Browse Topic: Synthetic fuels

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The Impact of Mid-level Ethanol Blends on Reliability, Performance and Emissions in Gasoline engine2026-01-0302To be published on 04/07/2026
To reduce CO₂ emissions from automobiles, it is essential to enhance system efficiency through the electrification of vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines (ICEs), such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as through improvements in ICE thermal efficiency. Furthermore, biofuels and synthetic fuels are gaining attention as promising options for reducing CO₂ emissions, including from existing vehicles. Among these alternative fuels, ethanol - a bio-derived fuel - is already utilized in varying concentrations across many countries, and its further application is anticipated. While expanding the fleet of flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) capable of operating on high ethanol blends is one approach, increasing the ethanol content in conventional gasoline fuels, which are more widely used, is considered to have a greater impact on CO₂ reduction. A key issue is the impact and adaptability of existing vehicles when ethanol concentrations
Matsubara, Naoyoshi, Sugata, Kenji, Koyama, Takashi, Ochi, Yuta, Aoki, Mizuki, Hashima, Takashi, Kodama, Kohei, Tomoda, Keiju, Kojima, Masakiyo
Combustion Characterization of Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) as an Alternative Fuel for Use in IC Engines2026-01-0317To be published on 04/07/2026
In the endeavors to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, synthetic fuels from less carbon intensive feedstocks can provide an alternative. These synthetic fuels have gained traction in the aviation industry as sustainable aerospace fuels (SAFs). One such fuel is a synthetic paraffinic kerosene derived from hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA). Preliminary research has also suggested that this fuel may also be favorable for use in IC engines. This investigation will explore the combustion characteristics of HEFA in an IC engine in more detail. The thermophysical properties of HEFA were investigated, and found comparable to or improving upon those of ULSD. Spray atomization analysis revealed more than 25% smaller SMD compared to ULSD, and lower span factor indicating a more uniform spray which can promote faster formation of a homogenous mixture. A tribological analysis using a pin-on-disk tribometer revealed comparable lubricity compared to ULSD
Soloiu, Valentin, Willis, James, Norton, Coleman, Davis, Zachary, Peralta Lopez, Guillermo, Rahman, Mosfequr
The Effects of Ethanol on Combustion in Super Lean Burn Engine2026-01-0303To be published on 04/07/2026
To mitigate global warming, many countries are pursuing carbon neutrality. Reducing CO₂ emissions from vehicles requires the adoption of electrification technologies in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as improving overall system efficiency by improving the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines (ICEs). One approach to improving the thermal efficiency of ICEs is lean-burn combustion. Additionally, biofuels and synthetic fuels are expected to contribute to CO₂ reduction, even for existing vehicles, and various studies are underway to promote their adoption. Ethanol, a bio-derived fuel, is widely used in varying contents worldwide, and its further utilization is anticipated. Therefore, it is essential to clarify combustion characteristics at different ethanol contents; however, research under lean-burn conditions remains limited. In this study, a super-lean-burn engine was used to evaluate the effects of ethanol contents on
Sugata, Kenji, Matsubara, Naoyoshi, Yamada, Ryota, Kitano, Koji
EGR Tolerance of Synthetic Gasoline Fuels in a DISI Engine: Fuel Effects on Performance and Emissions2026-01-0305To be published on 04/07/2026
Drop-in synthetic gasoline fuels are an attractive alternative to traditional fossil fuels for transportation due to their high energy density, compatibility with the existing fleet and potential to decrease carbon intensity. Despite of meeting gasoline standards, the composition of these fuels can vary depending on the feedstock used for production and production process, which has shown to affect engine performance and emissions. This study investigated the effects of synthetic fuel composition on combustion in a direct-injection spark-ignition engine. Spark timing sweeps from the stability limit to the knock limit were performed with three different bio-fuels, methanol-to-gasoline, ethanol-to-gasoline and hydrotreated-biomass gasoline, at different loads, speeds and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates, and results were compared against a research-grade E10 (10%vol ethanol) regular gasoline representative of petroleum gasoline available in the US. Octane index analyses showed that
MacDonald, James, Narayanan, Abhinandhan, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Matsubara, Naoyoshi, Kitano, Koji, Yamada, Ryota, Sugata, Kenji
Review of Comprehensive Evaluation and Comparative Analysis of Approaches for Capturing Atmospheric CO₂ and Converting It into Sustainable eFuels2026-26-01151/16/2026
As atmospheric CO₂ concentrations continue to rise at unprecedented rates, the urgent need for breakthrough technologies that can efficiently capture carbon directly from the air and convert it into sustainable synthetic fuels has never been clearer. While numerous capture and conversion methods have been propose, many remain at an early stage of development, facing significant challenges such as low energy efficiency, limited scalability, and high operational costs. This lack of technological maturity underscores a vast, largely untapped potential for innovation and transformative advancement. In response to this gap, the present study compiles and critically examines a wide spectrum of emerging capture and conversion technologies. Through a detailed exploration of their functionalities, potentials, advantages, and challenges, the paper accumulates a comprehensive and well-informed dataset. This holistic understanding not only reveals key bottlenecks but also identifies promising
Jain, Gaurav, Premlal, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Letter from the Guest Editors04-19-01-000112/10/2025
Letter from the Guest Editors
Assanis, Dimitris, Cho, Seokwon, Lawler, Benjamin, Pintor, Dario Lopez
Multi-Objective Optimization of Oxyfuel Gas Engine Using Stochastic Engine Model and Detailed Chemistry2025-01-052911/25/2025
