Particulate matter (PM), mainly its finer fraction, is among the main atmospheric pollutants present in an urban environment. The relationship between the increase in the concentration of this pollutant and the harm to human health is well established. The main sources of particulate matter in urban areas are mobile sources, which include the exhaust emission from light duty vehicles. This work measured the emission of PM in three light duty passenger vehicles, characterizing it in terms of emitted mass in one “flex” vehicle with port fuel (indirect) injection (PFI), using ethanol and gasohol (mixture of 22% anhydrous ethanol and 78% gasoline, by volume), in another “flex” vehicle with direct fuel injection (GDI), and in a diesel vehicle. In addition to mass measurement, images of the filters used in PM sampling were produced using scanning electron microscopy. The processing of these images made it possible to determine the average PM size, as well as establish a particle size

Borsari, Vanderlei, Neto, Edson Elpídio, de Abrantes, Rui

Effect of Ultra-High Fuel Injection Pressure on Combustion Characteristics, Engine Performance and Pollutant Emissions of a Multi-Cylinder Engine

2025-36-0212

12/18/2025

Antolini, Jácson, Zabeu, Clayton Barcelos, Pires, Gustavo Cassares, Polizio, Yuri

Equivalent Circuit for Driving Piezoelectric Injectors

2025-36-0177

12/18/2025

The activation of the fuel injector affects both engine performance and pollutant emissions. However, the automotive industry restricts access to information regarding the circuits and control strategies used in its vehicles. One way to optimize fuel injections is using piezoelectric injectors. These injectors utilize crystals that expand or contract when subjected to an electric current, moving the injector needle. They offer a response time up to four times faster than solenoid-type injectors and allow for multiple injections per combustion cycle. These characteristics result in higher combustion efficiency, reduced emissions, and lower noise levels, making piezoelectric injectors widely used in next-generation engines, where stricter emission and efficiency standards are required. This study aims to design a drive circuit for piezoelectric injectors in a common rail system, intended for use in a diesel injector test bench. Experimental measurement of voltage was obtained from an

Moreira, Vinicius Guerra, Silveira, Hairton Júnior José da, Morais Hanriot, Sérgio de, Euzébio, Wagner Roberto

Numerical Simulation of Additized Ethanol: Impact of Engine Parameters on Combustion, Performance and Emissions

2025-36-0250

12/18/2025

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Assis, Guilherme, Sánchez, Fernando Zegarra, Pradelle, Renata Nohra Chaar, Braga, Sergio Leal, Ticona, Epifanio Mamani, Souza Junior, Jorge, Pradelle, Florian

Methodology for Characterizing the Spray of an Internal Combustion Engine Fuel Injector

2025-36-0194

12/18/2025

This study presents a methodology for characterizing the spray of an internal combustion engine (ICE) fuel injector, focusing on direct injection (DI) systems. It addresses the knowledge gap in academic research regarding injector spray patterns by conducting experimental tests and numerical simulations. Using a Bosch HDEV 1.1 pressure swirl injector and EXXSOL D60 test fluid, spray characteristics were captured with a high-speed camera under varying injection pressures and ambient/counterpressure conditions. These experimental data were used to calibrate a numerical model for simulating spray dynamics within the combustion chamber. The research examines the impact of parameters such as breakup length and breakup size constant on spray behavior, revealing that the breakup size constant significantly affects spray penetration. The study successfully developed and validated a methodology for characterizing and modeling fuel injector sprays, providing a valuable reference for optimizing

Paula Araújo, Gabriel Heleno, Assis, Marcelo Suman Silva, Malaquias, Augusto Cesar Teixeira, Carvalho Torres Filho, Marcos, Baeta, José Guilherme Coelho

Influence of Supply Voltage over Fuel Injector’s Deadtime

2025-36-0174

12/18/2025

This study presents three methods for obtaining the latency of an indirect injection Electro-Injector as a function of the applied voltage. This parameter is relevant for the linearization of the injected mass in order to model fuel mass delivery on modern ECUs. For this purpose, the authors built a test bench, with the intent of running analysis on the results of tests of mass differential between injections, circulating current, and mechanical vibration. The authors gathered data over the iterative experiments and correlated the mass differential, vibration data and current measurements. The authors observed that with a reduction of supply voltage at the injector’s pins, a greater injector dead time made itself present displaying a need for a compensation of opening time in function of voltage since the injector’s needle takes a longer amount of time in partially open positions. Modern ECU manufacturers broadly use the data obtained by this type of iterative experiment to accurately

