Browse Topic: Emissions measurement

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Advanced Compliance Risk Assessment Using Big Data from Fleet Intelligence Data2025-28-0343To be published on 11/06/2025
In-Use compliance regulations globally mandate that machines meet emission standards in the field, beyond dyno certification. For engine manufacturers, understanding compliance risks early is crucial for technology selection, calibration strategies, and validation routines. This study focuses on developing analytical and statistical methods for compliance risk assessment using Leverage Fleet Intelligence (LFI) data, which includes high-frequency telematics data from over 500K machines, reporting 1300 measures at 1Hz frequency. Traditional analytical methods are inadequate for handling such big data, necessitating advanced methods. We developed data pipelines to query measures from the Enterprise Data Lake (A Structured Data storage system), address big data challenges, and ensure data quality. Regulatory requirements were translated into software logic and applied to pre-processed data for compliance assessment. The resulting reports provide actionable insights on NOx sensor activity
Arya, Satya Prakash, Shekarappa, Kiran
Fuel Differentiation for the Energy Efficiency in Heavy Duty Diesel Applications - A case study for the determination of exhaust emissions and fuel economy2025-28-0231To be published on 11/06/2025
For the achievement of Net Zero Emission goals, various corporates have started with the planning towards the achievement of short-term goals which are well defined with the implementation of energy conservation and efficiency. In this direction, differentiated diesel (Xtragreen) is an optimized combination of diesel fuel with higher Cetane Number fortified with Novel & Optimized multi-functional additives (MFAs) formulation for improved performance and specially designed by Indian Oil Corporation Limited for heavy duty diesel engines & off-highway applications. IndianOil innovative concept is based on enhancement of fuel economics by enhancement in fuel combustion, injector cleaning characteristics and reduction of frictional losses. The benefits associated with differentiated diesel are with High cetane fuel (55 against 51) with Superior cleanliness to keep high pressure diesel Injectors clean, better lubricity provides longer injector life, Superior Combustion leads to lower noise
Kumar, Prashant, Mayeen, Hafiz, Saroj, Shyamsher
Exhaust emissions tests of small gasoline engines used as drives for power generators and handheld machinery2025-32-0072To be published on 11/03/2025
The paper presents the results of the investigations on the exhaust emissions carried out under real operating conditions of gasoline small engines. During the operation of these devices the authors measured the exhaust emissions: CO, HC, NOx and CO2. For the measurements the authors used a portable exhaust emission analyzer (PEMS). The presented method is a new solution in determining of the exhaust emissions from such engines. In the paper the results of exhaust emissions measurement has been presented. Moreover, some remarks according to measurement method has been presented. The obtained results were compared with the applicable emission requirements. Besides, based on the performed investigations, the authors attempted an evaluation of the possibilities of the use of the measurement method for development works and legislation related to the reduction of the emission from small gasoline engines.
Lijewski, Piotr, Markiewicz, Filip, Fuc, Pawel, Dobrzynski, Michał
Integration of a Compact 4-Stroke Engine into a Model Vehicle with Dynamic Emission Analysis on a Small Chassis Dynamometer2025-32-0074To be published on 11/03/2025
The increasing importance of reducing emissions and improving the efficiency of internal combustion engines extends not only to applications in large vehicles, but also to small drive systems. This study focuses on the implementation of a compact 4-stroke engine in a model vehicle and on dynamic emission tests carried out with a specially developed test rig. The aim was to investigate the integration of small combustion engines into model platforms and to evaluate their emission behavior under transient conditions. The 4-stroke engine was carefully selected and adapted to the physical and operational conditions of the model vehicle. A test rig with a small roller dynamometer was developed to simulate real driving cycles and enable dynamic measurement of emissions. To optimize oil emissions, an online mass spectrometer was used to analyze the effects of lubricant composition and hardware variations, such as different piston ring designs, on emission behavior. High-resolution measuring
Gohl, Marcus, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Arakawa, Hitomu
Overcoming Challenges in Motorcycle Exhaust Flow Measurement: A Study on Measurement Accuracy and Systematic Effects of an Annubar-Based Approach2025-32-0016To be published on 11/03/2025
Accurate exhaust mass flow measurement is critical for Real Driving Emission (RDE) assessment, however, it is particularly challenging for motorcycles due to variations in chemical composition, strong pulsations and even reverse flow effects at low engine speeds. Traditional differential pressure-based flow meters often struggle under these conditions, particularly in low-speed and low-load operation. This study evaluates the feasibility and accuracy of an Annubar-based exhaust flow meter (EFM) designed to address these challenges by means of assessing eight motorcycles with single-, two-, and four-cylinder engine configurations. The EFM’s performance is evaluated via correlation analysis with laboratory-grade reference instruments and engine control unit (ECU) data. Additionally, systematic effects such as pulsation behavior, spectrogram analysis, and the influence of engine load and speed are investigated. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between Annubar-based EFM and
Schurl, Sebastian, Hafenmayer, Christian, Lankau, Mathias, Brenn, Günter, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Real Driving Emission (RDE) Assessment for Motorcycles Using a Random Cycle Generator (RCG)2025-32-0071To be published on 11/03/2025
To protect the atmospheric environment conservation, regulations regarding vehicle exhaust gas emissions have become increasingly stringent over the years. For the case of light duty vehicles (LDVs), Real Driving Emission (RDE) assessments based on Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS) measurements are being introduced. However, the application of PEMS measurements to motorcycles presents several challenges, including reduced measurement accuracy due to the small engine displacement and number of cylinders, and increased weight due to the PEMS installation. Therefore, an alternative evaluation method that does not rely on PEMS is required. In this study, we have developed a Random Cycle Generator (RCG) to provide an evaluation method that can be performed in a laboratory environment. The RCG allows the creation of evaluation modes by combining different speed patterns of motorcycles. It can generate arbitrary driving cycles that take into account the average and upper limits of
Matsuoka, Masahiro, Hirai, Hiroshi, Ito, Takayuki
RDE testing of small Motorcycle in Indian Road Conditions and study the impact of instrumentation on emission and fuel economy2025-32-0075To be published on 11/03/2025