The energy transition initiatives in Germany’s renown coal mining region Lusatia have driven research into Power-to-X-to-Power technologies, where synthetic fuel is produced from renewably sourced hydrogen and captured CO2, and converted to electricity and heat through oxyfuel combustion. This work investigates the multi-objective optimization of oxyfuel gas engine using a stochastic engine model and detailed chemistry. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate, initial cylinder temperature and pressure, spark timing, piston bowl radius and depth are selected as design parameters to minimize the exhaust temperature at exhaust valve opening and indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) corresponding to oxyfuel operation with different dry and wet EGR rates. The optimization problem is solved for a dry EGR and four wet EGR cases with various CO2/H2O fractions, aiming to achieve comparable performance as in conventional natural gas / air operation, and energy-efficient carbon capture. The
Asgarzade, Rufat, Franken, Tim, Mauss, Fabian
Development of a Comprehensive Predictive QD Knock Simulation Model for Hydrogen, Methanol, and an Ammonia–Hydrogen Blend2025-01-052811/25/2025
To support the transition toward climate-neutral mobility and power generation, internal combustion engines (ICEs) must operate efficiently on renewable, carbon-neutral fuels. Hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia-hydrogen blends are promising candidates due to their favorable production pathways and combustion properties. However, their knock behavior differs significantly from conventional fuels, requiring dedicated simulation tools. This work presents a modeling framework based on quasi-dimensional (QD) engine simulation, including two separate knock prediction models. The first model predicts the knock boundary of a given operating point and combines an auto-ignition model with a knock criterion. The overall methodology was originally developed for gasoline and is here adapted to hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia-hydrogen blends. For this purpose, the relevant fuel properties were incorporated into the auto-ignition model, and a suitable knock criterion was identified that applies to all
Benzinger, Steffen, Yang, Qirui, Grill, Michael, Kulzer, Andre Casal, Plum, Lukas, Hermsen, Philipp, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan, Hurault, Florian, Foucher, Fabrice, Rousselle, Christine
In-Flight Evaluation of Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels in Compression Ignition Aircraft Engines2025-01-053311/25/2025
As global air traffic is expected to increase significantly in the coming decades, reducing the associated climate impact requires scalable solutions. While alternative propulsion technologies such as electric and hybrid-electric systems might offer long-term potential, their current applicability remains limited due to low energy density, limited range and scalability, and system complexity. Consequently, thermodynamic propulsion systems – such as gas turbines and piston engines – are expected to remain dominant in the medium term. In this context, sustainable hydrocarbon-based aviation fuels represent a practical and necessary solution. Certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) pathways are currently approved exclusively for use in gas turbines, with certification standards tailored to turbine-specific requirements. Consequently, fuel properties such as cetane number and evaporation behavior are not included in existing specifications. However, when SAF-kerosene blends are used in
Kleissner, Florian, Hofmann, Peter, Vogd, Philipp, Vauhkonen, Ville, Käkölä, Jaana, Greve, Alina
Study on Combustion Detection of a Spark-Ignition Engine with Fuel Variation Using Various Sensors2025-32-005211/3/2025
The use of alternative fuels, such as biofuels and synthetic fuels in small mobility engines has become more common these days. Although these fuels contribute to the carbon neutrality, it is known that they do not have a certain fuel composition, which significantly affects the combustion characteristics of an engine, such as knocking and combustion duration. Therefore, to get the most out of these sustainable fuels, it is necessary to develop engine systems that are highly robust to variations in fuel composition. To achieve this goal, a method to sense fuel characteristics onboard using sensors already widespread in use or can be installed inexpensively is required. Although in-cylinder piezoelectric pressure sensors are useful for research in the laboratory, it is not suitable for the use in commercial engines because of its high cost. Therefore, the use of other sensors should be considered. The purpose of this study is to experimentally analyze what information related to
Hayashi, Kohei, Kim, Jihoon, Yamasaki, Yudai
Study on CO 2 Absorption via Atomization Utilizing Surface Texturing and Surface Energy for Small Engine Applications2025-32-007611/3/2025
In response to the stringent CO2 regulations set to be enforced in Europe in 2030, there is a global demand for innovative technologies to significantly reduce CO2 emissions from internal combustion engines used in trucks, ships, and other applications. For this reason, future power sources are anticipated to adopt a three-pronged approach: electrification; hydrogen fuel used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines; and synthetic fuels (e-fuels) produced from renewable energy-sourced hydrogen, as approved by the European Commission (EC), and from raw materials that capture CO₂ directly from the atmosphere via the Direct Air Capture (DAC) method, combined with internal combustion engines. In this study, we aimed to absorb and capture “Green” CO₂ emissions from e-fuel and carbon-neutral (CN) fuels combined with internal combustion engines by investigating a method that atomizes a CO₂-absorbing solution. This approach involved spraying the solution and impingement the droplets within
Nohara, Tetsuo, Nara, Shotaro, Kawamoto, Yuki, Fukushima, Naoya, Ochiai, Masayuki
Model-Based Optimization of Diesel/OMEx Fuelled CI Engine under Multiple Blending Conditions2025-24-00389/7/2025
The search for alternative solutions for vehicle electrification, while reducing the carbon footprint during the transition to green mobility, leads to the investigation of electro-fuels (e-fuels) in conventional internal combustion engines. Leveraging previous research, the present study focuses on the optimisation of a Compression Ignition (CI) engine combustion control in response to the use of the Oxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers (OMEx) blended with conventional diesel. The selected e-fuel is the OME3, which is expected to be used as a drop-in solution and to easily achieve a reduction in soot emissions due to both its high oxygen content and lack of direct carbon bonds in its molecular structure. To verify its potential, a 1D single-cylinder CI multi-zone engine model has been exploited to simulate various diesel/OME3 blends in a wide engine operating range. The first step deals with the evaluation of performance and emissions to demonstrate the differences, particularly in terms of