Juliatti, Rafael Motter, Oliveira, Julia Mathias de, Morais Hanriot, Sérgio de, Silveira, Hairton Júnior Jose da, Moreira, Vinicius Guerra

Performance Analysis of Methanol- Ethanol Blend Fuel in a Spark-Ignition Flex-Fuel Engine

2025-36-0148

12/18/2025

Flex-fueled vehicles (FFV) dominate the Brazilian market, accounting for over 75% of the national fleet. Ethanol fuel is widely used, primarily in the form of hydrated ethyl alcohol fuel (HEAF). Given the similar physicochemical properties of ethanol and methanol, fuel adulteration is a growing concern, often involving the addition of anhydrous ethanol, methanol, or even water to hydrated ethanol. These adulterants are visually imperceptible and can only be detected through analyses conducted by regulatory agencies using specialized instruments. However, they can significantly affect vehicle performance and accelerate engine component deterioration. The experiment was performed with a small displacement 3-cylinder port fuel injection flex-fuel engine on an engine test bench (dynamometer) and compared when fueled with ethanol and methanol. Data acquisition included combustion pressure, spark plug temperature, torque, air-fuel ratio, fuel flow, spark maps, and the overall effects of

Mascarenhas, Giovana Rebellato, Gomes, Ederson, Cruz, Diego, Duque, Edson Luciano

Development of a Hardware-In-the-Loop (HIL) Platform for Evaluating and Implementing Heated Injection Technology in GDI Engines

2025-36-0048

12/18/2025

Reducing pollutant emissions remains a major challenge for the automotive industry, driven by increasingly stringent environmental regulations. While solutions such as electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have been developed, internal combustion engines (ICEs) continue to dominate many markets, requiring additional emission control strategies. Traditional technologies like catalytic converters and advanced injection systems primarily optimize performance once the engine reaches its operating temperature. However, during the cold start phase, when engine temperatures are below optimal, combustion efficiency drops, resulting in increased emissions of non-methane organic gases (NMOG) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). This phase is further compromised by factors such as fuel droplet size and suboptimal catalyst performance. In response, this work presents the development of a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) platform to study the impact of heated injection technology on cold

Triviño, Juan David Parra, Teixeira, Evandro Leonardo Silva, De Lisboa, Fábio Cordeiro, Aguilar, Raul Fernando Sánchez, Oliveira, Alessandro Borges De Sousa

Sustainable Engines with Carbon-Neutral Fuels – Fast Adaptation for Efficient Multi-Fuel Operation by Tailored Charge Motion Design

2025-01-0534

11/25/2025

As a fundamental element of measures to reduce the carbon footprint of commercial applications, carbon-neutral fuels are increasingly coming into focus for heavy installations. In addition to diesel substitute fuels, alternative energy carriers like NG, H2, MeOH and NH3 are gaining increasing attention. The energy conversion of these fuels is typically taking place on the principle of premixed combustion, which places different demands on fuel injection and mixture formation, as compared to optimized diesel-like combustion. Accordingly, the demand to layout multi-fuel capable engine designs centers to a high share on the above-mentioned design that can burn these different fuels with high efficiency and support a high degree of commonality with the in-series engine to carry over reliable operation and to maintain attractive cost figures. FEV has developed the Charge Motion Design (CMD) process, which can be applied to design the intake ports and combustion chambers for multi-fuel

Koerfer, Thomas, Dhongde, Avnish, Boberic, Aleksandar, Zimmer, Pascal, Pischinger, Stefan

Investigation of Active Pre-Chamber Ignition on an Optically Accessible Ultra-Lean DI Hydrogen Engine

