain system should enable the Baja vehicle to achieve a top speed of 40 mph (64.37 kph) on a 40° slope and cover 150 ft in 4.5 s from a standing start. Following the systems engineering design approach, the drivetrain system was decomposed into six components. While every team had to use the same engine provided by SAE, the transfer case was designed, and the remaining components—including the transmission, differentials, axles, half shafts, and tires—were selected from the available options. The designed drivetrain was then installed on the team’s 2024 Baja vehicle for testing and validation. Test results indicated that the vehicle with the new drivetrain system
Spilde, Riley, Liu, Yucheng
Measurement and Characterization of Electronically Controlled Driveline Clutch SystemsJ3011_202510 (Current)10/3/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the most common applications of electronically controlled on-demand clutch systems used in passenger (car and light truck) vehicle applications. This practice is applicable for torque modulation devices used in transfer cases, electronic limited slip differential (eLSD) cross-axle devices, rear drive module (RDM) integrated torque transfer devices with or without disconnect capability, and other related torque transfer devices.
Drivetrain Standards Committee
Methodology for Replicating and Quantifying Clicking-Noise Phenomenon in Gen 3 Wheel Hub Bearings and CVJ Using NVH Analysis and Data Processing2025-01-03689/15/2025
This paper presents a comprehensive methodology for replicating and quantifying the clicking-noise phenomenon occurring between Generation 3-wheel hub bearings and Constant Velocity Joints (CVJ), particularly in electric vehicles (EVs) where quiet operation makes this noise more noticeable. The study focuses on characterizing the system through contact pressure and distribution measurements, alternating torque tests, and advanced NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) data processing. The methodology includes detailed descriptions of the physical phenomena, driving conditions generating the noise, and the specific test setup used to simulate real-world conditions. The NVH analysis make use of high-pass filtering techniques to isolate clicking-noise events from background noise, ensuring accurate identification and quantification. Candidate solutions are assessed based on their ability to mitigate clicking noise through the utilization of inherent system components. The results
Nardicchia, Riccardo, Mauro, Ivan
Analysis of Front Axle Wheel End Temperature Measurements in Heavy-Duty Trucks2025-01-03649/15/2025
The Front Axle wheel end assembly is a critical component of Vehicle functionality, comprising a wheel hub positioned to rotate smoothly on an Axle spindle. This rotational movement is enabled by bearings positioned between the hub and the spindle, allowing for frictionless rotation. The Front Axle wheel ends’ temperature typically depends on several factors such as type of Vehicle, Load & driving conditions and health of the components involved. In general, the wheel ends can become warm during normal operation owing to friction generated by the rotation of the wheels and the interaction of various mechanical components such as Bearings and Brakes. However, if the temperature of the wheel ends becomes excessively hot, it could indicate potential issues such as Overheating brakes, Wheel bearing problems, improperly inflated tyres, and faulty components. As temperature rise, materials tend to expand. This expansion can affect the dimensions of critical components in the Front Axle wheel
Pandiyan, Mahendran, Jayaraman, Karthik, R, Sabari, B, Ellavarasan, Bhanja, Subrat Kumar
Design of a Fault-Tolerant Control Algorithm for Four-Wheel Steering Vehicle Steering Locking Based on Dynamic Model Reconstruction10-09-04-00368/21/2025
The motion control system, as the core executive component of the automatic hierarchical framework, directly determines whether autonomous vehicles can reliably and stably follow planned trajectories, making it crucial for driving safety. This article focuses on steering lock faults and proposes a cross-system fault-tolerant control (C-FTC) algorithm based on dynamic model reconstruction. The algorithm uses a classic hierarchical collaborative architecture: the upper-level controller employs an MPC algorithm to solve lateral velocity and yaw rate reference values in real-time, while the lower-level controller, designed based on the reconstructed dynamic model, uses an MPC algorithm to adaptively adjust actuator control quantities. In cases where four-wheel steering vehicles lose steering ability due to locked steering axles, the locked axle’s steering angle is treated as a state variable, and healthy actuator outputs are used as control variables to dynamically reconstruct the vehicle
Hu, Hongyu, Tang, Minghong, Chen, Guoying, Gao, Zhenhai, Wang, Xinyu, Gao, Fei
Validation of a Suspension Lifter Bracket through a Test Bench2025-36-03068/1/2025
In the Brazilian market, the 6x2 configuration for commercial vehicles is widely used. These vehicles feature a driven rear axle and a non-driven axle. For the non-driven axle, it is common to use a lifter system that allows the axle to be lifted when the vehicle is running empty. This system provides benefits such as reduced fuel consumption, lower tire wear, and reduced toll costs when charges are based on the number of axles in contact with the ground. Given these advantages, the system has a high demand, making it mandatory to perform a durability test prior to its market implementation. This paper will present the validation methodology for the lifter system bracket. To achieve this, the following stages will be discussed: CAE, instrumentation, data acquisition, test bench concept, test execution and results.
