Browse Topic: Highly automated vehicles

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Hybrid Safety Framework for Autonomous Off-Highway Vehicles2025-28-032511/06/2025
The evolution of Autonomous off-highway vehicles (OHVs) has transformed mining, construction, and agriculture industries by significantly improving efficiency and safety. These vehicles operate in high dust, uneven terrain, and potential communication failures, where safety is challenged. To guarantee vehicle safety in such situations, a robust architecture that combines AI-driven perception, fail-safe mechanisms, and conformance to many ISO standards is required. In unstructured environments, AI-driven perception, decision-making, and fail-safe mechanisms are not fully addressed by traditional safety standards like ISO26262 (road vehicles), ISO19014 (earth-moving machinery and it is replacing withdrawn ISO 15998), ISO12100 (Safety of machinery) and ISO25119 (agriculture), ISO 18497 (safety of highly automated agricultural machinery), and ISO/CD 24882 (cybersecurity for machinery).These standards mainly concentrate on the reliability of mechanical and electric/electronic systems
Muthusamy, Sugantha
Conception and Experience of Non-Driving Related Activities in Semi-Autonomous Vehicles2025-01-026007/02/2025
While semi-autonomous driving (SAE level 3 & 4) is already partially a reality, the driver still needs to take over driving upon notice. Hence, the cockpit cannot be designed freely to accommodate spaces for non-driving related activities. In the following use case, a mobile workplace is created by integrating a translucent acrylic glass pane into the cockpit and introducing joystick steering of the car. By using the technology Virtual Desktop 1, which is a software layer, any desktop application can be represented freely transformable on arbitrary physical and virtual surfaces. Thus, a complete Windows environment can be distributed across all curved and flat surfaces of an interior. The concept is further enhanced by a voice-driven generative AI which helps to summarize documents. A physical and a virtual demonstrator are created to experience and assess the mobile workspace, the well-being of the driver, external influences, and psychological aspects. The physical demonstrator is a
Beutenmüller, Frank, Reining, Nine, Rosenstiel, Reto, Schmidt, Maximilian, Layer, Selina, Bues, Matthias, Mendonca, Daisy
Infrastructure Enablers for Automation: Vol. 3EPRCOMPV04202404/30/2025
Coyner, Kelley, Bittner, Jason
Integrated Multimodal System for Real-Time Driver Fatigue Detection and Cognitive Load Assessment2025-01-807604/01/2025
As human drivers' roles diminish with higher levels of driving automation (SAE L2-L4), understanding driver engagement and fatigue is crucial for improving safety. We developed an integrated hardware and software system to analyze driver interaction with automated vehicles, with a particular focus on cognitive load and fatigue assessment. The system includes three submodules; namely the Driver Behavior Measurement (DBM), Vehicle Dynamics Measurement (VDM), and the Driver Physiological Measurement (DPM). The DBM module uses electro-optical (EO) and infrared (IR) camera to track a number of facial features such as eye aspect ratio (EAR), mouth aspect ratio (MAR), pupil circularity (PUC), and mouth to eye aspect ratio (MOE). Although determining these metrics from images of the driver’s face in conditions such as low light or with sunglasses is challenging, the paper showed that fusion of EO and IR image analysis produces robust performance. The VDM module utilizes an Inertial Measurement
Jirjees, Abdullah, Rahman, Taufiq, Farhani, Ghazal, Singh, Daniel, Charlebois, Dominique
Data Driven Quantitative Evaluation of Safety Controllability for Automated Vehicle2025-01-828104/01/2025
With the development of automated vehicle (AV), it is essential to ensure their safety even in the presence of system faults or function inefficiency. Safety controllability refers to the ability to manage and control the vehicle, ensuring that it remains safe even in the presence of faults with unexpected conditions. This study proposed a data driven method to evaluate quantitatively safety controllability for AVs. Safety analysis is conducted to identify the potential hazard events. Taking system function and architecture into consideration, the failure modes of the vehicle hazards are identified with hazardous driving situation. Based on the identified failure modes, fault injection tests are conducted with critical scenarios. According to the vehicle dynamic performance, the improved analytic hierarchy process (AHP) can be explored to quantitatively evaluate the safety controllability based on fault injection test results. In particular, this study focuses on the case study to
Ye, Xiaoming, Yang, Yanding, Li, Lingyang, Zhang, Yaguo, Wang, Yongliang
Improving Safety of Autonomous Vehicles: A Verifiable Method for Graceful Degradation of Decision and Control Responsibilities12-08-02-002103/24/2025
Developing safe and reliable autonomous vehicles is crucial for addressing contemporary mobility challenges. While the goal of autonomous vehicle development is full autonomy, up to SAE Level 4 and beyond, human intervention remains necessary in critical or unfamiliar driving scenarios. This article introduces a method for gracefully degrading system functionality and seamlessly transferring decision-making and control between the autonomous system and a remote safety operator when needed. This transfer is enabled by an onboard dependability cage, which continuously monitors the vehicle’s performance during its operation. The cage communicates with a remote command control center, allowing for remote supervision and intervention by a safety driver. We assess this methodology in both lab and test field settings in a case study of last-mile parcel delivery logistics and discuss the insights and results obtained from these evaluations.