2025-01-0524

11/25/2025

Hydrogen is a promising alternative to conventional fuels for decarbonizing the commercial vehicle sector due to its carbon-free nature. This study investigates the ignition and flame propagation characteristics of hydrogen in a 2-liter single-cylinder optical research engine representative of the commercial vehicle sector. The main objective was to enable high power density operation while minimizing NOx emissions. For that, ultra-lean combustion was employed to lower in-cylinder temperatures, addressing the challenge of NOx formation. To counteract delayed and unstable combustion under lean conditions, an active pre-chamber ignition system was implemented. It uses a gas-purged pre-chamber with separate hydrogen injection and spark plug ignition. Turbulent hot gas jets from the pre-chamber ignite the fresh mixture in the main combustion chamber, enabling faster and more stable ignition compared to conventional spark plugs. Additionally, the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen

Borken, Philipp, Bill, Daniel, Link, Lukas, Dinkelacker, Friedrich, Hansen, Hauke

Effect of Fuel Injection Strategies on Performance, Combustion, and Emission Characteristics of Diesel–Diethyl Ether–Fueled Compression Ignition Engine

03-18-07-0043

11/20/2025

This experimental study compared a blend of diesel–DEE (DEE 40% v/v in diesel) with baseline diesel. This experimental study assesses different fuel injection strategies for controlling the in-cylinder charge stratification, such as single, double, and triple injections. The peak in-cylinder pressure under the partially premixed combustion mode was higher than conventional diesel combustion. Higher in-cylinder pressure with increasing dwell time was observed under triple injections. Retarding pilot injections increased the peak in-cylinder pressure. Conventional diesel combustion mode exhibited the highest brake thermal efficiency and lowest emissions with all injection strategies. A longer dwell time of 12° CA showed higher brake thermal efficiency, nitric oxide, and carbon monoxide emissions, whereas hydrocarbon emissions were lower compared to a shorter dwell time of 6° CA. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions increased, but nitric oxide and brake thermal efficiency were

Sonawane, Utkarsha, Agarwal, Avinash Kumar

An Open-Source Solenoid Injector Driver Circuit for Fuel Injection Research

03-18-07-0041

11/10/2025

Common rail, high-pressure electronic fuel injection is one of the primary technologies enabling high-efficiency and low emissions in modern diesel engines. Most fuel injectors utilize an actively controlled solenoid valve to actuate a needle that modulates the fuel supply into the combustion chamber. The electrical drive circuit for the injector requires extensive development costs, and thus, most designs are proprietary in nature, making it difficult to perform academic studies of the fuel injection processes. This research presents an injector driver circuit to control one or more solenoid injectors simultaneously for research-based injector development efforts. The electrical circuit was computationally modeled and optimized iteratively, and then, electronic hardware was developed to demonstrate control of a Bosch CRIN3 solenoid diesel injector as proof of concept. In addition, the injector performance was quantified by the fuel rate of injection (ROI) profiles obtained in a test

Bogdanowicz, Edward, Agrawal, Ajay, Lemmon, Andrew N., Bittle, Joshua

Analysis of Combustion Process in HVO-Hydrogen Dual-Fuel Operation Using Simultaneous Imaging of OH* and CH* Chemiluminescence

2025-32-0053

11/03/2025

This study investigated the combustion process in a hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO)–hydrogen dual-fuel operation using simultaneous imaging of the OH* and CH* chemiluminescence in a rapid compression and expansion machine (RCEM). In this operation, hydrogen served as the primary fuel, ignited by a small quantity of pilot fuel. CH* chemiluminescence was primarily detected in the pilot fuel combustion regions, whereas OH* chemiluminescence was detected in both the pilot fuel and hydrogen combustion regions, enabling the separation of pilot ignition and hydrogen flame propagation. The combustion mechanism was found to proceed through four distinct stages: autoignition of the pilot fuel, combustion of the mixture in the lean pilot fuel region, propagation of the hydrogen–air premixture flame, and flame propagation toward the wall and squish area. Furthermore, the effects of the pilot injection parameters on the combustion characteristics were systematically evaluated by varying the

Yukitani, Takumi, Une, Naoto, Mukhtar, Ghazian, Horibe, Naoto, Kawanabe, Hiroshi, Koda, Kazuyuki, Hiraoka, Kenji

Development of a Combined Injection and Ignition Unit for a Gas Engine with Direct Hydrogen Injection Integrated into the Standard Spark Plug Access Hole