This paper presents the results of real-world driving emissions and fuel economy measurements for two-wheelers in India using a state-of-the-art FTIR PEMS technology. The study aimed to characterize the emissions profiles of a small motorcycle under typical Indian driving conditions, including congested urban traffic and highway driving. This is the continuation of the study conducted previously on bigger motorcycle using gas analyzer [ JSAE 20179041 / SAE 2017-32-0041][1], with necessary adaptations to suit the specific conditions of Indian roads and traffic. Key parameters such as NOx, CO, CO2 and Fuel consumption were measured during real-world driving cycles and comparison is done with standard WMTC emission testing cycle. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the actual on-road emissions of two-wheelers in India, which can be used to inform regulatory policies, develop more accurate emission models, and guide the development of cleaner and more efficient two
AGRAWAL, RAHUL, Jaswal, Rahul, Yadav, Sachin
Predicting Transient Soot Emissions in Diesel Engines Using Physical and Machine Learning Models2025-32-0017To be published on 11/03/2025
In recent years, emissions regulations for engines have been globally strengthened, and many countries, including the United States, have added real-world testing using Portable Emissions Measuring Systems (PEMS) as new test requirements. In the development of diesel engines, improving fuel efficiency and simultaneously reducing NOx and soot emissions are critical challenges, and evaluations using Model-Based Development (MBD) are considered promising methods. However, it is still difficult to accurately predict soot emission, even with detailed combustion models using computationally intensive 3D-CFD, due to the complex mechanisms of soot formation. While various approaches have been researched for prediction methods, they are often limited to specific injection and operating conditions, and an industry-standard model has to be established yet. This paper presents a method for predicting NOx and soot emissions in diesel engines under arbitrary transient test cycles. Fuel consumption
Kitamura, Takahiro, Matsuoka, Ayano, Suematsu, Kosuke, Okano, Hiroaki
Ultralightweight Emission Measurement Systems for Motorcycles: Accuracy and Practicality in RDE Testing2025-32-0011To be published on 11/03/2025
Real Driving Emission (RDE) testing for motorcycles presents unique challenges due to the motorcycles lightweight construction, limited mounting space, and sensitivity to added mass and aerodynamic drag. Full-functional automotive Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS), while highly accurate, are often impractical for two-wheelers as their weight and size can alter driving resistances, fuel consumption, and emission profiles, but also complicate installation and probably effect the drivability of the vehicle. To address these limitations, lightweight alternatives such as Mini-PEMS and ultralightweight alternatives such as Sensor-based Emission Measurement Systems (SEMS) offer compact, low-power solutions tailored for small vehicles. SEMS are typically equipped with lower cost sensors and low-tech gas conditioning systems compared to PEMS. Due to this these systems may not meet regulatory homologation requirements. Nevertheless, they provide justifiable accuracy for many real
Schurl, Sebastian, Lienerth, Peter, Japs, Leonid, Schroeder, Matthias, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Characterization of High-Power Cold-Start Emissions Part 1: Analysis of a Modern Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Tailpipe Emissions03-18-06-003810/22/2025
The California Air Resources Board (CARB) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) have recently introduced targets for tailpipe emissions during high-power cold-start conditions for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). However, the performance characteristics of hybrid powertrains and the effectiveness of cold-start strategies in PHEVs are not well known. In this two-part study, the performance of a production PHEV is examined with the objective of quantifying the impact of high-power cold-start events on overall tailpipe emissions. High temporal fidelity data of powertrain performance and tailpipe emissions generated during cold-start events for various driving conditions are presented for the first time. The selected P2 hybrid vehicle was tested using (i) the European Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test, (ii) the US06 (Supplemental Federal Test Procedure), and (iii) a custom drive cycle developed for this study. Results show that driving conditions leading
Chakrapani, Varun, O’Donnell, Ryan, Fatouraie, Mohammad, Wooldridge, Margaret
Characterization of High-Power Cold-Start Emissions Part 2: Impact of Hybrid Topologies and Powertrain Sizing on Tailpipe Emissions Performance03-18-06-003910/22/2025
The current work is the second installment of a two-part study designed to understand the impact of high-power cold-start events for plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs) on tailpipe emissions. In part 1, tailpipe emissions and powertrain signals of a modern PHEV measured over three drive cycles identified that high-power cold-start events generated the highest amounts of gaseous and particulate emissions. The trends in emissions data and powertrain performance were specific to the P2-type hybrid topology used in the study. In this second part of the study, the effects of different PHEV hardware configurations are determined. Specifically, the tailpipe emissions of three production plug-in hybrid vehicles, operated over the US06 drive cycle, are characterized. The approach compared the tailpipe emissions of the test vehicles on the basis of the hybrid topologies and corresponding engine operational characteristics during a high-power cold-start event. Analysis of test results showed
Chakrapani, Varun, O’Donnell, Ryan, Fataouraie, Mohammad, Wooldridge, Margaret
Biodiesel Characterization and Prediction Using ANN Modeling along with the Assessment of Performance and Emission Behavior of Fuel Sources— Gossypium hirsutum and Stoechospermum marginatum —Used in Direct Injection CI Engine2025-01-507110/16/2025
The demand for alternate fuel continues to grow steadily, while energy sources are being researched and explored every year. Considering the energy demand and fuel cost this research was initiated to identify better sources for fuel production. Also the emission released into the atmosphere causes significant influence in the global market in terms of pollution, which was also a prime motive toward this research analysis. A green biodiesel, fatty acid alkyl ester, has attracted much attention as an environmentally friendly diesel fuel. This is due to several advantages, especially that fatty acid alkyl ester is renewable, biodegradable, and has less toxic properties as a fuel. In this article, cottonseed (Gossypium hirsutum) biodiesel and algal (Stoechospermum marginatum) biodiesel was prepared with a yield of 94% and 85%, respectively. Single-stage transesterification was performed since the free fatty acid percentage was within the limit. The performance characteristics in terms of
Godwin, John J., Hariram, V., Muthiya, Solomon Jenoris, Sambandam, Padmanabhan, Prathik, S. J., Santhosh, K., Baskar, S., Boopathi, D.