Aniculaesei, Adina, Aslam, Iqra, Zhang, Meng, Buragohain, Abhishek, Vorwald, Andreas, Rausch, Andreas
An Improved Vehicle Path-Tracking Model Based on Adaptive Nonlinear Model Predictive Control via Online Big Bang—Big Crunch Algorithm and Artificial Neural Network10-08-04-003210/25/2024
In this article, a novel tuning approach is proposed to obtain the best weights of the discrete-time adaptive nonlinear model predictive controller (AN-MPC) with consideration of improved path-following performance of a vehicle at different speeds in the NATO double lane change (DLC) maneuvers. The proposed approach combines artificial neural network (ANN) and Big Bang–Big Crunch (BB–BC) algorithm in two stages. Initially, ANN is used to tune all AN-MPC weights online. Vehicle speed, lateral position, and yaw angle outputs from many simulations, performed with different AN-MPC weights, are used to train the ANN structure. In addition, set-point signals are used as inputs to the ANN. Later, the BB–BC algorithm is implemented to enhance the path-tracking performance. ANN outputs are selected as the initial center of mass in the first iteration of the BB–BC algorithm. To prevent control signal fluctuations, control and prediction horizons are kept constant during the simulations. The
Yangin, Volkan Bekir, Yalçın, Yaprak, Akalin, Ozgen
Systematic Selective Limits Application Using Decision-Making Engines to Enhance Safety in Highly Automated Vehicles12-08-01-000508/01/2024
The traditional approach to applying safety limits in electromechanical systems across various industries, including automated vehicles, robotics, and aerospace, involves hard-coding control and safety limits into production firmware, which remains fixed throughout the product life cycle. However, with the evolving needs of automated systems such as automated vehicles and robots, this approach falls short in addressing all use cases and scenarios to ensure safe operation. Particularly for data-driven machine learning applications that continuously evolve, there is a need for a more flexible and adaptable safety limits application strategy based on different operational design domains (ODDs) and scenarios. The ITSC conference paper [1] introduced the dynamic control limits application (DCLA) strategy, supporting the flexible application of diverse limits profiles based on dynamic scenario parameters across different layers of the Autonomy software stack. This article extends the DCLA
Garikapati, Divya, Liu, Yiting, Huo, Zhaoyuan
FMCW Lidar Simulation with Ray Tracing and Standardized Interfaces2024-01-297707/02/2024
In pursuit of safety validation of automated driving functions, efforts are being made to accompany real world test drives by test drives in virtual environments. To be able to transfer highly automated driving functions into a simulation, models of the vehicle’s perception sensors such as lidar, radar and camera are required. In addition to the classic pulsed time-of-flight (ToF) lidars, the growing availability of commercial frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) lidars sparks interest in the field of environment perception. This is due to advanced capabilities such as directly measuring the target’s relative radial velocity based on the Doppler effect. In this work, an FMCW lidar sensor simulation model is introduced, which is divided into the components of signal propagation and signal processing. The signal propagation is modeled by a ray tracing approach simulating the interaction of light waves with the environment. For this purpose, an ASAM Open Simulation Interface (OSI
Hofrichter, Kristof, Linnhoff, Clemens, Elster, Lukas, Peters, Steven
Lighting and Visual Information for Vulnerable Road User (VRU) Safety: An Introductory ReviewVRUSC-002-202405/03/2024
Injuries and fatalities among pedestrians, cyclists, scooterists, highway road workers, and safety and emergency personnel—often referred to as vulnerable road users (VRUs)—continue to rise at alarming rates worldwide. Emphasizing the urgent need for enhanced safety measures, this study, commissioned by the Vulnerable Road User Safety Consortium™ (VRUSC) and conducted by the Light and Health Research Center at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, evaluates the potential effectiveness of lighting and visual information systems in improving VRU safety. The white paper presents a synthesis of published research on lighting and markings from the perspective of both human drivers and machine vision systems. It identifies potential preliminary guidelines for the intensity, color, temporal, and spatial characteristics of lighting and visual information that can help prevent crashes involving VRUs. The study also highlights knowledge gaps that require further research, including the
Vulnerable Road Users Safety Consortium
SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Former Patagonian Rancher Advancing Ag Tech1344704/15/2024
As a former rancher in Patagonia, Alex Foessel understands the challenges facing the ag market and is working to advance safety and integrity in off-road autonomy. As Managing Partner of Balanced Engineering, Alex and his team support the production and commercialization of highly automated off-road equipment though a proven safety case framework and certification process -- getting great ideas to the ag market sooner. With experts in Iowa, Pennsylvania and Brazil, the company is maximizing productivity in agriculture through the integration of automation and AI. To learn more, we sat down with Alex to discuss the challenges facing the ag market, the importance of safety, and how off-road ag technology will evolve over the next decade.