2025-32-0059

11/03/2025

To achieve the desired fuel switch from natural gas to hydrogen in internal combustion engines for combined heat and power units, it is necessary to make some adjustments to the fuel supply system. External gas mixers increase the probability of backfiring when natural gas is replaced by hydrogen. In addition, the low density of hydrogen results in a loss of power. Therefore, direct gas injection is preferred when using hydrogen. A drawback of direct injection is the requirement of higher injection pressures to achieve the desired fuel mass and mixture homogeneity as well as the additional access to the combustion chamber for the direct gas injector in the cylinder head. This paper proposes an alternative approach that does not necessitate the implementation of a high-pressure direct injection system nor additional access to the combustion chamber via the cylinder head. A combined injection and ignition unit, called HydroFit, was developed which uses a sleeve inside the spark plug bore

Rischette, Nic, Holzberger, Sascha, Helms, Sven, Kettner, Maurice

Transient Helium Jet Evolution Using High Speed Schlieren Imaging

2025-32-0057

11/03/2025

The accelerating global shift towards decarbonised energy systems has positioned hydrogen as a highly promising carbon-free fuel. This study comprehensively investigates the macroscopic characteristics and temporal evolution of vortex ring trailing helium jets, serving as a surrogate for hydrogen, injected into a quiescent ambient environment using high-speed Schlieren imaging. This research addresses critical insights into fuel-air mixing dynamics essential for optimising hydrogen direct injection (DI) internal combustion engines. Analysis of helium jet tip’s topology revealed a three-stage evolution from an initial pressure-insensitive phase, dominated by pressure wave structures, to a momentum-driven, vortex-dependent growth stage, then to a fully developed stage. Specifically, the lower-pressure cases showed increased Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and distinct head vortex pinch-off at the final stage. Jet tip velocities transitioned from initial high, rapid pressure wave development

Dong, Shuo, Shi, Hao, Zhang, Gengxin, Feng, Yizhuo, Lu, Enshen, Wang, Xinyan, Zhao, Hua

Knock Sensors for Two Wheelers Applications

2025-32-0079

11/03/2025

This paper describes the design and characteristics of the knock sensor. The sensor is already used as a commodity product for automotive applications and used by all automotive OEMs for spark ignited combustion engines. With the arrival of the electronic fuel injection on the two wheelers, further optimization of the combustion can be obtained. Although there are many publications on the engine knock strategy, little is known publicly about the sensor itself. The knock sensor is an accelerometer based on a piezoelectric component; it provides an analog signal of the engine vibration. The Electronic Control Unit will filter the signal according to a specific strategy and defines the presence and intensity of the engine knock. The ECU will act accordingly on the ignition timing. The inner structure as well as the mechanical and electrical interface are described in this article.

van Est, Jeroen, Prieu, Corentin

Effect of In-Cylinder Hydrogen Mixture Formation on Hydrogen Combustion

2025-32-0065

11/03/2025

Global efforts to mitigate climate change include ambitious long-term strategies by countries to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The automotive sector is exploring carbon-free powertrains, with hydrogen emerging as a key technology. Its zero-emission potential positions it for widespread adoption in power generation, transportation, and industry. Hydrogen engines, particularly direct injection engines offering high power and efficiency, are gaining traction due to their adaptability using existing engine components. However, in a hydrogen direct injection engine, achieving proper mixing of hydrogen and air in the cylinder is challenging, making in-cylinder mixture formation a crucial factor for ensuring stable combustion. To predict hydrogen mixture formation in the cylinder, we conducted a Schlieren visualization experiment of the hydrogen jet. Based on the results, a detailed hydrogen jet model for the direct injection injector was developed. This model was then

Hisano, Atsushi, Saitou, Masahito, Sakurai, Yota, Ichi, Satoaki

Experimental Study of hCNG on Single Cylinder 395cc Spark Ignition Engine for Performance and Exhaust Emission

2025-32-0050

11/03/2025

There is growing demand for energy utilization due to stricter environmental emission norms to reduce greenhouse gases and other threats posed due to the emissions are major motivation factors for researchers to adopt on strategic plans to decrease the usage of energy and reduce the carbon contents of fuels, the usage of hydrogen or blend of hydrogen with CNG as a fuel in internal combustion engines is the best option. As hydrogen has lower volumetric energy density and higher combustion temperature, pure hydrogen-fueled engines produce lower power output and much higher NOx emissions than gasoline-fueled engine at stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. Blending of hydrogen with CNG provides a blended gas termed as hydrogen-enriched natural gas (hCNG). hCNG stands for hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas and it combines the advantages of both hydrogen and methane. The addition of Hydrogen to CNG has potential to even lower the CNG emissions and is the first step towards promotion of a