Reconstruction of Density Fields of Category L-Vehicles’ Exhaust Plumes for Optimizing Remote Emission Sensing and Engine Performance03-18-06-003610/07/2025
Air pollution is a significant long-term public health issue, with on-road traffic emissions being a primary contributor, especially in urban areas. Remote emission sensing (RES) is an innovative method for large-scale monitoring of vehicle emissions. It not only enables accurate detection of pollutants from vehicles under real-world driving conditions but also offers actionable insights to optimize engine performance. The point sampling-based RES technique involves sampling the vehicle exhaust plume along the roadside with a sampling line and using exhaust analyzers. In this method, the sampling line is placed alongside the road for sample extraction. Thus, the sampling position and knowledge regarding the spread of the exhaust plumes are crucial. Other modern RES systems utilize laser absorption spectroscopy to measure the pollutants in vehicle exhaust. For accurate absorption measurements, the laser’s height must align with the height of the exhaust plume, and the absorption length
Imtiaz, Hafiz Hashim, Liu, Yingjie, Schaffer, Paul, Kupper, Martin, Bergmann, Alexander
Real Driving Database for Automotive Drive System Development2025-01-037810/07/2025
Knowledge of real-world driving behavior is fundamental to the development of drive systems. The derivation of representative requirements or driving cycles for use case-specific vehicle use allows a customer-centered drive system design. These datasets contain data such as distance, standstill times, average accelerations or a customer driving style estimation. In addition, the real-world data can be used for regulatory purposes such as the definition of utility factors or the definition of real driving emission cycles. In a research project funded by FVV e.V., we have developed a universal database software including data storage, user interface and general data plausibility functions for real driving data. The database contains detailed time series measurement data on component and vehicle level such as torque and speed of electric motors and internal combustion engines as well as general mobility data such as driving distance statistics. A key objective of the database development
Sander, Marcel, Sturm, Axel Wolfgang, Martínez Medina, Óscar, Henze, Roman, Kühne, Ulf, Eilts, Peter
Achieving Euro 7 Compliance: Cost-Effective Brake Wear Particle Emissions and Performance with FNC-Smart ONC® GCI Rotors2025-01-033209/15/2025
Advanced ferritic nitrocarburizing process combined with a specialized post-oxidation treatment described as FNC + Smart ONC® [1] is developed for brake rotor applications. The process can be applied to standard grey cast iron brake rotors, significantly reducing PM 10 emissions to levels below the Euro 7 limits for most vehicles equipped with at least some recuperative braking capabilities, all without compromising performance. Finished grey iron brake rotors, ferritic nitrocarburized and post oxidized were evaluated according to several industry standards. The standards include SAE J2707B (Block Wear Test including Highway) [2], GRPE-90-24 Rev.1 Emission Test (Full WLTP Brake Cycle 6 Times) [3], and SAE J2522 (AK-Master Performance) [4]. Nitrocarburized post oxidized brake rotors were compared to untreated grey iron rotors exposed to several friction materials. Ferritic nitrocarburizing and post oxidation addresses the issue of corrosion, which is particularly relevant for brake
Winter, Karl-Michael, Holly, Mike
Brake System Homologation: A Holistic, Simulation-Based Approach2025-01-035109/15/2025
With the introduction of the Euro 7 regulation, non-exhaust emissions – particularly those arising from brake and tire abrasion – will be regulated and subject to emission limits for the first time. This presents significant challenges not only for OEMs striving to meet these targets within the given timeframe, but also for suppliers, who must develop innovative solutions for the precise measurement, analysis, and mitigation of these emissions. To address this, it is essential to establish and industrialize new testing methodologies as structured, scalable, and cost-efficient processes. Beyond pure measurement capability, service providers in this domain are increasingly expected to serve as feedback mechanisms – identifying process limitations, proposing targeted improvements, and thereby enabling continuous development in line with evolving technical and regulatory requirements. In this context, AVL is pursuing a holistic development strategy that integrates brake emission
Grojer, Bernd
Challenges in Quantifying Tire Wear Particle Emissions on an Outer Drum Test Bed2025-01-035209/15/2025
Tire wear is a significant source of microplastics and airborne particulate matter, contributing to environmental pollution and posing health risks. This study aims to develop a reliable method for quantifying tire wear and TWP on an outer drum test bed while achieving realistic wear rates. A degumming method using talcum powder was applied to prevent tire adhesion, which significantly increased wear rates but introduced complications in particle measurements. To address this, a flow-optimized enclosure was implemented to minimize background emissions. Particle emissions were quantified using APCs, PM samplers, and an ELPI+. The results underscore the challenge of distinguishing between TWP and talcum powder contributions. To estimate the percentage of airborne particle mass, a novel method was employed that calculates the RGB values of images of PM filters. This method estimates the blackening of the filter to determine the amount of TWP present. Size distribution analysis revealed
Schubert, Ludwig, Arias Torres, María Alejandra, Bigl, Stephan, Steiner, Gerald, Huber, Michael, Lex, Cornelia
Improving the Comparability of Brake Wear Solid and Total Particle Number Emission Measurement2025-01-036209/15/2025
Brake wear emissions are a significant contributor to particle mass (PM) emissions originating from road transport. In Europe, this is taken into consideration by including emission limits for brake wear particles in the legislation. UN GTR (United Nations Global Technical Regulation) No.24 is a technical description of how to measure the particle number (PN) and PM emissions of brakes. PN measurement includes solid particle number (SPN) and total particle number (TPN), meaning excluding and including the volatile particle matter, respectively. In this study, we examine over 500 TPN and SPN emission factors, in terms of SPN-TPN ratio. To interpret the emission factor data, we present results of a characterization of SPN and TPN measurement instruments in a laboratory setting. We discuss the benefits of using a flow splitter in the PN measurement and present an experimental demonstration of its suitability for measurement of brake wear PN. Combining the results of this investigation
Martikainen, Sampsa, Pramstrahler, Madlen, Weidinger, Christoph, Rainer, Andreas, Engler, Dieter, Huber, Michael
Impacts of Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil as Renewable Diesel Fuel on Engine Performance and Emissions in a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine03-18-06-003509/08/2025
As the pressure increases to move to renewable carbon-neutral fuel sources, especially in heavy-duty diesel engine applications, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) has shown to be an attractive alternative fuel to fossil diesel. Therefore, this study investigated the impacts of HVO used as a drop-in fuel on performance and emissions of a nonroad heavy-duty diesel engine by running back-to-back D2 ISO 8178 cycles with ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and HVO. The measurement results showed that brake specific fuel consumption with respect to mass reduced by 1.1%–3.6% switching from ULSD to HVO due to greater heating values of HVO, which is supported by 0.7%–3.5% lower CO2 emissions recorded with HVO. Conversely, brake specific fuel consumption with respect to volume increased by 0.3%–2.9% with HVO because of its smaller density. Combustion analysis revealed that combustion of both fuels is comparable at high loads while HVO ignites earlier at low power. Thus, lesser reductions in NOx