Hineman, Marcie
Cybersecurity in the Context of Fail-Operational Systems2024-01-280804/09/2024
The development of highly automated driving functions (AD) recently rises the demand for so called Fail-Operational systems for native driving functions like steering and braking of vehicles. Fail-Operational systems shall guarantee the availability of driving functions even in presence of failures. This can also mean a degradation of system performance or limiting a system’s remaining operating period. In either case, the goal is independency from a human driver as a permanently situation-aware safety fallback solution to provide a certain level of autonomy. In parallel, the connectivity of modern vehicles is increasing rapidly and especially in vehicles with highly automated functions, there is a high demand for connected functions, Infotainment (web conference, Internet, Shopping) and Entertainment (Streaming, Gaming) to entertain the passengers, who should no longer occupied with driving tasks. But the connectivity is accompanied by potential cyber security risks, eventually
Schmidt, Karsten, Dannebaum, Udo, Schneider, Rolf, Ambekar, Abhijit
Dummy Positioning at Reclined Seating Position before Impact Testing2024-01-249004/09/2024
Alongside advancements in automated vehicle technologies, occupants within vehicle compartments are enjoying increased freedom to relax and enjoy their journeys. For instance, reclined seating postures have become more prevalent and comfortable compared to upright seating when Highly Automated Vehicles (HAVs) are introduced. Unfortunately, most Anthropomorphic Testing Devices (ATD) do not support reclined postures. THOR-AV 50M is a specially designed dummy for reclined postures. As a crucial tool for developing safety restraint systems to protect reclined occupants, the first question is how to position it correctly on a reclined seat before impact testing. In this study, classical zero gravity seats were selected. H-point coordinators of selected seat at 25°, 40° and 60° seatback angle were measured and compared by using H-point machine (HPM) even though current HPM was not designed for reclined seat. THOR-AV 50M with loosened joints, served to simulate human relaxation fully when
Liu, Chongqing, Wang, Zhenwen
Methodology to Estimate Load Spectra of Autonomous and Highly Automated Vehicles2024-01-232604/09/2024
The knowledge of representative load collectives and duty cycles is crucial for designing and dimensioning vehicles and their components. For human driven vehicles, various methods are known for deriving these load spectra directly or indirectly from fleet measurement data of the customer vehicle operation. Due to the lack of market penetration of highly automated and autonomous vehicles, there is no sufficient fleet data available to utilize these methods. As a result of increased demand for ride comfort compared to human driven vehicles, autonomous vehicle operation promises reduced driving speeds as well as reduced lateral and longitudinal accelerations. This can consequently lead to decreasing operation loads, thus enabling potentially more light-weight, cost-effective, resource-saving and energy-efficient vehicle components. In order to unlock this potential of dedicatedly dimensioned components for autonomous vehicles, a methodology for quantifying the loads in customer operation
Brandes, Gerrit, Rebesberger, Ron, Sander, Marcel, Erxleben, Lars, Henze, Roman, Küçükay, Ferit
FMCW Lidar Simulation with Ray Tracing and Standardized InterfacesSAE-PP-0038704/05/2024
In pursuit of safety validation of automated driving functions, efforts are being made to accompany real world test drives by test drives in virtual environments. To be able to transfer highly automated driving functions into a simulation, models of the vehicle’s perception sensors such as lidar, radar and camera are required. In addition to the classic pulsed time-of-flight (ToF) lidars, the growing availability of commercial frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) lidars sparks interest in the field of environment perception. This is due to advanced capabilities such as directly measuring the target’s relative radial velocity based on the Doppler effect. In this work, an FMCW lidar sensor simulation model is introduced, which is divided into the components of signal propagation and signal processing. The signal propagation is modeled by a ray tracing approach simulating the interaction of light waves with the environment. For this purpose, an ASAM Open Simulation Interface (OSI
Hofrichter, Kristof, Linnhoff, Clemens, Elster, Lukas, Peters, Steven
AVSC Best Practice for First Responder Interactions with Fleet-Managed Automated Driving System-Dedicated Vehicles (ADS-DVs)AVSC-I-01-202404/04/2024
This AVSC best practice was first published in 2020 and has been revised to cast expanded role definitions, rearrangement of use cases in Section 4 based on severity of risk, re-creation of Table 4 in 5.4 as a checklist and moved to Appendix B, as well as clarification of sections, examples, and terms throughout the document. This document outlines interactions between first responders and ADS-DVs (SAE level 4 and level 5). It builds on earlier work done by the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partners (CAMP), detailing three types of interactions first responders may encounter: direct, indirect, and informational. In addition, a standardized framework with recommendations for an interaction plan is laid out for ADS developers, manufacturers, and fleet operators which may assist first responders in both emergency and non-emergency situations involving ADS-DVs.
Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium
Simulation-Based Application of Safety of The Intended Functionality to Mitigate Foreseeable Misuse in Automated Driving SystemsSAE-PP-0037111/28/2023
The development of Automated Driving Systems (ADS) has the potential to revolutionize the transportation industry, but it also presents significant safety challenges. One of the key challenges is ensuring that the ADS is safe in the event of Foreseeable Misuse (FM) by the human driver. To address this challenge, a case study on simulation-based testing to mitigate FM by the driver using the driving simulator is presented. FM by the human driver refers to potential driving scenarios where the driver misinterprets the intended functionality of ADS, leading to hazardous behavior. Safety of the Intended Functionality (SOTIF) focuses on ensuring the absence of unreasonable risk resulting from hazardous behaviors related to functional insufficiencies caused by FM and performance limitations of sensors and machine learning-based algorithms for ADS. The simulation-based application of SOTIF to mitigate FM in ADS entails determining potential misuse scenarios, conducting simulation-based
patel, milin, Jung, Rolf
Comparison of the Knee–Thigh–Hip Response in Small Female ATDs with Female PMHS09-11-02-001309/20/2023
Bilateral knee impacts were conducted on Hybrid III and THOR 5th percentile female anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs), and the results were compared to previously reported female PMHS data. Each ATD was impacted at velocities of 2.5, 3.5, and 4.9 m/s. Knee–thigh–hip (KTH) loading data, obtained either via direct measurement or through exercising a one-dimensional lumped parameter model (LPM), was analyzed for differences in loading characteristics including the maximum force, time to maximum force, loading rate, and loading duration. In general, the Hybrid III had the highest loading rate and maximum force, and the lowest loading duration and time to peak force for each point along KTH. Conversely, the PMHS generally had the lowest loading rate and maximum force, and the highest loading duration and time to peak force for each point along KTH. The force transfer from the knee to the femur was 79.2 ± 0.3% for the Hybrid III 5th female, 82.7 ± 0.4% for the THOR-05F, and 70.6 ± 1.7% for
Carpenter, Randolff L., Berthelson, Parker R., Donlon, John-Paul, Forman, Jason L.