Syed, Kaleemuddin, Chaudhari, Sandip, Khairnar, Girish, Sajjan lng, Suresh

Preliminary Development of a Novel 2-Stroke Petrol Engine for a Hybrid Sport-Tourer Motorcycle

2025-32-0025

11/03/2025

While hybrid electric powertrains are the standard for passenger cars, the application to motorcycles is almost nil. The reason is the increase in weight, cost and overall dimensions, which can compromise the layout and dynamics of the motorcycle. A viable path is to replace the standard internal combustion engine with a much smaller and lighter unit, which leaves room for the installation of the electric components. The 2-Stroke (2S) cycle technology, thanks to double cycle frequency and inherent simplicity, can be the key to reduce engine dimensions, weight and cost, while keeping high power outputs. The HybridTec project, discussed in this paper, aims to develop a compact and lightweight V-90° two-cylinder 2S engine, coupled to an electric motor installed downstream of the gearbox (P3 configuration). The total installed power should be about 110 kW. The engine features loop-scavenging, actuated by a crankshaft-driven supercharger, while an exhaust rotary valve and electronic fuel

Rinaldini, Carlo Alberto, Scrignoli, Francesco, Volza, Antonello, Mattarelli, Enrico, Montanari, Luca, Magnani, Gianluca

Development of Automatic Calibration System for PFI Engines

2025-32-0084

11/03/2025

This report summarizes the research findings on fuel injection calibration methods, aiming to improve engine performance and reduce environmental impact. In Port Fuel Injection (PFI) engines, the injected fuel adheres to the port walls and mixes with air as it vaporizes, then flows into the combustion chamber. Traditionally, the fuel injection quantity is determined by the base map, which is calibrated for a steady state, and corrections for transient conditions. During steady-state operation, the air-fuel ratio of the mixture is uniquely determined by the amount of fuel injected, allowing for reproducible calibration. However, during transient conditions, the amount of fuel adhering to the walls and the amount vaporized do not balance, necessitating transient compensation to achieve the desired air-fuel ratio. Traditional transient compensation has been adapted for each engine model based on experience to accommodate differences in port shapes and injector placements. This approach

Haraguchi, Kazuki

Analysis of Injected Mass Shot-To-Shot Dispersion and Injection Rate Profile for a PFI Injector in Actual Operating Conditions

2025-32-0019

11/03/2025

In order to improve engine emission and limit combustion instabilities, in particular for low load and idle conditions, reducing the injected fuel mass shot-to-shot dispersion is mandatory. Unfortunately, the most diffused approach for the hydraulic analysis of low-pressure injectors such as PFIs or SCR dozers is restrained to the mean injected mass measurement in given operating conditions, since the use of conventional injection analyzers is unfeasible. In the present paper, an innovative injection analyzer is used to measure both the injection rate and the injected mass of each single injection event, enabling a proper dispersion investigation of the analysed low pressure injection system. The proposed instrument is an inverse application of the Zeuch’s method, which in this case is applied to a closed volume upstream the injector, with the injector being operated with the prescribed upstream-to-downstream pressure differential. Further, the injector can inject freely against air

Postrioti, Lucio, Maka, Cristian, Martino, Manuel

Impact of Water Injection on Emission Formation in an HVO-Fuelled NRMM Engine

2025-32-0067

11/03/2025

Water injection in diesel engines is a well-known method of lowering combustion temperatures and thus reducing nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. In this study, the influence of water injection in hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) operation on NOx formation, particulate emissions and ignition delay is analyzed in comparison to diesel operation on a John Deere JD4045 tractor engine. Both the fuel (HVO) and the water injection system were designed as ‘drop-in’ solutions that enable rapid implementation to reduce emissions, even in existing vehicle fleets. The standard engine control unit of the JD4045 engine was therefore used for the tests. A single water nozzle was installed downstream the charge air cooler to integrate a water injection system. The three operating points of interest were: (1) low speed and high load without exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), (2) high EGR rates at low speed and medium load and (3) the engine's ‘sweet spot’ regarding the emission-tradeoff at high speed and