Duva, Berk Can, Abat, Bryan, Engelhardt, Jens
DLR Tire and Road Wear Particle Emission Testing Methodology–Collection System Influence and Repeatability Assessments2025-24-009209/07/2025
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) have emerged as air quality hazardous matters and significant sources of airborne microplastic pollution, contributing to environmental and human health concerns. Regulatory initiatives, such as the Euro 7 standards, emphasize the urgent need for standardized methodologies to quantify TRWP emissions accurately. Despite advancements in measuring tire abrasion rates, critical gaps persist in the characterization of airborne TRWP, particularly regarding the influence of collection system design and influencing parameters on measurement accuracy and repeatability. This study addresses these challenges by designing a controlled methodological framework that aims to minimize the influencing effects and ensure comparability in TRWP emission quantification results. At the German Aerospace Center (DLR) dynamometer testbench in Stuttgart, Germany, a methodical framework was established to ensure the repeatability and comparability of TRWP measurements
Celenlioglu, Melis Seren, Epple, Fabius, Reijrink, Nina, Löber, Manuel, Reiland, Sven, Vecchi, Roberta, Philipps, Franz
AeroSolfd: Advancing Air Quality through Retrofitted Gasoline Particulate Filters – Insights from Laboratory and Real-World Evaluations2025-24-008809/07/2025
This article details the experimental and testing activities of the EU project AeroSolfd, with a particular focus on the project's efforts to reduce combustion-based nanoparticle emissions in exhaust gases for the European fleet of vehicles by developing a GPF retrofit solution. The technical activities undertaken the process of developing such a retrofit are examined in this article. The findings illustrate the viability of reducing nanoparticle levels in gasoline-powered vehicles with the utilization of appropriate GPFs. For this purpose, in addition to a fleet, four vehicles were examined in great detail and underwent the process of obtaining component approval for the particulate filter. The vehicles were measured in a preliminary state, then following the installation of the GPF, and subsequently after several months of continuous field operation. A total of four vehicles were selected for evaluation as a representative subgroup of a larger test fleet of vehicles in the project
Engelmann, Danilo, Mayer, Andreas, Comte, Pierre, Rubino, Lauretta, Larsen, Lars
A New Methodology to Evaluate In-Service Emissions of Used Vehicles at a Large Scale Using a SEMS and Digital Tools2025-24-009009/07/2025
Air quality is an increasing concern, particularly in densely populated urban areas. Indeed, large European cities have seen pollutant concentrations exceed World Health Organization thresholds, with a significant portion of NOx emissions originating from road transportation. Studies have shown that less than five percent of the vehicle fleet, often including vehicles with defective after-treatment systems, is responsible for a disproportionate share of these emissions. This highlights the importance of not solely relying on the gradual renewal of vehicle fleets to mitigate health risks associated with air pollution. This research, funded by the French Agency for the Ecological Transition (ADEME), introduces an experimental methodology aimed at controlling emissions from vehicles already in circulation. Aramis Group, a European specialist of refurbishment and online sales of used cars, provided several refurbished used vehicles for testing, directly taken from its workflow. These
Carlos Da Silva, Daniel, Kermani, Joseph, Farcot, Fabrice, Gaie, Fabien
Mid-IR Laser Extinction Measurements of Formaldehyde Emissions in a Methanol Mixing-Controlled Compression Ignition Engine2025-24-003409/07/2025
As energy security and sustainability becomes important, the role of alternative fuels, particularly methanol, is becoming increasingly significant. While the feasibility of methanol as a substitute for diesel fuel has been explored, understanding of emissions from methanol-fueled compression-ignition engines remains limited, even though these engines are known to emit formaldehyde (CH2O) due to methanol’s chemical structure and oxidation pathways. In this study, a quantitatively measurable mid-IR laser-based extinction methodology was employed to understand CH2O formation in a methanol mixing-controlled compression ignition (MCCI) engine. Stable methanol MCCI combustion was achieved with the addition of 5%vol 2-ethylhexly nitrate (EHN) and by using a triple injection strategy (pilot + pilot + main), and CH2O emissions were measured with high temporal resolution by laser extinction while sweeping the injection timing. In addition, the injection strategy was systematically varied by
Lee, Sanguk, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Narayanan, Abhinandhan
New Hybrid Powertrain Architectures for European Passenger Car Market2025-24-009709/07/2025
This study presents a comprehensive methodology for the design and optimization of hybrid electric powertrains across multiple vehicle segments and electrification levels. A full-factorial simulation framework was developed in MATLAB/Simulink, featuring a modular, physics-based vehicle model combined with a backward simulation approach and an ECMS (Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy) -based energy management algorithm. The objective is to evaluate three hybrid powertrain architectures, namely Series Hybrid (SH), Series-Parallel Hybrid with a single gear stage (SHP1), and Series-Parallel Hybrid with a double gear stage (SHP2), across three vehicle classes (Sedan, Mid-SUV, Large-SUV), four different internal combustion engines (ICEs), and three application types (HEV, PHEV, REEV). More than 10,000 unique configurations were simulated and filtered through a two-step performance requirements analysis. The first phase assessed individual vehicle-level performance targets, while
Amati, Nicola, Marello, Omar, Mancarella, Alessandro, Cavallaro, Davide, Ianni, Luca, Cascone, Claudio, Paulides, Johannes JH
The VERT GPF-Retrofit Program for Cleaner Urban Mobility within the HORIZON Europe AeroSolfd Project2025-24-009509/07/2025
Launched in 2022, AeroSolfd, a HORIZON Europe project, aims to advance clean urban mobility by developing affordable and sustainable retrofit solutions for gasoline vehicles. This three-year initiative addresses not only tailpipe emissions but also brake emissions and pollution in semi-enclosed environments. Within AeroSolfd, the Swiss-based VERT association focuses on reducing tailpipe emissions using state-of-the-art Gasoline Particulate Filter (GPF) technology featuring an uncoated ceramic multicell wall-flow filter. VERT, in partnership with HJS, CPK, BFH, developed and tested a GPF-retrofit system at Technology Readiness Level 8 (TRL 8). Results demonstrate over 99% filtration efficiency for particles smaller than 500 nm on standard cycles (WLTC) and real-world driving cycles (RDE). Forty-two gasoline vehicles (GDI and PFI) were retrofitted with the GPF retrofit across Germany, Switzerland, Israel, and Denmark over a 6 to 8-month operational period. No issues were observed with
Rubino, Lauretta, Mayer, Andreas C., Lutz, Thomas W., Czerwinski, Jan, Larsen, Lars C.