Leme, Cristiano, da Costa Rodrigues, Gilson, Figueiredo, Guilherme Galvão, de Souza Maria, Heitor Cunha, Pires, Luciano Rogério
Schaeffler optimizes rolling bearings for hydraulic and axle drives25TOFHP08_068/1/2025
Rolling bearings with optimized friction and performance characteristics can have a significant influence on reducing the power loss, design envelope and weight of hydraulic motors and pumps, gearboxes and axles in construction machinery. If correctly designed, rolling bearings can make a significant contribution to reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Most construction machinery is still operated conventionally, using diesel engines and hydraulic components. In the widely used adjustable axial piston pumps and motors, the input and output shaft are usually supported by two tapered roller bearings that are adjusted against each other. When designing the bearing support, it is advisable to reduce the preload to precisely the required minimum allowed by the load spectrum. The lower bearing preload leads to permanently lower axial forces between the tapered roller end face and inner ring rib and, therefore, to a corresponding reduction in frictional torque.
Scharting, Stefan
Articulating Joints and Driveshafts - Nomenclature - Terminology - ApplicationJ901_202507 (Current)7/22/2025
The following definitions and illustrations are intended to establish common nomenclature and terminology for driveshafts and their articulating joints used in various drivetrain applications. In addition, useful guidelines are included for the application of driveshafts and their joints. For more specific details, refer to AE-07.
Drivetrain Standards Committee
Optimisation of Rotor Skewing of a Yokeless and Segmented Armature Axial Flux Machine2025-01-03117/2/2025
This paper presents an optimisation approach for rotor skewing in a Yokeless and Segmented Armature (YASA) design Axial Flux Machine (AFM) for electric vehicle applications. Torque ripple amplitudes are a critical factor influencing the noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) behaviour of electric motors. The focus of this paper is to reduce the torque ripple amplitudes of the dominant harmonics over the entire torque-speed characteristic of the AFM. The principle of the proposed approach is a segmented permanent magnet configuration of the AFM, where individual magnet segments can be circumferentially shifted to achieve optimal skewing configurations. Initial optimisations are performed using 2D finite element (FE) simulations, modelled as linear motors with multiple slices and different numbers of magnet segmentation. However, the accuracy of the 2D FE results is limited due to the lack of interaction between the individual segments and the insufficient representation of three
Müller, Karsten, Maisch, Hannes, De Gersem, Herbert, Burkhardt, Yves
A New Electrified Planetary Gear Set - The Cost- and Fuel-Efficient Alternative to Continuously Variable Transmissions2025-01-03097/2/2025
In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, the global transport sector, one of the largest emitters of CO2, needs to drastically reduce its emissions. Although hybridization and electrification are becoming increasingly popular as a solution for a variety of applications, their use in two- and three-wheelers, as well as in recreational and powersports vehicles, remains limited due to their high costs and complexity compared to conventional drivetrains with continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Despite their affordability and simplicity, CVTs suffer from low mechanical efficiency, with transmission losses ranging from 20–50 %, highlighting a significant opportunity for improvement. In response to these limitations, this study presents the development and experimental evaluation of an electrified planetary gear set (ePGS) in a lightweight off-road vehicle. It is designed to overcome the efficiency limitations of CVTs while maintaining high driving comfort and low system
Jakoby, Moritz, Engels, Michael, Fahrbach, Timm, Andert, Jakob
Heavy-Duty Vehicle Lubricating GreasesJ2695_202506 (Current)6/30/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice was developed by SAE and the section “Standard Classification and Specification for Service Greases” cooperatively with ASTM and NLGI. It is intended to assist those concerned with the design of heavy-duty vehicle components and with the selection and marketing of greases for the lubrication of certain components on heavy-duty vehicles like trucks and buses. The information contained herein will be helpful in understanding the terms related to properties, designations, and service applications of heavy-duty vehicle greases.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 3 Driveline and Chassis Lubrication
Definition and Measurement of Power Transfer Unit Speed-Dependent Parasitic LossJ3039_202505 (Current)5/23/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice covers power transfer units (PTUs) used in passenger car and sport utility vehicles to support all wheel drive (AWD) operation. PTUs are typically full-time use geared devices (see 3.1). Some PTUs have additional features such as part-time on-demand capability via electronically actuated disconnect features, and other configurations are possible.