Fuhrmeister, Jonas, Mayer, Sebastian, Günthner, Michael

Development of the Hydrogen Fueled Internal Combustion Engine for Off-Road Applications

2025-32-0066

11/03/2025

This paper focuses on the potential application of hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine (HICE) in the off-road market, examining HICE based on a diesel engine. In the transition to HICE, priority was given to compatibility with existing systems, minimizing changes from the base engine. By adopting a PFI (Port Fuel Injection) method for fuel injection, low-pressure hydrogen supply was achieved. To address the issue of backfire associated with PFI, optimization of injection pressure using a variable pressure control valve, along with adjustments to valve timing and injection timing, was implemented to suppress backflow of residual gases into the intake system and minimize hydrogen retention. Regarding pre-ignition, in addition to suppressing hotspots, the relationship between the homogenization of the air-fuel mixture and NOx emissions was examined, revealing a correlation. This engine was mounted on a generator, and efforts were made to improve the important characteristic of

Shiraishi, Kentaro, Kishi, Shinji, Kato, Daichi, Mitamura, Kenta, Murakami, Kei, Mikuni, Yusuke

Development of 2-Cylinder Diesel Engine for European Quadricycles to Achieve EURO 5+ Standard

2025-32-0068

11/03/2025

The EURO 5+ standard (134/2014/EU) has been enforced in the year 2025 for quadricycle in Europe. The exhaust emission regulation under this standard has significantly tightened compared to the EURO4. Also, this standard limits vehicle weight, which remains unchanged from the EURO4 standard. We introduce the unique technologies to meet EURO5+ standard in this paper. Emission limit values of the EURO 5+ standard are more stringent, requiring an 84% reduction in NOx and a 94% reduction in PM compared to the previous standard. Diesel engines with mechanical injection control systems for the previous standard are required significant technological advancements to meet EURO 5+ standard of exhaust emission. The adoption of engine aftertreatment components such as SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) for NOx reduction and DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter) for PM reduction are common solution. However, to meet this new regulation, adding the weight of these after-treatment parts would cause the

Nagai, Naotaro, Tennomi, Masanari, Tamura, Akira, Mochizuki, Hiroaki, Kobayashi, Yasushi, Onishi, Takashi

The Study of Major Noise Sources of a Diesel Engine Using Acoustical Duct Method

2025-28-0419

10/30/2025

The internal combustion engine has mechanized the world. Since the early 1900s, it has become a prime source of mechanical power. In modern times, petrol and diesel engine-powered vehicles find wide application in the field of transport and agriculture. However, the progress has resulted in newer problems. Due to the high density of internal combustion engines, the world over has resulted in the severe pollution problem. They are classified as air and noise pollution. Air pollution is caused due to dispersion of emitted from engine exhaust to the atmosphere at different concentration levels. Similarly, the emission of unwanted sound from engine structure, intake and exhaust are the principal sources of noise pollution. Excessive noise can have severe psychological and physiological effects on human beings like hearing loss, muscular and gastric effects and fatigue. In the present problem, we have studied mechanical-induced noise. Mechanical noise refers to noise generated by the

Goel, Arunkumar, Meena, Avadhesh Kumar

First Investigation of Ducted Fuel Injection on a Retrofitted Heavy-Duty Multi-Cylinder Production Engine

04-19-01-0005

10/22/2025

Ducted fuel injection (DFI) was tested for the first time on a production multi-cylinder engine. Design-of-experiments (DoE) testing was carried out for DFI with a baseline ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel as well as three fuels with lower lifecycle carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions: renewable diesel, neat biodiesel (from soy), and a 50/50 blend by volume of biodiesel with renewable diesel denoted B50R50. For all fuels tested, DFI enabled simultaneous reductions of engine-out emissions of soot and nitrogen oxides (NOx) with late injection timings. DoE data were used to develop individual calibrations for steady-state testing with each fuel using the ISO 8178 eight-mode off-road test cycle. Over the ISO 8178 test, DFI with a five-duct configuration and B50R50 fuel reduced soot and NOx by 87% and 42%, respectively, relative to the production engine calibration. Soot reductions generally decreased with increasing engine load. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions tended to increase

Ogren, Ryan M., Baumgard, Kirby J., Radhakrishna, Vishnu, Kempin, Robert C., Mueller, Charles J.