Letter from the Special Issue Editors10-07-03-001609/15/2023
Letter from the Special Issue Editors
Ivanov, Valentin, Savitski, Dzmitry
Simulation-Based Testing and Performance Evaluation of Vehicle Safety Functions12-07-01-000609/07/2023
The progressive development toward highly automated driving poses major challenges for the release and validation process in the automotive industry, because the immense number of test kilometers that have to be covered with the vehicle cannot be tackled to any extent with established test methods, which are highly focused on the real vehicle. For this reason, new methodologies are required. Simulation-based testing and, in particular, virtual driving tests will play an important role in this context. A basic prerequisite for achieving a significant reduction in the test effort with the real vehicle through these simulations are realistic test scenarios. For this reason, this article presents a novel approach for generating relevant traffic situations based on a traffic flow simulation in SUMO and a vehicle dynamics simulation in CarMaker. The procedure is shown schematically for an emergency braking function. A driving function under test faces the major challenges when the other road
Riegl, Peter, Gaull, Andreas, Beitelschmidt, Michael
A Review of Intelligence-Based Vehicles Path Planning02-16-04-002207/28/2023
Numerous researchers are committed to finding solutions to the path planning problem of intelligence-based vehicles. How to select the appropriate algorithm for path planning has always been the topic of scholars. To analyze the advantages of existing path planning algorithms, the intelligence-based vehicle path planning algorithms are classified into conventional path planning methods, intelligent path planning methods, and reinforcement learning (RL) path planning methods. The currently popular RL path planning techniques are classified into two categories: model based and model free, which are more suitable for complex unknown environments. Model-based learning contains a policy iterative method and value iterative method. Model-free learning contains a time-difference algorithm, Q-learning algorithm, state-action-reward-state-action (SARSA) algorithm, and Monte Carlo (MC) algorithm. Then, the path planning method based on deep RL is introduced based on the shortcomings of RL in
Hao, Bing, Zhao, JianShuo, Wang, Qi
Design of a Robust Optimal Multivariable Control for a Steer-by-Wire System2023-01-121806/26/2023
On the way to highly automated and autonomous driving, a robustly designed steering system is a key component. Therefore, this article presents a new control approach for modern steer-by-wire systems. The approach consists of a multivariable control for the driver´s steering torque and the rack position simultaneously, using the requested torques of the downstream and upstream motor as control variables. The plant model used in this approach is a detailed model of a steer-by-wire system with nine degrees of freedom. For the control design, an optimal reduced model is derived. The reduced plant model is linearized, and it is augmented by linear models for the reference and disturbance environment of the steer-by-wire system and by a linearized model for the feeling generator that computes the requested steering torque. For this augmented model, a multivariable linear optimal static state space controller is designed. Hence, the whole environment of the real steering system is considered
Irmer, Marcus, Thomas PhD, Karin, Ruschitzka PhD, Margot, Henrichfreise PhD, Hermann
Automated Vehicles and Infrastructure Enablers: ConnectivityEPR202301306/13/2023
Do connected vehicle (CV) technologies encourage or dampen progress toward widespread deployment of automated vehicles? Would digital infrastructure components be a better investment for safety, mobility, and the environment? Can CVs, coupled with smart infrastructure, provide an effective pathway to further automation? Highly automated vehicles are being developed (albeit slower than predicted) alongside varied, disruptive connected vehicle technology. Automated Vehicles and Infrastructure Enablers: Connectivity looks at the status of CV technology, examines the concerns of automated driving system (ADS) developers and infrastructure owners and operators (IOOs) in relying on connected infrastructure, and assesses lessons learned from the growth of CV applications and improved vehicle-based technology. IOOs and ADS developers agree that cost, communications, interoperability, cybersecurity, operation, maintenance, and other issues undercut efforts to deploy a comprehensive connected
Coyner, Kelley, Bittner, Jason
Classification of Roadway Infrastructure and Collaborative Automated Driving System12-06-04-002605/09/2023
The latest developments in vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-to-anything (V2X) technologies enable all the entities in the transportation system to communicate and collaborate to optimize transportation safety, mobility, and equity at the system level. On the other hand, the community of researchers and developers is becoming aware of the critical role of roadway infrastructure in realizing automated driving. In particular, intelligent infrastructure systems, which leverage modern sensors, artificial intelligence, and communication capabilities, can provide critical information and control support to connected and/or automated vehicles to fulfill functions that are infeasible for automated vehicles alone due to technical or cost considerations. However, there is limited research on formulating and standardizing the intelligence levels of road infrastructure to facilitate the development, as the SAE automated driving levels have done for automated vehicles. This article
Ran, Bin, Cheng, Yang, Li, Shen, Li, Hanchu, Parker, Steven
AVSC Information Report for Change Risk ManagementAVSC0001020230404/12/2023
AVSC Information Report for Change Risk Management AVSC00010202304 provides a process for change risk management for fleet-operated ADS-DVs using level 4 or 5 automation. The document addresses risks resulting from planned and unplanned changes in an ADS-DV design and/or operation. This information report is based on the concept of risk-informed decision-making. Making risk management decisions such as safety and change management, safety analysis, and safety assurance are especially applicable when moving from concept to production intent for the ADS-DV. Change Risk Management (CRM) does not replace best practices or other methods for managing safety anomalies or change management processes. It may instead be viewed as an additional resource that elaborates on how safety anomaly management and change management can be performed.
Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium
Design of a Secure Automated Driving Systems Test Data Interface2023-01-082804/11/2023
Vehicles equipped with Level 4 and 5 autonomy will need to be tested according to regulatory standards (or future revisions thereof) that vehicles with lower levels of autonomy are currently subject to. Today, dynamic Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) tests are performed with human drivers and driving robots controlling the test vehicle’s steering wheel, throttle pedal, and brake pedal. However, many Level 4 and 5 vehicles will lack these traditional driver controls, so it will be impossible to control these vehicles using human drivers or traditional driving robots. Therefore, there is a need for an electronic interface that will allow engineers to send dynamic steering, speed, and brake commands to a vehicle. This paper describes the design and implementation of a market-ready Automated Driving Systems (ADS) Test Data Interface (TDI), a secure electronic control interface which aims to solve the challenges outlined above. The interface consists of a communication port
Zagorski, Scott, Nguyen, An, Heydinger, Gary, Abbey, Howard
An ODD-Based Scalable Assurance Framework for Automated Driving Systems2023-01-057404/11/2023
Due to the increasing complexities, the safety assurances for Automated Driving Systems (ADSs) and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADASs) pose challenges. Recent development within the industry and academia suggests a scenario-based approach underpinned by the system’s Operational Design Domain (ODD) for its safety assurance. In such framework, the ODD defines the safe operating boundary, whereas the scenarios set out individual test conditions. To assess the behavior of the system, a critical element for road safety is the ability to respect the rules of the road. This paper joins together ODDs, scenarios, and rules of the road to form a scalable ODD-based safety assurance framework. The backbone of the framework contains a coherent and common taxonomy to describe the ODDs and behavior library, the scenario tagging structure from the ASAM OpenLABEL standard has been used in the example use case. The workflow utilizes the system’s ODD and behavior library as input to perform
Zhang, Xizhe, Khastgir, Siddartha, Jennings, Paul
A Method for Building Vehicle Trajectory Data Sets Based on Drone Videos2023-01-071404/11/2023
The research and development of data-driven highly automated driving system components such as trajectory prediction, motion planning, driving test scenario generation, and safety validation all require large amounts of naturalistic vehicle trajectory data. Therefore, a variety of data collection methods have emerged to meet the growing demand. Among these, camera-equipped drones are gaining more and more attention because of their obvious advantages. Specifically, compared to others, drones have a wider field of bird's eye view, which is less likely to be blocked, and they could collect more complete and natural vehicle trajectory data. Besides, they are not easily observed by traffic participants and ensure that the human driver behavior data collected is realistic and natural. In this paper, we present a complete vehicle trajectory data extraction framework based on aerial videos. It consists of three parts: 1) objects detection, 2) data association, and 3) data cleaning. In
Wang, Zhenyu, Yu, Zhuoping, Tian, Wei, Xiong, Lu, Tang, Chen
Injury Assessment in Non-Standard Seating Configurations in Highly Automated Vehicles Using Digital Twin and Active Learning2023-01-000604/11/2023
Human-driven vehicles are going to be replaced by highly automated vehicles as one of the future mobility trends. Even though highly automated vehicles’ active safety systems can protect against vehicle-to-vehicle accidents, the traffic mix between human-driven vehicles and highly automated vehicles is still a potential source of vehicle collisions. Additionally, occupants in highly automated vehicles will be passengers not necessarily dealing with driving anymore, so there will be a considerable number of non-standard seating configurations. Those configurations are not able to be assessed for safety by hardware testing due to their number, variability and complexity. The objective of the paper is the development of a fast virtual approach to identify the passengers’ injury risk in non-standard seating configurations under multi-directional impact scenarios and severity. We deploy the concept of surrogate modeling, where we introduce a digital twin for the expected automated vehicle
Hyncik, Ludek, Talimian, Abbas, Vychytil, Jan, Kleindienst, Jan, Gharbi, Slim, Ziazopoulos, Pantelis
Estimation of the Tire-Road Interaction Forces by using Pacejka’s Formulas with Combined Slips and Camber Angles2023-01-064604/11/2023
The growing market demand for highly automated and autonomous vehicles and the need to equip vehicles with ever higher standards of comfort, safety and performance requires knowledge of physical quantities that are often difficult or expensive to measure directly. The absence of direct sensors, the difficulty of implementation, and their cost have led researchers to identify alternative solutions that allow estimating the physical quantity of interest by aggregating other available information. The interaction forces between tire and road are among the most significant. Given that the dynamics of a vehicle are strongly linked to the forces exchanged between the tire and the road, their knowledge is fundamental in the development of control systems aimed at improving performance in terms of handling, road holding or comfort. This paper presents a new technique for the estimation of tire-road interaction forces based on the integration of models and measures. A Central Difference Kalman
Marotta, Raffaele, Ivanov, Valentin, Strano, Salvatore, Terzo, Mario, Tordela, Ciro
Research on the Development Path and Policy Recommendations of Vehicle Infrastructure Cooperation2022-01-706512/22/2022
By looking into the vehicle-infrastructure cooperation (VIC) which is oriented towards intelligent, networked and integrated development, this paper analyzes and proposes the essence and development direction of Intelligent Vehicle Infrastructure Cooperation Systems (I-VICS). With an in-depth analysis of technologies of core importance to VIC and influence factors that constrain VIC development as a whole, the paper comes up with a technological route for VIC, and identifies a direction for vehicle-infrastructure cooperative development that progresses from primary to intermediate cooperation, then to advanced cooperation, and finally to full-fledged cooperation. Policy recommendations aiming at strengthening top-level design, building an integrated vehicle-infrastructure-cloud platform, expediting independence of key techs, building robust standards and regulations for VIC, enhancing workforce development as well as greater efforts at market promotion are put forward.