Optimization of Metallic Substrate by 1D Simulations to Fulfill High Power Cold Start Conditions2025-01-030807/02/2025
The future of the internal combustion engine (ICE) is closely tied to its ability to achieve life cycle emissions comparable to those of pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs). To reach this goal, it is essential not only to utilize carbon-free fuels but also to enhance the hybridization of the powertrain to reduce fuel consumption. Additionally, it is crucial to minimize pollutant emissions to near-zero levels, necessitating the development of highly sophisticated exhaust aftertreatment systems. For Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), one particular use case is the High-Power Cold Start (HPCS). This scenario occurs when the transition from pure electric drive to ICE-assisted drive happens during a high load request, such as accelerating on a freeway ramp. This use case has been evaluated by CARB and in numerous other studies. However, in this paper, the authors aim to investigate which metallic substrate technology performs best during an HPCS. This condition differs
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Marinoni, Andrea, Della Torre, Augusto, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin, Laurell, Mats, Klövmark, Henrik
Application of Sustainable Aviation Fuels in Compression Ignition Aviation Engines: In-Flight Investigations2025-01-031707/02/2025
To achieve a significant reduction in net CO₂ emissions in the aviation sector, sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are considered a key factor. Current research efforts are therefore focused on SAFs, which exhibit properties that differ from conventional kerosene, particularly in aspects critical to compression-ignition (CI) engines, such as cetane number, evaporation behavior or lubricity. These differences necessitate dedicated investigations to assess their suitability and performance in such engines. However, real operating conditions — such as intake air- and exhaust- pressure levels during flight — cannot be fully replicated on standard engine test benches. For this reason, real flight experiments were conducted to address these limitations. Notably, this work marks the first instance of in-flight testing of SAFs in CI aviation engines, constituting a significant milestone in this research area. In the course of these investigations, ASTM D7566 Annex A2-compliant HEFA
Kleissner, Florian, Reitmayr, Christian, Hofmann, Peter
Experimental Analysis of Performance and Durability Using Ethanol 27% Fuel Blend in a Turbocharged Gasoline Direct Injection Engine2025-01-024506/16/2025
India aims to achieve 20% ethanol blending (E20) in petrol by 2025 under its National Biofuels Policy to reduce carbon emissions, enhance energy security, and support the agricultural economy. Building on this, E27 (27% ethanol in gasoline) is being evaluated as an advanced mid-level blend to further lower greenhouse gas emissions and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. This study investigates the performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics of a turbocharged gasoline direct injection (TGDI) engine using E27 fuel over 20,000 km in real-world driving conditions, as part of a broader research program accumulating over 100,000 km across multiple vehicle categories. Key findings indicate that E27 achieves an optimal balance of emissions reduction and performance, with NOx and THC emissions decreasing by 12% and 5%, respectively, compared to E10, while CO and CO₂ levels remained stable, reflecting ethanol’s oxygenation effect and lower carbon intensity. Power output and acceleration
D R, Vigneshwar, Bhakthavachalu, Vijayabaskar, Muralidharan, M.
RDE Methodology Development for Motorcycle Emissions Assessment2024-32-007304/18/2025
The transfer of conditions and regulations for RDE testing from passenger cars to motorcycles is a non-trivial undertaking. Motorcycles exhibit significant differences in construction and usage compared to cars, necessitating a distinct set of requirements for equipment and methodology. Currently available PEMS are hindered by their relatively large size and weight due to the embedded measurement technology and external power supply. The weight of, at least 50kg, poses a substantial additional load, leading to a deviation and, on average, higher load collective of the engine during RDE measurement rides. Beyond these structural parameters, the actual propulsion system and subsequent exhaust system introduce another challenge when employing PEMS on motorcycles. An unfavorable combination of the ratio of engine displacement to the volume of the exhaust system and long or unequal ignition intervals leads to pulsations, which has a considerable impact on the differential pressure-based
Schurl, Sebastian, Keller, Stefan, Lankau, Mathias, Hafenmayer, Christian, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Evaluation of Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS) Accuracy by Simultaneous Measurement of PEMS and Laboratory-Based Analyzers *2024-32-011304/18/2025
With growing concern to protect the atmosphere, the stringency of vehicle emission regulations is increasing annually [1,2]. Notably, evaluations of real driving emissions (RDEs) using portable emission measurement systems (PEMS) have been mandated for light duty vehicles (LDVs) in regions, such as the EU, China, India, and Japan [3,4]. Additionally, RDEs have attracted attention in motorcycles and was investigated in the effect study of the environmental step Euro 5 [5]. However, some inherent problems remain with RDE measurements using the PEMS on motorcycles. Due to the smaller engine displacement and fewer cylinders associated with motorcycles, resulting in lower exhaust gas flow rates, the measurement accuracy of the PEMS may be lower than that of the LDVs. Furthermore, exhaust emissions can be affected by the additional weight of the PEMS when mounted on motorcycles. This study investigated the accuracy of the PEMS in measuring motorcycle emissions by simultaneously measuring
Matsuoka, Masahiro, Hirai, Hiroshi, Ito, Takayuki
Investigation on Degradation Process of PdRuIr/CZ “Pseudo-Rh” Catalysts Used for Motorcycles2024-32-001604/18/2025
Platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh) are used as active substances in exhaust gas purification catalysts for automobiles. Among these, Rh is an essential element because it efficiently promotes a NOx reduction reaction. On the other hand, the price of Rh has been rising in recent years. From the perspective of the supply risk of rare resources, there is an urgent need to develop technologies to replace or reduce the amount of Rh used in catalysts. We focused on the pseudo-rhodium alloy developed by the ACCEL program of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), and then investigated the application of the pseudo-rhodium alloy on the catalysts of our motorcycles and also the degradation process. A nanosized PdRuIr alloy supported on a ceria-zirconia solid solution (PdRuIr/CZ) was prepared and assembled into a motorcycle for emissions measurement. The PdRuIr/CZ catalyst with an alloy loading of 4.0 g/L had initial properties comparable to the Rh supported on a CZ (Rh/CZ