Foglia, Antonio, Cervone, Davide, Frasci, Emmanuele, Arsie, Ivan, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
Investigation of the Combustion Process of a Thermally Conditioned Active Prechamber in Monovalent Operation with Ammonia2025-24-00289/7/2025
The debate over synthetic fuels is intense especially in sectors with a high energy demand like maritime [1, 2]. Hydrogen production from renewable sources is growing, but immediate measures for decarbonization are needed [3, 4]. In this context, the project MethMag was funded, and a gas engine for methane combustion with an innovative cooling concept and a purged prechamber (PC) spark plug was virtually developed [5, 6]. Validation with data from the test bench demonstrates that the simulations accurately represent the operating conditions [7, 8]. This combustion process is adapted for ammonia, which is being considered as a climate-friendly fuel of the future, particularly in maritime transportation [4, 9]. This fuel faces significant combustion challenges and is therefore mostly considered in complex, bivalent systems [10]. In particular, the prechamber is examined regarding the ignitability of ammonia. The overarching objective is to eliminate the necessity for a secondary fuel
Rothe, Paul, Bikas, Georgios, Mauss, Fabian
Drop-In Performance of Propyl- and Butyl-Terminated Oxymethylene Ethers in a Compression Ignition Engine04-19-01-00037/16/2025
Oxymethylene ethers (OMEs) have been proposed for use in diesel engines as a high-reactivity fuel with reduced soot emission. Historically, the focus on methyl-terminated OMEs has limited drop-in applicability. In this work, a set of extended-alkyl OMEs with methyl, propyl, and butyl terminations are tested in an unmodified 4.5L Deere diesel engine, neat and in various blends with ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD). Engine operability and emissions data are collected for the various fuel blends. External laboratory testing against the ASTM D975 standard demonstrates that a blend of 30% butyl-terminated OMEs with ULSD meets all ASTM standard requirements except lubricity. It is shown that the OMEs and OME–diesel blends demonstrate shorter combustion durations, as defined by the 10%–90% heat release timing, than the ULSD control. Engine brake efficiency is unaffected by OME usage, while specific fuel consumption increases in proportion to the reduced heating values of OMEs. Particulate
Lucas, Stephen P., Zdanowicz, Andrew, Wolff, Wyatt W., Windom, Bret
Prediction of Pre-Ignition Borderline on Supercharged SI Engine by Livengood-Wu Integral2024-32-00084/18/2025
The LSPI (Low Speed Pre-Ignition) is one of the consecutive abnormal combustion cycles of supercharged SI engine with direct injection fuel supply system [1]. The LSPI occurs when the engine is running at low speed and high load condition. It is important for the SI engine to control essentially with alternative fuel, e-fuel and hydrogen in the future. It is considered that the LSPI would be caused by the autoignition of the deposit, the lubricating oil from ring crevice, the lubricating oil from piston crown and so on [2, 3, 4, 5]. Among of these causes, this research focuses on the scattering lubricating oil from piston crown. The previous our research has reported on the two points. One is about the frequency and quantity of the lubricating oil scattering from piston crown [6]. Another is about the frequency of abnormal combustion by the engine test [7]. As the result, it has been cleared that the frequency of abnormal combustion is 1/10 of scattering frequency of the lubricating
Omori, Takaya, Tanaka, Junya
Comprehensive Investigation of Combustion Characteristics, Emissions, and Tribological Properties of Synthetic Kerosene (S8) in a CVCC and CRDI Research Engine2025-01-84434/1/2025
There is a need to reduce both the greenhouse gas emissions of internal combustion engines, and the reliance on traditional fossil fuels like Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD). In this research, a synthetic paraffinic kerosene fuel, designated S8 and created from natural gas feedstocks using the Fischer-Tropsch process was investigated to determine its autoignition and combustion characteristics, emissions, and tribological properties. This fuel, S8, was found to have a Derived Cetane Number (DCN) of 62, which reflects a shorter Ignition Delay (ID), and Combustion Delay (CD) compared to ULSD, which has a DCN of 48. However, due to the chemical properties of S8, it lacks sufficient lubrication qualities in comparison to ULSD, so addition of 3% methyl oleate by mass was used to improve lubricity. The shorter ignition delay of S8, initially observed in a Constant Volume Combustion Chamber (CVCC) and confirmed in a fired Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) experimental engine. Investigations
Soloiu, Valentin, Willis, James, Norton, Coleman, Davis, Zachary, Graham, Tristan, Nobis, Austin
Automotive Engineering: March 202525AUTP033/6/2025
Hydrogen won't accept 'no' for an answer From automakers to companies in the wider mobility industry, hydrogen power is seeing no shortage of investment and research even as some remain unconvinced of its future. Advanced silicones for ADAS in light vehicles Material solutions for thermal management, protection and assembly. Editorial Wrecking Ball Supplier Eye Cooler heads should prevail The international fight over eFuels, internal combustion's would-be savior Hydrogen storage: Not everything need look like a sausage Power over Coaxial: a simplified path to advanced vehicle systems Lighter, recyclable body seal wins SAA award Enhancing E-motor design, thermal efficiency with advanced cooling Mercedes proposes "in-drive brakes" for better EVs Product Briefs Spotlight: ADAS/AV sensors & simulation Interview Mercedes CEO talks software-defined vehicles and 30 years in Silicon Valley
The international fight over eFuels, internal combustion's would-be savior25AUTP03_053/1/2025
Efuels, synthetic gasolines made from captured carbon dioxide and renewable energy (usually wind and solar power), are “a valuable part of the solution,” said Aston Martin CEO Adrian Hallmark at a press briefing in New York on January 31. He described the process of creating the fuel as “really clean,” but also cited a rather off-putting price: $31 a gallon in the U.S. Still, Hallmark thinks eFuels could be a way for Aston to continue producing at least a few V12-powered cars in the coming electric future. Other automakers agree, but the battle over eFuels has by no means reached a cease-fire.