Influence of Twin-Scroll Turbocharging on the Performance of Direct Injection Gasoline Engine

2025-01-5070

10/16/2025

In order to further understand the effect of twin-scroll turbocharging on the engine performance, this paper adopts a combination of one-dimensional numerical simulation and experimental research methods to compare the effects of two-scroll and single-scroll turbocharging on the power and fuel economy of direct injection gasoline engine. The research results show that, compared with the single-scroll turbocharger, twin-scroll turbocharger increased the low-end torque for 16% and 32% at 1000 r/min and 1500 r/min, respectively. However, the average fuel consumption has increased 1.3% at part load with twin-scroll turbocharger due to the pumping loss. Compared with a turbocharged port injection engine with a displacement 1.2 times that of the former, the twin-scroll turbocharged engine saved 11% fuel economy at part loads. The fuel consumption is saved 11% at part loads with twin-scroll turbocharger. This research first establishes the 1D simulation capability in twin-scroll turbocharger

Yu, Xiaocao

Study on Oil Film Thickness of Piston Skirt Pattern Coating in a Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engine

2025-01-0397

10/07/2025

In recent years, there has been a trend towards lower engine speeds and downsizing of diesel engines to improve fuel efficiency. This has the advantage of reducing frictional losses in the hydrodynamic lubrication condition but causes severe lubrication in the mixed lubrication condition. In order to reduce friction losses without the risk of abnormal wear or seizure, pattern coatings of the piston skirt area have been proposed. In this study, the oil film thickness between piston and cylinder was measured to investigate the effect of pattern coating on the oil film thickness. The oil film thickness between the piston and cylinder were measured by the laser-induced fluorescence method using the optical fibers embedded in the cylinder. The oil film thickness on the piston skirt was successfully measured under the engine operating conditions for the medium duty Direct Injection (DI) diesel engine. The oil film thickness for the pattern coatings was compared with that for the solid

Tanimoto, Keisuke, Ito, Akemi, Sumoto, Masayuki

An Assessment of Performance of Power Pack Fueled with Nano-Enhanced Biodiesel Biobutanol Blends Operated with Optimal Operating Parameters

2025-01-5067

10/02/2025

As of today, scenario using the renewable resources from the waste and biomass is essential to decrease the dependence on the fossil fuel imports. This study is to use the waste castor seed into oil and for powering the power pack along with biobutanol extracted from waste of fruits and vegetables from the food processing outlets. As a first step the possible combination of the fuel blend is being chosen by preparing various proportions of castor oil biodiesel (from 100% to 55% in steps of 5%) and biobutanol (0%–35% in increments of 5%). The blends are being tested for the phase separation test in the environment of 25°C for a period of 30 days. The chosen blend (25% biobutanol and rest castor oil biodiesel 75CBD25BB) has been tested for the performance in power pack, which is used for diesel as primary fuel. This blend was further tested by optimizing the parameters—compression ratio, fuel injection timing, and nozzle opening pressure of the test power pack through L9 orthogonal array

Prabakaran, B., Yasin, Mohd Hafizil Mat, Mamat, Rizalman

Analysis of Momentum Flux Distribution in Jets Produced by a Hydrogen Direct Injection System

2025-24-0065

09/07/2025

The adoption of hydrogen as carbon-free fuel for internal combustion engines in both transport and off-road applications could offer a significant contribution towards carbon neutrality. In the technical pathway to the conversion of conventional engines operating with liquid fuels to hydrogen, a key role is played by the injection systems. In particular for direct-injected combustion systems, the achievement of an adequate capability to control the gas jets development and the following mixing with air in the combustion chamber is mandatory in order to govern the heat release rate, so to obtain high efficiency levels while limiting the knock tendency and NOx formation. In order to achieve this complex task, injector caps featuring multiple holes (often non uniform in size) can be installed on the injector nozzle so to properly distribute hydrogen obtaining a proper matching with the combustion chamber design and with the air charge flow structure. To this end, the development of both

Postrioti, Lucio, Fontanesi, Stefano, Martino, Manuel, Maka, Cristian, Breda, Sebastiano, Falcinelli, Francesco, Ricci, Andrea