Drivetrain Standards Committee
Wear Protection for Electrified Transmissions Using e-Fluids without Active Sulfur04-18-03-00155/8/2025
In electrified drivetrains, lubricants are commonly in contact with the motor and other electrical components as well as the gears and bearings. Copper, present in these electrical components, is susceptible to corrosion by fluids containing active sulfur, which can lead to catastrophic failure of the unit. Lubricating fluids for electric vehicles (referred to as e-fluids) must not cause corrosion and must maintain high performance while having suitable electrical conductivity, material compatibility, and heat transfer properties. We describe a new formulation without active sulfur that has recently entered the market, which can protect against copper corrosion. We show that this e-fluid can provide suitable wear protection under field trial conditions, and that the e-fluid provides improved wear protection in bearing (FE-8) tests compared to a traditional extreme pressure axle fluid (API GL-4). Surface analysis (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) measurements of the component surfaces
Hopper, Elizabeth R., Williams, Megan S., Gahagan, Michael
Directivity Driven Simulation Methodology for Efficient Acoustic Encapsulation2025-01-00485/5/2025
Noise reduction at the source level is key to achieve the overall vehicle level interior targets. This paper presents a novel approach that integrates directivity analysis with simulation techniques to optimize acoustic encapsulation design for automotive sound sources to achieve the targeted radiation levels. The foundation for this methodology is to measure the angular distribution of sound pressure levels around the noise source so called Directivity, at every frequency of interest and determine the most effective acoustic encapsulation to achieve the targeted sound radiation. Accurate measurement of directivity in physical testing with fine angular resolutions can be complex and expensive, this study utilizes numerical simulation techniques using FEA to mitigate the challenges in mid frequency range. The scope of the study is focused on mid frequency sound pressure levels between 500-2500 Hz, which are determined to be significant contributors to overall DU noise. The first step is
Kaluvakota, Srikanth, Ghaisas, Nikhil, Pilz, Fernando
Application of Blocked Force Methodology to an Electrified Beam Axle from a Medium-Duty Truck in Vehicle and in a Dynamometer Test Cell2025-01-00545/5/2025
The recent addition of fully electric powertrains to propulsion system options has increased the relevance of sound and vibration from electric motors and gearboxes. Electrified beam axles require different metrics from conventional beam axles for noise and vibration because they have multiple sources of vibration energy, including an electric motor and a reduction gearbox. Improved metrics are also driven by the stiff suspension connections and lack of significant isolation compared to electric drive units. Blocked force is a good candidate because it can completely characterize the vibration energy transmitted into a receiver and is especially useful because it is theoretically independent of the vehicle-side structure. While the blocked force methodology is not new, its application to beam axles is relatively unexplored in the literature. This paper demonstrates a case study of blocked force measurement of an electrified beam axle with a leaf spring suspension. The axle was tested
Shaw, Matthew D, Grimmer, Michael J
Hybrid 3D Sound Intensity Measurements and Simulations Applied to a Truck Rear Axle2025-01-01055/5/2025
This study presents a novel methodology for optimizing the acoustic performance of rotating machinery by combining scattered 3D sound intensity data with numerical simulations. The method is demonstrated on the rear axle of a truck. Using Scan&Paint 3D, sound intensity data is rapidly acquired over a large spatial area with the assistance of a 3D sound intensity probe and infrared stereo camera. The experimental data is then integrated into far-field radiation simulations, enabling detailed analysis of the acoustic behavior and accurate predictions of far-field sound radiation. This hybrid approach offers a significant advantage for assessing complex acoustic sources, allowing for quick and reliable evaluation of noise mitigation solutions.
Fernandez Comesana, Daniel, Vael, Georges, Robin, Xavier, Orselli, Joseph, Schmal, Jared
Fast Noise Prediction of an Electric Powertrain Integrated in Various Vehicles2025-01-00765/5/2025
As the automotive industry moves toward electrification, new challenges emerge in keeping pleasant acoustics inside vehicles and their surroundings. This paper proposes a method for anticipating the main sound sources at driver’s ear for custom driving scenarios. Different categories of Road and Wind noise were created from a dataset of multiple vehicles. Using innovative sound synthesis techniques, it enables Valeo to make early predictions of the emergence of an electric axle powertrain (ePWT) once it is combined with this masking noise. Realistic signals could be generated and compared with actual acoustic measurements to validate the method.
Redon, Milan, Dendievel, Clement, Pluton, Matthias
T.R.I.C.K. 2.0: Enhanced Vehicle Dynamics Analysis and Estimation Harnessing Advanced Vehicle Sensors10-09-03-00254/9/2025
Automotive signal processing is dealt with in several contributions that propose various techniques to make the most out of the available data, typically for enhancing safety, comfort, or performance. Specifically, the accurate estimation of tire–road interaction forces is of high interest in the automotive world. A few years ago the T.R.I.C.K. tool was developed, featuring a vehicle model processing experimental data, collected through various vehicle sensors, to compute several relevant virtual telemetry channels, including interaction forces and slip indices. Following years of further development in collaboration with motorsport companies, this article presents T.R.I.C.K. 2.0, a thoroughly renewed version of the tool. Besides a number of important improvements of the original tool, including, e.g., the effect of the limited slip differential, T.R.I.C.K. 2.0 features the ability to exploit advanced sensors typically used in motorsport, including laser sensors, potentiometers, and
Napolitano Dell’Annunziata, Guido, Farroni, Flavio, Timpone, Francesco, Lenzo, Basilio
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