Motavalli, Jim
Jet-Induced Compression Ignition (JICI)—Application of Spark-Assisted Compression Ignition (SACI) in a Combustion System with Active Pre-Chamber03-18-01-00091/17/2025
The application of short burn durations at lean engine operation has the potential to increase the efficiency of spark-ignition engines. To achieve short burn durations, spark-assisted compression ignition (SACI) as well as active pre-chamber (PC) combustion systems are suitable technologies. Since a combination of these two combustion concepts has the potential to achieve shorter burn durations than the application of only one of these concepts, the concept of jet-induced compression ignition (JICI) was investigated in this study. With the JICI, the fuel is ignited in the PC, and the combustion products igniting the charge in the main combustion chamber (MC) triggered the autoignition of the MC charge. A conventional gasoline fuel (RON 95 E10) and a Porsche synthetic fuel (POSYN) were investigated to assess the fuel influence on the JICI. Variations of the relative air/fuel ratio in the exhaust gas (λex) were performed to evaluate both the occurrence of the JICI and the dilution
Burkardt, Patrick, Günther, Marco, Villforth, Jonas, Pischinger, Stefan
Sustainable Aviation Fuel – An Effective Tool for Complying with the Aviation’s Global Environmental Commitment2024-36-006612/20/2024
The (commercial) aviation sector (passenger and freight), which is strongly engaged with the world efforts to mitigate the carbon emissions and their inherent climate change effects, has accounted in 2018 for 2.4 % of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (pre-pandemic levels). Despite the reductions in air travel demand during the 2020 pandemic, with a reduction of up to 80% in passenger travel during the peak pandemic period, the air travel demand has already recovered to around 80% of the pre-pandemic level, with aviation emissions in 2022 reaching around 800 Mt CO2, accounting for 2% of the global energy related CO2 emissions. Moreover, the demand for air travel is expected to double by 2040, growing at an annual average rate of 3.4%, which means that. despite the efficiency improvement trend (average 2%/year), will almost double the aviation’s greenhouse (GHG) emissions, with a significant increase in its relative GHG share, compared to the other transport modes. Meanwhile the
Barbosa, Fábio Coelho
Toyota, Mazda, Subaru agree carbon is ‘the enemy’ with new internal combustion engine announcement24AUTP08_108/1/2024
Toyota, Mazda and Subaru announced a new technological effort to create new internal combustion engines and ways to use them in the electrification era, specifically for hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles. The companies said at a joint press conference in Japan that they would encourage increased use of petroleum alternatives like biofuels and eFuels in their effort to create carbon-neutral vehicles. A joint statement from the three OEMs claims this push for new and better ICEs comes with a focus on “carbon as the enemy” as they develop engines that can better work with electric motors, batteries, and other electric drive units. Toyota, Mazda and Subaru made clear they are not getting rid of EV-only vehicle plans. Here's how each company will approach the new ICE+EV era (quotes provided in English by on-site interpreters).
Blanco, Sebastian
How Can a Sustainable Energy Infrastructure Based on Renewable Fuels Contribute to Global Carbon Neutrality?2024-01-30237/2/2024
With the COP28 decisions the world is thriving for a future net-zero-CO2 society and the and current regulation acts, the energy infrastructure is changing in direction of renewables in energy production. All industry sectors will extend their share of direct or indirect electrification. The question might arise if the build-up of the renewables in energy production is fast enough. Demand and supply might not match in the short- and mid-term. The paper will discuss the roadmaps, directions and legislative boundary parameter in the regenerative energy landscape and their regional differences. National funding on renewables will gain an increasing importance to accelerate the energy transformation. The are often competing in attracting the same know-how on a global scale. In addition the paper includes details about energy conversion, efficiency as well as potential transport scenarios from production to the end consumer. Technologies are compared in respect of their TLR level and
Rothbart, Martin
Demonstration of Low Criteria Pollutant and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Synergizing Vehicle Emission Reduction Technology and Lower Carbon Fuels2024-01-21214/9/2024
This study focuses on evaluation of various fuels within a conventional gasoline internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle and the implementation of advanced emissions reduction technology. It shows the robustness of the implemented technology packages for achieving ultra-low tailpipe emissions to different market fuels and demonstrates the potential of future GHG neutral powertrains enabled by drop-in lower carbon fuels (LCF). An ultra-low emission (ULE) sedan vehicle was set up using state-of-the-art engine technology, with advanced vehicle control and exhaust gas aftertreatment system including a prototype rapid catalyst heating (RCH) unit. Currently regulated criteria pollutant emission species were measured at both engine-out and tailpipe locations. Vehicle was run on three different drive cycles at the chassis dynamometer: two standard cycles (WLTC and TfL) at 20°C, and a real driving emission (RDE) cycle at -7°C. Several EN228 compliant fuels, including lower-carbon fuel
Storch, Michael, Singh, Ripudaman, Haubold, Sven, Voice, Alexander
Numerical Study of a Six-Stroke Gasoline Compression Ignition (6S-GCI) Engine Combustion with Oxygenated Fuels2024-01-23734/9/2024
A numerical investigation of a six-stroke direct injection compression ignition engine operation in a low temperature combustion (LTC) regime is presented. The fuel employed is a gasoline-like oxygenated fuel consisting of 90% isobutanol and 10% diethyl ether (DEE) by volume to match the reactivity of conventional gasoline with octane number 87. The computational simulations of the in-cylinder processes were performed using a high-fidelity multidimensional in-house 3D CFD code (MTU-MRNT) with improved spray-sub models and CHEMKIN library. The combustion chemistry was described using a two-component (isobutanol and DEE) fuel model whose oxidation pathways were given by a reaction mechanism with 177 species and 796 reactions. The key advantage of six-stroke engine operation is the ability to switch the combustion mode among kinetical controlled mode (KCM), kinetically-driven mixing control mode (K-MCM) and mixing controlled mode (MCM) in the second power stroke (PS2) providing a wider
Purushothaman, Ashwin Karthik, Ra, Youngchul, Ha, Kyoung Pyo, Zhu, Shengrong, Ullal, Ankith
Automotive Engineering: April 202424AUTP044/4/2024