Spray Dynamics and Collapsing Process of Methanol in a Lateral-Cylinder-Mounted DI Injector

2025-24-0063

09/07/2025

The morphology and collapsing behavior of fuel sprays play a critical role in determining atomization and vaporization characteristics, directly influencing combustion efficiency and emission formation in direct injection systems. In this study, spray dynamics and collapsing processes of methanol and gasoline fuels were examined using a lateral-cylinder-mounted direct injection (DI) injector in a constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC). A tomographic imaging technique was applied to analyze the spatial and temporal characteristics of fuel sprays. Extinction imaging was performed to capture the distribution of droplets within the spray, and the liquid volume fraction (LVF) was quantified based on the Beer-Lambert law. By acquiring extinction images from multiple viewing angles, 3D tomographic reconstructions of the spray morphology were achieved, providing detailed insights into the structural evolution of the sprays during injection. The high latent heat of vaporization of methanol

Kim, Hyunsoo, Lee, Seungwon, Bae, Sumin, Hwang, Joonsik, Bae, Choongsik

Investigation of the Combustion Process of a Thermally Conditioned Active Prechamber in Monovalent Operation with Ammonia

2025-24-0028

09/07/2025

The debate over synthetic fuels is intense especially in sectors with a high energy demand like maritime [1, 2]. Hydrogen production from renewable sources is growing, but immediate measures for decarbonization are needed [3, 4]. In this context, the project MethMag was funded, and a gas engine for methane combustion with an innovative cooling concept and a purged prechamber (PC) spark plug was virtually developed [5, 6]. Validation with data from the test bench demonstrates that the simulations accurately represent the operating conditions [7, 8]. This combustion process is adapted for ammonia, which is being considered as a climate-friendly fuel of the future, particularly in maritime transportation [4, 9]. This fuel faces significant combustion challenges and is therefore mostly considered in complex, bivalent systems [10]. In particular, the prechamber is examined regarding the ignitability of ammonia. The overarching objective is to eliminate the necessity for a secondary fuel

Rothe, Paul, Bikas, Georgios, Mauss, Fabian

Cylinder Balancing Algorithms: Enabling the Transition to Future Fuels in Large-Bore Spark-Ignited Engines

2025-24-0017

09/07/2025

Large-bore spark-ignited engines equipped with individual cylinder injection systems require advanced balancing strategies to achieve optimal combustion performance and mitigate risks associated with abnormal combustion phenomena. The integration of highly reactive fuels, such as hydrogen, introduces additional challenges for high-power-density, low-speed engines. This study investigates closed-loop cylinder balancing strategies utilizing real-time cylinder pressure feedback to optimize engine operation. Key performance metrics were evaluated on a 20-cylinder medium speed stationary gas engine (8.5 MW electrical power) under eight different control strategies. The results indicate that the tested balancing methods reduce average knock intensity and variation of combustion peak pressure across all cylinders compared with original manufacturer control strategy. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that a well-balanced engine offers significant advantages, including enhanced power output

Martelli, André, Penaranda, Alexander, Martinez, Santiago, Zabeu, Clayton, Salvador, Roberto

Combustion System Optimization of Commercial Vehicle Hydrogen Engines via 3DCFD Simulations and Single Cylinder Engine Measurements: Injector Cap, Injection Strategy and Intake Duct Design

2025-24-0008

09/07/2025

The development of hydrogen fueled engines has dramatically accelerated in recent years. They have gained much in operating reliability and the specific power outputs is at least comparable to those of current natural gas engines. This has been made possible by combining specific development tools derived from the development of compression-ignition and spark-ignition engines. These include jet visualization techniques (Schlieren, PIV, and LIF), video endoscopy on engine, and 3-D fluid dynamics simulations. In hydrogen engines for commercial vehicles, efforts have so far been made to keep engine components as unchanged as possible from similar diesel or gasoline versions. Similarly, some manufacturers have favored the port fueled injection (PFI) solution because it is easier to implement than the in-cylinder (DI) injection one. The present work concerns the evaluation of the further improvement potential made possible by using direct injection (DI) technology, and intervening on both

Gaballo, Maria Rosaria, Iacobazzi, Marino, Burtsche, Thomas, Cornetti, Giovanni

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