Lei, Chun, Zeng, Jiao, Jiang, Yuan, Li, Zhe
SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Simulation Tool Chain for AVs Achieves SAE Level 31337212/16/2022
The race is on to develop an autonomous vehicle (AV) that is safer than a human driver -- and one automaker is coming closer. By joining forces with Ansys, the global leader in engineering simulation, the BMW Group has developed the first-ever end-to-end tool chain specifically guided by safety principles to develop and validate ADAS and automated/autonomous driving functions. Through this collaboration, the BMW Group is leveraging Ansys' unique simulation capabilities to become one of the first automotive manufacturers to offer SAE Level 3 highly automated driving to consumers. The collaboration is key to quickly addressing advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and AV system reliability and significantly speed time to market. As shown in SAE J3016, the transition from SAE Level 2 to Level 3 is significant. With state-of-the-art software solutions that are cloud-native, scalable, fit for massive data, open and extensible, the partnership between BMW and Ansys has resulted in an
Hineman, Marcie
Automated Vehicles and Infrastructure Enablers: ElectrificationEPR202202912/15/2022
Highly automated vehicles are being developed alongside a variety of novel, disruptive technologies and a global focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation. ADS can reduce emissions and improve fuel efficiency for vehicles powered by traditional internal combustion engines. Electric motors can further raise the bar for both those areas, especially if the power used to charge an electric vehicle is generated from renewable sources. However, implementing electrified AVs requires a viable charging infrastructure. Automated Vehicles and Infrastructure Enablers: Electrification covers issues concerning infrastructure and the electrification of all forms of vehicles: heavy-duty vehicles like trucks and buses, light-duty vehicles like cars and vans, micro-mobility, and new form factors. Click here to access The Mobility Frontier: Accelerating Infrastructure Readiness for Autonomy Click here to access the full SAE EDGETM Research Report portfolio.
Coyner, Kelley, Bittner, Jason
Vertiport Assessment and Mobility Operations SystemTBMG-4712012/01/2022
It is widely believed that Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) is poised to have a significant societal impact in the coming years to move people and cargo more rapidly and efficiently. AAM refers to a new mode of transportation utilizing highly automated airborne vehicles for transporting goods and/or people. The main goals of AAM vehicles are to reduce emissions, to increase connectivity and speed, while helping to reduce traffic congestion. These vehicles can take off and land vertically in designated urban locations called vertiports.
An Interface Approach for Safety and Cybersecurity Management Systems in Highly Automated Driving VehiclesSAE-PP-0030410/28/2022
To ensure safety and security of highly automated driving systems one shall make sure all risks are reduced to a reasonable level and an all potential cyberattacks are addressed with necessary protection. Because of the complexity of such vehicle systems, systematic and structured management approaches are vital to maintaining safety via cybersecurity (CS). The interface of Safety Management System (SMS) with Cybersecurity Management System (CSMS) is one of the key aspects to ensuring that potential safety issues are addressed. Both management systems include planning, concepts, and process development, with significant areas of overlapping management systems is required. Regarding the management systems interface and distribution, it is still a challenge that Highly Automated Driving (HAD) vehicles needs to overcome by means of effective implementation and strategies with continuous improvement and a reduction of miscommunication. From that motivation, a set of engineering risk
Khatun, Marzana, Wagner, Florence, Jung, Rolf, Glaß, Michael
An Adaptable Security by Design Approach for Ensuring a Secured Remote Monitoring Teleoperation (RMTO) of an Autonomous VehicleSAE-PP-0030210/25/2022
Remote Monitoring and Teleoperation (RMTO) of Autonomous Vehicles (AV) is advancing in pace in the industry. Researchers and industrial partners explore the role RMTO plays in helping AV navigate through complicated situations among many others. At the heart of this, lies the problem of potential pathways and attack vectors or threat surfaces by which a malicious attack can be carried out on an RMTO and on an AV itself. The separation of cybersecurity considerations in RMTO is barely considered, as so far the majority of available research and activities mainly focused on AV. The main focus of this paper is addressing RMTO cybersecurity utilizing an adaptable security-by-design approach, although security-by-design is still in the infant state within automotive cybersecurity. An adaptable security-by-design approach for RMTO covers Security Engineering Life-cycle, Logical Security Layered Concept, and Security Architecture. Based on the international automotive cybersecurity standards
Iyieke, Victormills, Jadidbonab PhD, Hesamaldin, Bryans PhD, Jeremy, Robinson, Tom
Autonomous Field RoboticsEPR202202310/17/2022
The market penetration of highly automated agricultural vehicles in crop farming and arable environments is still very low. However, the unsettled issues and market barriers stem from three main topics. The first is the technical development and appropriate framework conditions for hardware and software required for autonomous field vehicles. The second is the regulatory framework needed to facilitate investment by manufacturers and users. Finally, the third topic is the willingness of the user to accept the non-deterministic systems that are common in agricultural practices today. Autonomous Field Robotics is a joint report between SAE International and the German Institute for Standardization (DIN) developed to enable relevant stakeholders—including users, regulators, researchers, and manufacturers, among others—to discuss the barriers facing automated agricultural vehicles. The report includes a cross-industry and cross-sector exchange on the three central aspects, a prioritization
Lehmann, Johannes, Dwerlkotte, Nina, Saxe, Friederike
Advanced Continuous Sensing Technology for Hydraulic Brake Fluid2022-01-118509/19/2022
The Continuous Fluid Level and Quality Indicator (CFLQI) technology is focused on increasing the sampling frequency of brake fluid reservoir volume and detecting specific brake fluid contaminants. CFLQI targets to improve diagnostics detection range and resulting degraded vehicle operation strategies by increasing sensitivity to brake fluid loss and the addition of a fluid quality feature. The theory of CFLQI is to improve future autonomous and highly automated vehicle performance, both of which will have reduced driver input and service schedules, by providing earlier fluid level and fluid health warnings. The two technologies selected to prove theory of operation were ultra-sonic sensor and capacitive sense element technology. Both technologies show initial capability to meet fluid sensing targets with system level ASIL D ASIC design. The CFLQI compliments and improves upon current technology of brake pad wear sensors, leak detection diagnostics and brake fluid level monitoring. The
Leether, Cole, Nguyen, Hung, Weber, Steven
DEVELOPING A MODEL OF DRIVER PERFORMANCE, SITUATION AWARENESS, AND COGNITIVE LOAD CONSIDERING DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PARTIAL VEHICLE AUTONOMY2024-01-396108/10/2022
ABSTRACT To optimize the use of partially autonomous vehicles, it is necessary to develop an understanding of the interactions between these vehicles and their operators. This research investigates the relationship between level of partial autonomy and operator abilities using a web-based virtual reality study. In this study participants took part in a virtual drive where they were required to perform all or part of the driving task in one of five possible autonomy conditions while responding to sudden emergency road events. Participants also took part in a simultaneous communications console task to include an element of multitasking. Situation awareness was measured using real-time probes based on the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) as well as the Situation Awareness Rating Technique (SART). Cognitive Load was measured using the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) and an adapted version of the SOS Scale. Other measured factors included multiple indicators of
Cossitt, Jessie E., Patel, Viraj R., Carruth, Daniel W., Paul, Victor J., Bethel, Cindy L.