eFuels: An Alternative to the Alternative Synthetic fuels promise low-carbon alternatives, but can they deliver? WCX 2024: Come for the AI, stay for the optimism AI top of mind at SAE's annual technical mobility conference. A Peek at Electrify America's Charging Station Future Twenty DC fast chargers and amenities are available, but the most important detail is that everything works. Full speed ahead for second-generation Indy autonomous racers Major hardware and software upgrades underpin the Indy Autonomous Challenge racecar for 2024, proving self-driving vehicle capabilities at triple-digit speeds. Editorial The future is back Supplier Eye New keys to success Sumitomo Sensing Core: a sensor-free smart tire Neural Propulsion Systems claims significant radar breakthrough Porsche study: Europe missing out on tooling battery gigafactories All-electric Nissan Ariya handles ultra-cold temps on pole-to-pole trek Introducing new Concept CLA, Mercedes says Europe, North America charging to
EDITORIAL: The future is back24AUTP04_054/1/2024
As I was working on this issue's cover story - a look at the current state of low- and no-carbon fuels and the potential they hold - the cyclical nature of life made itself readily apparent (once again). I will warn those of you who were involved in the automotive industry a decade or two ago that you might experience similar flashbacks when you read about how eFuels could, if everything works the way it's supposed to, provide a way for much of today's internal combustion engines to power legitimately zero-new-emission vehicles, especially in regions of the world where EVs don't yet make sense. That's great. Well, it sounds great, at least. The many promises made by producers and researchers of synthetic fuels sound strikingly similar to what the companies supporting biofuels were saying back when George W. Bush was still president. The fuel is cleaner, they said. We can keep (some of) the same infrastructure, or just modify it slightly, they said. This will work with EVs to make the
Blanco, Sebastian
eFuels: An Alternative to the Alternative24AUTP04_014/1/2024
Low-carbon fuels promise greener alternatives, but can they deliver? Even as electric vehicles dominate today's alternative powertrain market for passenger cars, the future of how we will all someday drive without burning petroleum is cloudier than ever. To decarbonize transportation, governments and companies around the world are promoting various future technologies, including hydrogen and synthetic fuels, as alternatives to the alternative. In the U.S., the road to a hydrogen future recently hit a few road-blocks. In February 2024, Shell announced it would dramatically scale back its H2 refueling station plans in California and close some of its few stations. This dealt a blow to local H2-vehicle drivers as well as the state's plans for a robust hydrogen infrastructure. When Hyundai announced in October 2021 that it would support Shell's plans to add 48 additional H2 refueling stations in California, it said that “hydrogen refueling infrastructure growth is critical to rapidly
Blanco, Sebastian
Decarbonization Routes for Global Road Mobility and Regional ChallengesEPR202302510/26/2023
The importance of decarbonizing mobility to slow climate change is already a common goal worldwide. However, there is a lack of alignment on which technological routes to take. While the electrification of mobility assumes dominance in some markets, it is essential to consider specificities of each region so that different applications of transport modes can be concretely evaluated. Decarbonization Routes for Global Road Mobility and Regional Challenges discusses regional approaches, such as those from Brazil and India, that can offer more representative participation in global decarbonization processes. These routes leverage these countries’ domestic talent and regional potential instead of simply copying the solutions coming from developed countries. Biofuels, biomass, and green hydrogen can be very effective ways of reducing global warming for these countries and others with similar economic characteristics, bringing more opportunities for market development and competitive
Adas, Camilo Abduch
Impacts of eFuels on Solid and Gaseous Emissions of Powersport Two-Wheelers2023-01-183810/24/2023
As alternative to electrification or carbon free fuels such as hydrogen, CO2-neutral fuels have been researched aiming to decrease the impact of fossil energy sources on the environment. Despite the potential benefit of capturing CO2 emission after combustion for own fuel production, the so-called eFuels also benefit by using a green source of energy during their fabrication. Among all the possibilities for eFuels, alcohols, ethers (such as MTBE and ETBE) and alternative hydrocarbons have shown positive impacts regarding emission reduction and performance when compared to standard gasoline. Previously in [1] and [2], synthetic fuels and methanol blends were tested at steady state conditions in order to verify advantages and drawbacks relative to gasoline, for power-sport motorcycles. However, for real-world operation, transient behavior must be investigated addressing critical topics such as emissions during engine / aftertreatment warm-up, catalyst light-off and its interaction with
Batalha, Guilherme Pellizzaro, Schurl, Sebastian, Schmidt, Stephan, Bonifer, Marcus
Potential for Particulate Reduction by Use of eFuels in MPFI Engines2023-01-184810/24/2023
Currently, emission regulations for the LVs using standard spark ignited ICEs considering only gaseous pollutants, just as CO, HC and NOx. Following the upcoming legislation for personal vehicles sector, the LVs might also include limits of PN and PM. Regarding fuel injection strategies, the MPFI which was previously excluded from particulate control will be incorporated into the new regulation [1]. In terms of social harm, there will be a necessity to reduce engine particulate emissions, as they are known for being carcinogenic substances [2, 3, 4]. Generally, the smaller the particulate diameter, the more critical are the damages for human health therefore, the correct determination of PN and particulate diameter is essential. Beside future challenges for reducing and controlling particulates, the reduction of fossil fuel usage is also an imminent target, being the replacement by eFuels one of the most promising alternatives. Therefore, the particulate generation behavior of eFuels
Schurl, Sebastian, Batalha, Guilherme, Kupper, Martin, Schmidt, Stephan, Krasa, Helmut
Study on Combustion and Exhaust Emissions Characteristics of Oxymethylene Dimethyl Ether Blends with Fischer-Tropsch Fuels in Diesel Engines2023-32-01679/29/2023
Synthetic fuels (e-fuels) synthesized from H2 and CO by renewable electricity are expected as the next- generation diesel fuels and two types of e-fuels have received extensive attention: Fischer-Tropsch (FT) fuel and Oxymethylene dimethyl ether (OME). In this study the effects of OME blending ratios with 0 to 50 vol.% in FT fuels on combustion, emissions and spray characteristics in diesel engines are investigated. The results suggest that the OME blends to FT fuels suppressed the deterioration in combustion efficiency under low intake oxygen concentration conditions. The smoke emissions of FT fuels and OME blended fuels were both lower than those of diesel fuel and decreased with the increase in the OME blend ratio, and the soot-NOx trade-off relation in diesel engines can be improved.