Motegi, Takuya, Tatara, Shunya, Takamoto, Shunpei, Doi, Kosuke
The Aerodynamic Development of the Range Rover2025-01-878104/01/2025
The current Range Rover is the fifth generation of this luxury SUV. With a drag coefficient of 0.30 at launch, it was the most aerodynamically efficient luxury SUV in the world. This aerodynamic efficiency was achieved by applying the latest science. Rear wake control was realised with a large roof spoiler, rear pillar and bodyside shaping, along with an under-floor designed to reduce losses over a wide range of vehicle configurations. This enabled manipulation of the wake structure to reduce drag spread, optimising emissions measured under the WLTP regulations. Along with its low drag coefficient, in an industry first, it was developed explicitly to achieve reduced rear surface contamination with reductions achieved of 70% on the rear screen and 60% over the tailgate when compared against the outgoing product. This supports both perceptions of luxury along with sensor system performance, demonstrating that vehicles can be developed concurrently for low drag and reduced rear soiling
Chaligné, Sébastien, Gaylard, Adrian Philip, Simmonds, Nicholas, Turner, Ross
Procedure for the Calculation of Non-Volatile Particulate Matter Sampling and Measurement System Penetration Functions and System Loss Correction FactorsAIR6504A (Current)04/01/2025
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) describes a method for assessing size dependent particle losses in a sampling and measurement system of specified geometry utilizing the non-volatile Particulate Matter (nvPM) mass and number concentrations measured at the end of the sampling system.1 The penetration functions of the sampling and measurement system may be determined either by measurement or by analytic computational methods. Loss mechanisms including thermophoretic (which has a very weak size dependence) and size dependent losses are considered in this method2 along with the uncertainties due to both measurement error and the assumptions of the method. The results of this system loss assessment allow development of estimated correction factors for nvPM mass and number concentrations to account for the system losses facilitating estimation of the nvPM mass and number at the engine exhaust nozzle exit plane. As the particle losses are size dependent, the magnitude of correction
E-31P Particulate Matter Committee
Impact of Chemical Poisoning and Hydrothermal Aging on a Production Diesel AT System2025-01-849704/01/2025
Diesel aftertreatment (AT) systems are critical for controlling emissions of CO, HC, NOX, and PM in the on-road transportation sector. Ensuring compliance with regulatory standards throughout the AT system's lifespan requires precise prediction of various degradation mechanisms under real-world operating conditions and mitigating their impact through proper catalyst sizing and advanced controls. In the SwRI A2CAT-II consortium, a medium-duty diesel engine production aftertreatment system was subjected to full useful life aging, involving chemical poisoning with phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) species, along with hydrothermal aging following the DAAAC protocol. This study was aimed to model and predict the aging trajectory of this production AT system thereby capturing changes in system dynamics under both steady-state and transient conditions. The system, designed to meet the 0.2 g/bhp-hr standard, comprised a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC), Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), Selective
Balakrishnan, Arun, Chundru, Venkata Rajesh, Eakle, Scott, Sharp, Christopher
Innovative Use of Basic Technologies for a High-Efficiency, Low-Cost Small Displacement Gasoline Engine2025-01-839204/01/2025
India, with its low per capita income vast population and growing middle class, represents a significant market for low-cost, fuel-efficient automobiles. As the largest two-wheeler market globally, a transition to four-wheelers is underway, further driving the demand for affordable vehicles. This necessitates the design and development of low-priced vehicles equipped with efficient and economical powertrains. Globally, stringent regulations like Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycles (WLTC), and Real Driving Emissions (RDE) are pushing manufacturers to develop fuel-efficient vehicles. India has also adopted similar regulations, including CAFE2 and Bharat Stage 6-Phase 2 (BS6-2), to improve fuel economy and reduce emissions. These regulations, coupled with the growing demand for affordable vehicles, have spurred innovation in engine technology. In response to these challenges, Maruti Suzuki India Limited (MSIL) has consistently focused on
Singh, Amandeep, Singh, Jaspreet, Jalan, Ankit, Kumar, Narinder
High-Performance and Stable Three-Way Catalyst Achieved Via Ultrasonic Treatment for Gasoline Vehicle Emission Control2025-01-848004/01/2025
Three-way catalysts (TWCs) containing significant amounts of precious metals are commonly employed to purify exhaust emissions (CO, NOx, and THC) from gasoline-powered vehicles. A critical factor contributing to TWC degradation is the sintering of these precious metals. Maintaining the appropriate particle size and distribution of the metals is essential for optimal catalyst performance. In this study, palladium (Pd) nanoparticles with a uniform size were synthesized using ethylene glycol as a reductant under ultrasonic conditions, yielding particles in the range of 3 nm to 5 nm. These Pd nanoparticles were subsequently used to prepare three-way catalysts on cordierite substrates supplied by Corning (China) Inc. Chemisorption analysis revealed that the Pd active component in the catalysts prepared via the ultrasonic method exhibited higher dispersion than the state-of-the-art commercial catalysts. The aged catalysts were obtained after 150 hours of aging following the General Motors
Hao, Shijie, Lv, Yanan, Wang, Weidong, Rao, Chao, Wei, Wei, Mao, Bingbin, Chen, Tao, Zhao, Huawang
Effect of Fuels on Compression Ignition Engine Particle Number and Mass Emissions and DPF Filtration Efficiency2025-01-850204/01/2025
As part of decarbonization, alternative fuels are likely to be used in compression ignition internal combustion engines as a substitute for diesel fuel. There have been many studies on the effect of these alternative fuels on emissions and catalytic aftertreatment systems. Past research has reported lower particulate matter (PM) and higher oxides of nitrogen (NOx) with biofuels. However, there are limited studies on the effect of PM on the performance of diesel particulate filters (DPFs), especially in its effectiveness of PM filtration. PM emissions from four (4) types of fuels and five (5) of their blends, a total of nine fuels, were investigated using PM2.5 mass, soot mass, solid particle number (> 10 nm SPN10 and > 23 nm SPN23) and size distribution (6 nm to 560 nm) measurements at inlet and outlet of a DPF. The PM emissions were measured over a non-road regulatory cycle sequence consisting of five (5) non-road transient cycles (NRTCs) and five (5) non-road steady-state cycles