EDITORIAL: Platooning still promising for trucking22TOFHP08_0408/01/2022
There is “no business case” for platooning, or the electronic coupling of two or more trucks in close formation. That was the assessment of Daimler Trucks in 2019 when it decided to pause its years-long platooning development activities. The OEM determined that for U.S. long-distance applications, where conditions were expected to be ideal, the fuel savings were less than stellar and diminished further when the platoon got “disconnected” and trucks had to accelerate to reconnect. Instead, the company turned its full attention to developing highly automated (SAE Level 4) trucks. The fate of Peloton Technology, a company all-in on platooning but that ceased operations in 2021, is another indicator that perhaps platooning's promise has faded.
Gehm, Ryan
Toward an Automated Scenario-Based X-in-the-Loop Testing Framework for Connected and Automated Vehicles12-05-04-003006/27/2022
Emerging technologies for connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) are rapidly advancing, and there is an incremental adoption of partial automation systems in existing vehicles. Nevertheless, there are still significant barriers before fully or highly automated vehicles can enter mass production and appear on public roads. These are not only associated with the need to ensure their safe and efficient operation but also with cost and delivery time constraints. A key challenge lies in the testing and validation (T&V) requirements of CAVs, which are expected to be significantly higher than those of traditional and partially automated vehicles. Promising methodologies that can be used toward this goal are scenario-based (SBT) and X-in-the-Loop (XiL) testing. At the same time, complex techniques such as co-simulation and mixed-reality simulation could also provide significant benefits. Nevertheless, the benefits of individual solutions are likely to be significantly smaller, if considered
Kyriakopoulos, Ioannis, Jaworski, Pawel, Edwards, Tim
Generic Crash Pulses Representing Future Accident Scenarios of Highly Automated Vehicles09-10-02-001004/01/2022
Assessment of crashworthiness of autonomous vehicles (AVs) must be carried out for future crash scenarios, as not all crashes will be avoidable. Representative crash pulses for AVs are needed to evaluate conceptual design restraint systems of those vehicles. Within this study, generic crash pulses for crash scenarios expected to be relevant for AVs were generated based on a set of vehicle-to-vehicle structure simulations with current European sedan cars. These crash scenarios included one Straight Crossing Path (SCP) and two Left Turn Across Path Opposite Direction (LTAP OD) scenarios with varying initial velocities and weight ratios of the crash opponents to obtain different crash configurations. Additionally, full-width frontal simulations with 40 kph and 56 kph were included as a reference. The acceleration signals obtained from the individual simulations were approximated by Legendre polynomials. A prediction model was created for each crash configuration based on a set of three to
Höschele, Patrick, Smit, Stefan, Tomasch, Ernst, Östling, Martin, Mroz, Krystoffer, Klug, Corina
DRSPI - A Framework for Preserving Automated Vehicle Safety Claims by Unknown Unknowns Recognition and Dynamic Runtime Safety Performance Indicator Improvement2022-01-081303/29/2022
A safe automated vehicle must “know when it doesn’t know.” Automated vehicles cannot depend on the traditional drive-fail-fix cycle due to heavy tail problem distributions supplying virtually infinite problems. In order to be safe, automated vehicles require the ability to handle unforeseen untested “unknown unknown” situations. Safety Performance Indicators (SPIs) at deep-enough sub-claim levels can uncover safety case claim violations in a ‘leading’ fashion - prior to safety events. This paper introduces Dynamic Realtime SPIs (SPIs calculated at runtime) at sufficiently low safety case claim levels which yield runtime recognition of safety case claim violations and can be used by the ADS to infer that it is encountering an “unknown unknown” situation. Then, because “knowing when an ADS doesn’t know” is insufficient to ensure AV safety, we introduce the Dynamic Realtime SPI (DRSPI) framework, for handling such occurrences. The DRSPI framework includes methodical assignment of one or
Diaz, Michael, Woon, Michael
The Effect of Pre-Crash Seat Rotation with and without Feet Support in Highly Automated Vehicle Rear-End Crash2022-01-086803/29/2022
An automated driving system (ADS) shall provide safer conditions for highly automated vehicle (HAV) users compared to standard vehicles since human error is excluded. In the following decades, however, one can expect a mixed fleet of both standard and automated vehicles on roads. Therefore, collisions between manually driven cars and HAVs are to be expected. On the other hand, HAVs’ occupants access more room in the vehicle which allows them to rotate their seats to have a comfortable position. This work aims to address the issue of HAV’s occupant safety using tools of numerical simulations. We consider an FE model of a seat with the standard three-point belt at two initial orientations 45° and 90°. The occupant (50th percentile male) is represented with the Virthuman model. We test the idea of employing the active seat rotation system. By detecting a crash well in time an initially rotated seat is reoriented into a standard seating orientation in a rear-end crash. To improve the
Talimian, Abbas, Vychytil, Jan
What Can User Typologies Tell Us about Carsickness Criticality in Future Mobility Systems12-05-02-001202/15/2022
Car manufacturers are continuously improving passenger comfort by advancing technologies including highly automated driving. Before the broad introduction of automated driving, specific human factors regarding passenger comfort must be considered, including motion sickness. Therefore, the identification of the frequency of motion sickness and associated factors in the population is needed to extrapolate the effects for future mobility systems. We conducted three surveys between 2015 and 2020, asking people questions about their experience with motion sickness in cars. Based on the responses of 1,165 participants, gender and age showed a strong influence on the self-reported frequency of motion sickness. For deeper analysis, a logistic order regression model was used to estimate the frequency of motion sickness for different user typologies. The user-centered forecast is essential to prioritize possible technological measures in the vehicle in order to improve the product experience.