Yuan, Haoyu, Tsukuda, Takuma, Nishino, Jumpei, Shibata, Gen, Ogawa, Hideyuki
Cold Start Performance of Sustainable Oxygenated Spark Ignition Fuels2023-32-01669/29/2023
The objective of this study was to reduce pollutant emissions during cold start conditions in a spark-ignited direct injection engine, by exploring the potential of oxygenated fuels. With their high oxygen content and lack of direct C-C bonds, they effectively reduce particle number (PN) and NOx emissions under normal conditions. Methanol was chosen due to its wide availability. As methanol is toxic to humans and associated with cold-start issues, a second promising synthetic fuel was selected to be benchmarked against gasoline, comprising 65 vol% of dimethyl carbonate and 35 vol% of methyl formate (C65F5). Currently, there is a lack of detailed investigations on the cold start performance for both oxygenated fuels utilizing today’s injector capabilities. Spray measurements were caried out in a constant volume chamber to assess the spray of C65F35. Reduced fuel temperature increased spray-penetration length and compromised fast vaporization. Therefore, the injection strategy becomes
Kraus, Christoph, Fellner, Felix, Miyamoto, Akiyasu, Sauerland, Henning, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte
Automated Kinetic Mechanism Evaluation for e-Fuels Using SciExpeM: The Case of Oxymethylene Ethers2023-24-00928/28/2023
In the rapidly changing scenario of the energy transition, data-driven tools for kinetic mechanism development and testing can greatly support the evaluation of the combustion properties of new potential e-fuels. Despite the effectiveness of kinetic mechanism generation and optimization procedures and the increased availability of experimental data, integrated methodologies combining data analysis, kinetic simulations, chemical lumping, and kinetic mechanism optimization are still lacking. This paper presents an integrated workflow that combines recently developed automated tools for kinetic mechanism development and testing, from data collection to kinetic model reduction and optimization. The proposed methodology is applied to build a consistent, efficient, and well-performing kinetic mechanism for the combustion of oxymethylene ethers (OMEs), which are promising synthetic e-fuels for transportation. In fact, OMEs are easily mixed with conventional fuels and share similar ignition
Dinelli, Timoteo, Pratali Maffei, Luna, Pegurri, Alessandro, Puri, Amedeo, Stagni, Alessandro, Faravelli, Tiziano
Efficiency Optimized Engine Operation with CO 2 Neutral Fuels through Thermodynamic Loss Calculation and Model-Based Fuel Detection2023-24-00968/28/2023
Global efforts to reduce anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions require innovative measures in the field of vehicle drives to present solutions in all areas of the transportation sector in the future. Synthetic fuels, that can be used in conventional combustion engines, show promising potentials. An increasing amount of synthetic fuels will be found in the off-highway sector, which is characterized by a high power and work density. The properties of synthetic fuels can differ depending on their chemical structure. In particular, the calorific value (LHV) and the stoichiometric air-fuel-ratio (AFRst) have a direct influence on the performance and emission characteristics of an engine. In addition to providing optimal fuel-specific engine operation, fuel detection can ensure that the engine is only operated with regenerative energy carriers in future. In this paper, the methodical approach for optimizing fuel-specific engine operation on the basis of thermodynamic loss calculation
Demel, Philipp, Knost, Friedemar, Obée, Alexander, Beidl, Christian
Evaluation of Different Gasoline Formulations on a High-Performance Engine2023-24-00388/28/2023
The future of the combustion engine will to some extent depend on the use of CO2-neutral eFuels to avoid further fossil CO2 emissions. Also, the use of synthetic fuels offers the possibility to improve various engine properties, such as thermodynamics, EGR compatibility or emissions, through targeted influence on specific fuel properties. To this end, a methodology was generated to attribute various engine effects to particular fuel properties. Therefore, the Chair of Combustion Engines (LVAS) at the TU Dresden developed a fully automated testbed for motorcycle engines, including clutch and gear switching mechanisms. Hitherto, emissions measurements for motorcycles were done mostly on chassis dynamometers, with the disadvantage of a large spread of results. Due to the lack of consistency the analysis of fuel properties was not possible. To prove the developed methodology, a test campaign including 15 different gasoline fuels was elaborated in cooperation with KTM R&D GmbH. Before
Graßmeyer, Marius, Atzler, Frank
Experimental and 3D-CFD Analysis of Synthetic Fuel Properties on Combustion and Exhaust Gas Emission Characteristics in Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines2023-24-00528/28/2023
Synthetic fuels can significantly improve the combustion and emission characteristics of heavy-duty diesel engines toward decarbonizing heavy-duty propulsion systems. This work analyzes the effects of engine operating conditions and synthetic fuel properties on spray, combustion, and emissions (soot, NOx) using a supercharging single-cylinder engine experiment and KIVA-4 code combined with CHEMKIN-II and in-house phenomenological soot model. The blended fuel ratio is fixed at 80% diesel and 20% n-paraffin by volume (hereafter DP). Diesel, DP1 (diesel with n-pentane C5H12), DP2 (diesel with n-hexane C6H14), and DP3 (diesel with n-heptane C7H16) are used in engine-like-condition constant volume chamber (CVC) and engine experiments. Boosted engine experiments (1080 rpm, common-rail injection pressure 160 MPa, multi-pulse injection) are performed using the same DP fuel groups under various main injection timings, pulse-injection intervals, and EGR = 0-40%. Once the 3D-CFD model is
Shimizu, Kunihiro, Narushima, Tomoki, Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Combustion and Noise, Vibrations, and Harshness Emissions in a Drone Jet Engine Fueled with Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene01-17-01-00068/14/2023
Emissions and effects of climate change have prompted study into fuels that reduce global dependence on traditional fuels. This study seeks to investigate engine performance, thermochemical properties, emissions, and perform NVH analysis of Jet-A and S8 using a single-stage turbojet engine at three engine speeds. Experimental Jet-A results were used to validate a CFX simulation of the engine. Engine performance was quantified using thermocouples, pressure sensors, tachometers, flow meters, and load cells fitted to the engine. Emissions results were collected using an MKS Multigas Emissions Analyzer that examined CO, CO₂, H₂O, NOx, and THC. NVH analysis was conducted using a multifield, free-field microphone, and triaxial accelerometer. This study found that Jet-A operates at higher temperatures and pressures than S8, and S8 requires higher fuel flow rates than Jet-A, leading to poorer efficiency and thrust. S8 produced stronger vibrations over 5 kHz compared to Jet-A. S8 showed a
Soloiu, Valentin, Mcafee, John, Ilie, Marcel, Rowell, Aidan, Willis, James, Dillon, Nicholas
Decarbonized Fuel Options for Civil AviationEPR20230126/13/2023
Drop-in replacement biofuels and electrofuels can provide net-zero CO2 emissions with dramatic reductions in contrail formation. Biofuels must transition to second-generation cellulosic feedstocks while improving land and soil management. Electrofuels, or "e-fuels,” require aggressive cost reduction in hydrogen production, carbon capture, and fuel synthesis. Hydrogen has great potential for energy efficiency, cost reduction, and emissions reduction; however, its low density (even in liquid form) combined with it’s extremely low boiling temperature mean that bulky spherical tanks will consume considerable fuselage volume. Still, emerging direct-kerosene fuel cells may ultimately provide a superior zero-emission, energy-dense solution. Decarbonized Power Options for Civil Aviation discusses the current challenges with these power options and explores the economic incentives and levers vital to decarbonization. Until common and enforceable global carbon pricing arrives, targeted national
Muelaner, Jody E.