Lakkireddy, Venkata, Khalek, Imad, Buffaloe, Gina
Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel Blends Oxidation by Diesel Oxidation Catalyst2025-01-850004/01/2025
Renewable and alternative liquid fuels are being evaluated for their equivalence with ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) in terms of engine and emission control system performance. Our previous research showed an elevated lightoff temperature for diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and lower DOC thermal efficiency for biodiesel blends into ULSD with more than 20% biodiesel. Here we report a similar DOC performance study to gage the performance of blends of biodiesel and hydrocarbon renewable diesel (RD) also made from fats and oils feedstocks. The same DOC used previously was used to evaluate RD blends with biodiesel up to 60 vol% (B60R40) in decrements of 10%. The performance of the DOC was evaluated on a steady-state performance cycle and a transient lightoff curve. Similar to previous results, the performance of the DOC is significantly affected by even low blend levels of biodiesel. At low flow rates 50% (B50R50) and higher biodiesel blends have a poor performance defined as the lightoff
Lakkireddy, Venkata, Weber, Phillip, McCormick, Robert, Howell, Steve
Sensor Cluster for Recording the Spread of Emissions in the Wake of a Vehicle2025-01-849204/01/2025
Progressive emission reductions and stricter legislation require a closer look at the emission behaviour of a vehicle, in particular non-exhaust emissions and resuspension. In addition to the analysis of emissions in isolation, it is also necessary to consider the impact of transport routes and dispersion potential. These factors provide insight into the movement of dust particles and, consequently, the identification of particularly vulnerable areas. Measurements using low-cost environmental sensors can increase the level of detail of dispersion analyses and allow a statement on the distribution of emissions in the vehicle's wake, as several measuring points can be covered simultaneously. A newly developed measurement setup allows vehicle emissions to be recorded in a plane behind the vehicle in a measurement area of 2 by 2 metres. The measuring grid consisting of 16 sensors (4x4 grid) can be variably positioned up to 1 metre from the rear of the vehicle. The sensors detect fine dust
Kunze, Miles, Ivanov, Valentin, Gramstat, Sebastian
Real World Emissions in a High-Altitude City: A Comparison between LPG Taxis and Gasoline Cars2025-01-849404/01/2025
To study the real driving emission characteristics of light-duty vehicles fueled with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and gasoline in a high-altitude city, experimental investigations were performed on two LPG taxis and three gasoline passenger cars in Lhasa using a portable emission measurement system (PEMS). The results reveal that the emission factors of CO2, CO, NOx, and HC of LPG taxis are 159.19±11.81, 18.38±9.73, 1.53±0.46, and 1.27±0.99 g/km, and those of gasoline cars are 223.51±23.1, 1.51±0.68, 0.27±0.16, and 0.06±0.04 g/km, respectively. The emissions show strong relationships with driving mode, which is considerably affected by driving behavior. Furthermore, as vehicle speed increases, the emission factors of both LPG taxis and gasoline cars decrease. The emission rates of both types of vehicles are low and change slightly at a vehicle specific power (VSP) of 0 kW/t or below; After that, the rates slowly increase initially and then increase rapidly with increasing VSP. These
Lyu, Meng, Xu, Yan, Huang, Meihong, Wang, Yunjing
On the Potentially Misleading Evaluation of CO 2 Emissions for Hybrid-Electric Vehicles2025-01-853704/01/2025
The adoption of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is becoming more popular during the last few years due to government incentives and favourable legislation both for automotive companies and final users. This type of vehicle claims very low carbon dioxide emissions while eliminating the range anxiety associated with battery electric vehicles thanks to the on-board range extender being able to recharge the battery throughout the journey. Unfortunately, the low emissions values are more representative of the particular mathematical model implemented by the legislation than the measured real driving emissions. Specifically, the legislation does not take into account the CO2 embedded in production of the batteries or of the electrical energy stored in it. This work analyses these aspects by means of a numerical model of the BMW i3 94Ah vehicle. The results obtained are collected from simulations conducted over the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) by using the commercial
Turner, James, Vorraro, Giovanni
High-Efficient and Cost-Effective Three-Way Catalyst Substrate Design for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle2025-01-852804/01/2025
China 6b regulation was fully implemented since July 2023 with very strict emission standards for HC, NMHC, NOx, and CO. The country is now also in the process of developing China 7 regulation, which will perhaps impose even stricter emission limits and extra criteria pollutants including NH3. Moreover, increasingly strict fuel consumption regulation has been implemented as well and it is highly possible that greenhouse gas emission limits will be included in the China 7 regulation. With the hybrid technology innovation, PHEVs are effective in fuel economy and emission reduction, which are favored by manufacturers and consumers, and leading to a rapid increase in market share. Through the optimization of hybrid architecture and the synergy of electric motors, the operating conditions of the hybrid engine have been optimized, making it more stable and avoiding extreme engine operating conditions compared to traditional ICE, which also provides possibilities for optimizing the after
Wang, Jiming, Li, Chunbo, Feng, Xiangyu, Chen, Xiaolang, Boger, Thorsten, Tian, Lichen, Hu, Xianli, Zeng, Jun, Tian, Tian, Gao, Bojun, Li, Dacheng, Liu, Shicheng, Jiang, Fajun
Combustion Characterization and Heat Release Rate Modeling of a Heavy-Duty Hydrogen-Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine2025-01-841804/01/2025
Introducing hydrogen (H2) into the intake air of diesel engines provides a near-term approach to reducing tailpipe CO2 emissions from heavy-duty commercial vehicles. The premixed hydrogen results in a complex H2-Diesel dual fuel (H2DF) combustion process, where H2 can both participate in the non-premixed diesel combustion and result in a propagating H2/air combustion. These interactions influence engine combustion characteristics, including in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate (HRR), as well as emissions. The nature and extent of the impact depends on the amount of H2 introduced as a function of the total fuel energy (H2 energy share ratio - HES), the trapped air mass, and engine operating conditions. To optimize the HES ratio under different conditions, it is crucial to understand how H2DF combustion differs from diesel combustion and how this limits engine operation and impacts emissions. To investigate these effects, a heavy-duty class 8 truck fitted with an H2DF system