Brietzke, Adrian, Kantusch, Timmy, Pham Xuan, Rebecca, Dettmann, André, Marker, Stefanie, Bullinger, Angelika C.
Unsettled Topics in Obstacle Detection for Autonomous Agricultural VehiclesEPR202102912/15/2021
Agricultural vehicles often drive along the same terrain day after day or year after year. Yet, they still must detect if a moveable object, such as another vehicle or an animal, happens to be on their path or if environmental conditions have caused muddy spots or washouts. Obstacle detection is one of the major missing pieces that can remove humans from highly automated agricultural machines today and enable the autonomous vehicles of the future. Unsettled Topics in Obstacle Detection for Autonomous Agricultural Vehicles examines the challenges of environmental object detection and collision prevention, including air obscurants, holes and soft spots, prior maps, vehicle geometry, standards, and close contact with large objects. Click here to access the full SAE EDGETM Research Report portfolio.
Moorehead, Stewart
Critical Analysis of Prototype Autonomous Vehicle Crash Rates: Six Scientific Studies from 2015-2018R-51511/30/2021
Will Automated Vehicles be Safer than Conventional Vehicles? One of the critically important questions that has emerged about advanced technologies in transportation is how to test the actual effects of these advanced systems on safety, particularly how to evaluate the safety of highly automated driving systems. Richard Young's Critical Analysis of Prototype Autonomous Vehicle Crash Rates does a deep dive into these questions by reviewing and then critically analyzing the first six scientific studies of AV crash rates.
Young, Richard
What Can User Typologies Tell Us about Carsickness Criticality in Future Mobility SystemsSAE-PP-0020010/26/2021
Car manufacturers are continuously improving passenger comfort by advancing technologies including highly-automated driving. Before the broad introduction of automated driving, specific human factors regarding passenger comfort must be considered, including motion sickness. Therefore, the identification of the frequency of motion sickness and associated factors in the population is needed to extrapolate the effects for future mobility systems. We conducted three surveys between 2015 and 2020, asking people questions about their experience with motion sickness in cars. Based on the responses of 1165 participants, gender and age showed a strong influence on the self-reported frequency of motion sickness. For deeper analysis, a logistic order regression model was used to estimate the frequency of motion sickness for different user typologies. The user-centered forecast is essential to prioritize possible technological measures in the vehicle in order to improve the product experience.
Brietzke, Adrian, Kantusch, Timmy, Pham Xuan, Rebecca, Dettmann, Andre, Marker, Stefanie, Bullinger, Angelika C.
The Navigator21AVEP09_0209/01/2021
More than five years after Joshua Brown's death, life signs are emerging at the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Brown was decapitated when his Tesla Model S drove itself under a tractor-trailer while he wasn't paying attention. In the intervening years, there have been dozens of crashes where Tesla's Autopilot advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) setup was active. Until recently, NHTSA has done nothing to reign in how Tesla and other automakers deploy such systems. Just weeks after the agency issued an order for all companies developing or deploying partially or highly automated driving systems to report all crashes, it has opened (as of this writing in mid-August) a formal investigation into Teslas slamming into parked emergency vehicles. Sadly, the meme of Tesla's plowing into the back of fire trucks and police cars on the side of the road has become something of a running joke in the last few years. The new NHTSA investigation is specifically focused on
Peering into the Distance21AVEP09_0409/01/2021
New sensors of all types look out longer distances - and provide higher resolutions - for engineers pushing ADAS capabilities and higher-level vehicle automation. Sensors are the frontline technology for advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and future vehicles with high-level (SAE Levels 4-5) automation. Designers at all levels are working to find the optimal and number of sensors and their ideal performance levels, capturing data that's farther away while increasing field of view and resolution. Tier 1s and OEMs have long leveraged different sensors - radar, cameras and lidar - to provide redundancy and gain insight into what's around the vehicle. The first high-level automated vehicles for public use will be heavily laden with sensors as engineers and developers strive to prove that driverless vehicles can navigate safely. Automated taxis and shuttles are being loaded with input devices.
Costlow, Terry
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