Numerical Validation and Optical Study of Injection of Different Oxymethylene Ether Fuels for Heavy-Duty Application04-17-01-00046/5/2023
A reliable toolchain for the validation and evaluation of numerical spray break-up simulation for the potentially carbon-neutral fuels polyoxymethylene dimethylether (POMDME, or short OME) is developed and presented. The numerical investigation is based on three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (3D-CFD) with the commercial code STAR-CD v2019.1 using a Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations approach. Fuel properties of the representatives OME1 and OME3 are implemented into the software and with that the fuels are investigated numerically. For validation purposes, optical experimental results in a heated spray chamber with inert nitrogen-pressurized atmosphere are presented. The measurement data are based on Mie scattering of the liquid phase and Schlieren imaging of the vapor phase. Solely experimental results are shown for OME1b and OME3–6 to assess if the knowledge from the numerical modeling with OME1 and OME3 can also be transferred to the corresponding
Gaukel, Kai, Pélerin, Dominik, Dworschak, Patrick, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte
Effects of Pre-spark Heat Release of Ethanol-Blended Gasoline Surrogate Fuels on Engine Combustion Behavior04-17-01-00035/2/2023
Regulations limiting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport sector have become more restrictive in recent years, drawing interest to synthetic fuels such as e-fuels and biofuels that could “decarbonize” existing vehicles. This study focuses on the potential to increase the thermal efficiency of spark-ignition (SI) engines using ethanol as a renewable fuel, which requires a deep understanding of the effects of ethanol on combustion behavior with high compression ratios (CRs). An important phenomenon in this condition is pre-spark heat release (PSHR), which occurs in engines with high CRs in boosted conditions and changes the fuel reactivity, leading to changes in the burning velocity. Fuel blends containing ethanol display high octane sensitivity (OS) and limited low-temperature heat release (LTHR). Consequently, their burning velocities with PSHR may differ from that of gasoline. This study therefore aimed to clarify the effects of ethanol on SI combustion behavior under PSHR
Yoshimura, Kei, Isobe, Kohei, Kawashima, Mitsutaka, Yamaguchi, Kyohei, Sok, Ratnak, Tokuhara, Satoshi, Kusaka, Jin
E-fueling for the future23AUTD05_045/1/2023
The development of carbon-neutral e-fuels enjoyed a major boost from European regulators, but production cost and scale remain issues. Synthetic and bio-based liquid “e-fuels” have in various forms enjoyed fits and starts of industry attention and R&D investment in recent years. They got the most significant boost ever in March 2023 when a politically charged deal between the European Union and Germany brokered an exemption in the EU's mandate for sales only of EVs starting in 2035. The agreement allows manufacturers to continue selling internal-combustion models after the 2035 deadline - but only if they run on carbon-neutral e-fuels. In an instant, e-fuels were guaranteed a market all to themselves. It remains to be seen whether e-fuels - at least in their current state of technology - can answer the call. But as some supporters enthused after the EU's escort of e-fuels into the post-EV landscape, developers have more than a decade to address technical challenges and concerns about
Visnic, Bill
Fuels to transition the global legacy fleet23AUTD05_055/1/2023
The EV bandwagon has obscured potential solutions for decarbonizing the enormous global ICE legacy fleet. Put the promise of mass vehicle electrification and its myriad challenges aside for a moment, and consider: What if most IC-engine vehicle owners don't switch to EVs as the industry and regulators hope they will? And how long will it take to alter the existing global vehicle parc, estimated at more than one billion mostly ICE-powered vehicles, to the extent its greenhouse-gas emissions are insignificant in the crusade to achieve net-zero (and thwart global warming) by 2050?
Brooke, Lindsay
Europe steps back from 2035 ICE ban23AUTD05_125/1/2023
In a surprising move that paves the way for the European Union's adoption of a mandate to eliminate vehicle CO2 emissions, on March 25 the EU reached an agreement with Germany to step back from a complete ban of combustion-engine vehicles starting in 2035. The EU agreed to permit sales and registration of IC-engine models after the 2035 deadline - provided those vehicles operate only on carbon-neutral fuels, often generically referred to as ‘e-fuels.’ With a significant portion of its economy related to the historically ICE-based automotive industry, Germany had resisted the EU's total ban, although its Parliament's Green Party supported the forced sunsetting of ICE passenger vehicles. Reuters reported German Transport Minister Volker Wissing as tweeting, “We secure opportunities for Europe by preserving important options for climate-neutral and affordable mobility.” In another Twitter post, Wissing reportedly added, “Vehicles with internal combustion engines can still be newly
Visnic, Bill
A Numerical Approach for the Analysis of Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil and Dimethoxy Methane Blends as Low-Carbon Alternative Fuel in Compression Ignition Engines2023-01-03384/11/2023
Despite recent advances towards powertrain electrification as a solution to mitigate pollutant emissions from road transport, synthetic fuels (especially e- fuels) still have a major role to play in applications where electrification will not be viable in short-medium term. Among e-fuels, oxymethylene ethers are getting serious interest within the scientific community and industry. Dimethoxy methane (OME1) is the smaller molecule among this group, which is of special interest due to its low soot formation. However, its application is still limited mainly due to its low lower heating value. In contrast, other fuel alternatives like hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) are considered as drop-in solutions thanks to their very similar properties and molecular composition to that of fossil diesel. However, their pollutant emission improvement is limited. This work proposes the combination of OME1 and HVO as an alternative to fossil diesel, to achieve noticeable soot emission reductions while
Garcia-Oliver, Jose M, Novella, Ricardo, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Micó, Carlos, Bin-Khalid, Usama
Injector Design and Fuel Pressure Variation for Oxygenated Spark Ignition Fuels2023-01-03064/11/2023