Farzam, Reza, Guan, Mang, Gmoser, Raine, Steiche, Patrick, Kirchen, Patrick, McTaggart-Cowan, Gordon
Impact of Oxidation Catalyst Formulation and Space Velocity on Performance with Conventional and Renewable Fuels2025-01-849504/01/2025
Prior study with biodiesel and its blends with ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and renewable diesel (RD) showed that a commercial diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is unable to effectively oxidize neat biodiesel (B100) or high-level biodiesel blends injected into the exhaust of a diesel engine at challenging conditions of low temperature, high exhaust flow rate and high dosing rate. In steady-state performance tests, the performance of blends up to B50 in ULSD or RD was nearly equivalent to ULSD at the lowest exhaust flow rate or for exhaust temperature over 340°C for medium and high flows. ULSD blends above 50 vol% biodiesel exhibited reduced thermal efficiency and DOC outlet temperature with increasing dosing rate and required exhaust temperatures over 400°C to achieve similar performance as ULSD. For RD blends at higher flow rates and temperatures below 300°C even B10 blends showed some loss in performance at the highest dosing rates. Data showed an increase in lightoff temperature
Lakkireddy, Venkata, Weber, Phillip, McCormick, Robert, Howell, Steve
WITHDRAWAL NOTICE2025-01-8498.0104/01/2025
Test Procedure for Determining Refrigerant Emissions from Mobile Air Conditioning SystemsJ2763_202503 (Current)03/25/2025
This SAE Standard covers the mini-shed testing methodology to measure the rate of refrigerant loss from an automotive air conditioning (A/C) system. This SAE procedure encompasses both front and rear air conditioning systems utilizing refrigerants operating under sub-critical conditions. The SAE procedure will cover multiple refrigerants to emission testing and is utilized for evaluating air condtioning systems. Heat pump systems can also be evaluated; however, they will have different usage and mission profiles.
Interior Climate Control MAC Supplier Committee
Experimental Analysis of Soot and NOx Mitigation during Energy-Buffered Diesel Engine Transients03-18-02-001403/24/2025
Transient operation of a diesel-fueled compression ignition engine will produce significant levels of engine-out criteria pollutants such as NOx and soot emissions due to turbocharger lag. Conventional pollutant mitigation strategies during tip-ins (large increases in load) are constrained by the soot–NOx trade-off—strategies that mitigate soot/NOx emissions often result in an increase in NOx/soot emissions. Hybridization offers the ability to use an e-machine as an energy buffer during a tip-in, allowing the engine to tip-in slower to give the turbocharger time to spin up and provide the necessary amount of air for clean, high-load operation. In this work, an in-line six-cylinder 12.8 L Detroit Diesel DD13 engine was used to study the impact of slowing the torque ramp rate of a tip-in on the effectiveness of transient emission reduction strategies for turbocharged diesel engines, including exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve closing, start of injection retard, and the air–fuel ratio
Gainey, Brian, Datar, Aditya, Bhatt, Ankur, Lawler, Benjamin
Exploring H 2 /O 2 Injection in an Active Pre-Chamber Ignition Engine03-18-02-001303/04/2025
Active fuel injection into a pre-chamber (PC) promotes high-temperature and highly turbulent jets, which ignite the cylinder gas with a very high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) ratio, reducing emissions such as NOx. In the present study, two active PC injection strategies were designed to investigate the effect of injected hydrogen mass and PC mixture air-to-fuel equivalence ratio λ on PC combustion, jet formation, and main chamber (MC) combustion. Stoichiometric or rich hydrogen/oxygen mixtures are actively injected into the PC to enhance the combustion processes in the PC and the MC. A three-dimensional numerical engine model is developed using the commercial CFD code CONVERGE. The engine geometry and parameters adopt a modified GM 4-cylinder 2.0 L GDI gasoline engine. The local developments of gas temperature and velocity are resolved with the adaptive mesh refinement (AMR). The turbulence of the flow is computed with the k-epsilon model of the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS
Yu, Tianxiao, Lee, Dong Eun, Alam, Afaque, Gore, Jay P., Qiao, Li
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Vehicles in China: A Cradle-to-Gate Analysis13-06-03-001802/04/2025
Considered as one of the most promising technology pathways for the transport sector to realize the target of “carbon neutral,” fuel cell vehicles have been seriously discussed in terms of its potential for alleviating environmental burden. Focused on cradle-to-gate (CtG) stage, this article evaluates the environmental impacts of fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles of three size classes and three driving ranges to find the critical components and manufacturing processes in the energy context of China. The findings show that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the investigated fuel cell heavy-duty vehicle range from 47 ton CO2-eq to 162 ton CO2-eq, with the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage system collectively contributing to 37%–56% of the total. Notably, as the driving range increases, the proportion of GHG emissions stemming from fuel cell-related components also rises. Within the fuel cell system, the catalyst layer and bipolar plate are identified as the components with the most
Mu, Zhexuan, Deng, YunFeng, Bai, Fanlong, Zhao, Fuquan, Liu, Zongwei, Hao, Han, Liu, Ming
Effect of Injection Pressure and Equivalent Ratio on Combustion and Emissions of The Ammonia/Diesel Dual Fuel Engine2025-01-711101/31/2025
In the context of low-carbon and zero-carbon development strategies, the transformation and upgrading of the energy structure is an inevitable trend. As a renewable fuel, ammonia has a high energy density. When ammonia is burned alone, the combustion speed is slow. The emissions of nitrogen oxides and unburned ammonia is high. Therefore, a suitable high-reactivity combustion aid fuel is required to improve the combustion characteristics of ammonia. Based on this background, this study converted a six-cylinder engine into a single-cylinder ammonia/diesel dual-fuel system, with diesel fuel as the base and a certain percentage of ammonia blended in. The impact of varying the injection pressure and equivalence ratio on engine combustion and emissions was examined. The results demonstrate that an appropriate increase in injection pressure can promote fuel-gas mixing and increase the indicated thermal efficiency (ITE). With regard to emissions, an increase in injection pressure has been
Wang, Hu, Lv, Zhijie, Zhang, Shouzhen, Wang, Mingda, Yang, Rui, Yao, Mingfa
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