This study provides an overview of injector design adaptations and fuel pressure variations for oxygenated synthetic fuels, benchmarked against gasoline. The promising oxygenated fuels exhibited reduced emissions, especially with respect to particles. In gasoline engines, high fuel pressures are needed to keep the particle emissions below the permitted level. In oxygenated fuels, high fuel pressures are required to compensate for the lower volumetric energy density when used with non-adapted injectors. This study demonstrates that an adapted injector design enables engine operation with a fuel pressure reduction from 35 MPa to 10 MPa, without emission drawbacks. The fuel investigated contained dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and methyl formate (MeFo). The fuel mass contained around 50% oxygen. A relatively high percentage of 35 vol.% MeFo was chosen because of its high vapor pressure, thus providing fast mixture formation and enabling very late compression stroke injections. The basic design
Kraus, Christoph, Fellner, Felix, Miyamoto, Akiyasu, Sauerland, Henning, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte
Ignition and Combustion Characteristics of OME 3-5 and N-Dodecane: A Comparison Based on CFD Engine Simulations and Optical Experiments2023-01-03054/11/2023
Synthetic fuels derived from renewable power sources, so-called e-fuels, will play a crucial role in achieving climate-neutral future mobility because they can be used in the existing fleets and in hard-to-decarbonize applications. In particular e-fuels that contain oxygen in their chemical structure can also burn more cleanly in terms of soot formation. For compression-ignition engines, polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODEs or OMEs) are among the most promising candidates for such oxygenated e-fuels. Here, we investigated the characteristics of injection and combustion of OME3-5 mixture compared to n-dodecane, a reference diesel-like fuel. Both single and multi-injection, comprising a short pilot injection, is used. Experiments were performed in a single-cylinder optically accessible Bowditch-type engine, injecting with 1500 bar pressure with a 3-hole injector (Spray B of the Engine Combustion Network). Liquid and vapor penetration were measured by imaging the spray illuminated by a
Wiesmann, Frederik, Bauer, Esra, Kaiser, Sebastian A., Lauer, Thomas
Development of 50% Thermal Efficiency S.I. Engine to Contribute Realization of Carbon Neutrality2023-01-02414/11/2023
To prevent global warming, many countries are making efforts to reduce CO2 emissions toward achieving 2050 carbon neutrality. In order to reduce CO2 concentration quickly, in addition to spread of renewable energy and expansion of BEV, it is also important to reduce CO2 emissions by improving thermal efficiency of ICE (internal combustion engine) and utilizing carbon neutral fuels such as synthetic fuels and biofuels. It is well known that lean burn is an effective technology to increase thermal efficiency of engine highly. However, since NOx emission from lean burn engine cannot be reduced with three-way catalyst, there have been issues such as complicated system configuration due to the addition of NOx reduction catalyst or limiting lean operation to narrow engine speed and load in order to meet emission regulation of each country. This paper introduces super lean burn engine with over lambda 2.5 that achieves both high thermal efficiency and significantly low NOx emission in order
Kimura, Koshiro, SAKAI, Hiroyuki, Omura, Tetsuo, Takahashi, Daishi
Combustion Characteristics of Low DCN Synthetic Aviation Fuel, IPK, in a High Compression Ignition Indirect Injection Research Engine2023-01-02724/11/2023
The Coal-To-Liquid (CTL) synthetic aviation fuel, Iso-Paraffinic Kerosene (IPK), was studied for ignition delay, combustion delay, pressure trace, pressure rise rate, apparent heat release rate in an experimental single cylinder indirect injection (IDI) compression ignition engine and a constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC). Autoignition characteristics for neat IPK, neat Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD), and a blend of 50%IPK and 50% ULSD were determined in the CVCC and the effects of the autoignition quality of each fuel were determined also in an IDI engine. ULSD was found to have a Derived Cetane Number (DCN) of 47 for the batch used in this experimentation. IPK was found to have a DCN of 25.9 indicating that is has a lower affinity for autoignition, and the blend fell between the two at 37.5. Additionally, it was found that the ignition delay for IPK in the CVCC was 5.3 ms and ULSD was 3.56 ms. This increase in ignition delay allowed the accumulation of fuel in the combustion
Soloiu, Valentin, Weaver, Amanda, Smith, Richard, Rowell, Aidan, Mcafee, John, Willis, James
Highly Efficient and Clean Combustion Engine for Synthetic Fuels2023-01-02234/11/2023
This paper provides an overview of possible engine design optimizations by utilizing highly knock-resistant potential greenhouse gas (GHG) neutral synthetic fuels. Historically the internal combustion engine was tailored to and highly optimized for fossil fuels. For future engine generations one of the main objectives is to achieve GHG neutrality. This means that either carbon-free fuels such as hydrogen or potential greenhouse gas neutral fuels are utilized. The properties of hydrogen make its use challenging for mobile application as it is very diffusive, not liquid under standard temperature/pressure and has a low volumetric energy density. C1-based oxygenated fuels such as methanol (MeOH), dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and methyl formate (MeFo) have properties like conventional gasoline but offer various advantages. Firstly, these fuels can be produced with renewable energy and carbon capture technologies to be GHG neutral. Secondly, the C1-based fuels burn with significantly less
Kraus, Christoph, Thamm, Fabian, Retzlaff, Mario, Gadomski, Bartosch, Fitz, Patrick, Härtl, Martin, Hoppe, Steffen, Jaensch, Malte
Prediction of Spray Vapor Tip Penetration of Diesel, Biodiesel and Synthetic Fuels Using Artificial Neural Networks with Confidence Intervals2023-01-03154/11/2023
Fuel spray and atomization processes affect the combustion and emissions characteristics of fuels in internal combustion engines. Biodiesel and synthetic fuels such as oxymethylene dimethyl ethers (OME) show great promise as alternative fuels and are complementary in terms of reproducing the fluid properties of conventional diesel fuels through blending, for instance. Averaged experimental results, empirical correlations and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) have typically been used to evaluate and predict fuel spray liquid and vapor penetration values so as to better design internal combustion engines. Lately, Machine Learning (ML) is being applied to these investigations. Typically, ML spray studies use averaged experimental data and then over-trained neural networks on the limited available data. By contrast, in this study we present spray vapor tip penetration predictions using artificial neural networks with systematic treatment of uncertainties arising from experimental
Richards, Bryn, Emekwuru, Nwabueze
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