Browse Topic: Fuel injection

Items (4,359)

Experimental study of warm-up and startability operations in a spark ignition engine fueled with ethanol gasoline blends

2026-01-0738To be published on 07/01/2026

Thermal transients during warm-up phase influence fuel consumption and combustion stability. Moreover, during engine warm-up, tailpipe emissions are the highest since the catalytic converter has not reached the light-off temperature yet. Therefore, reducing warm-up time would be beneficial for both performance and emissions. In this work, an experimental investigation is carried out on a naturally aspirated four-cylinder spark ignition engine with a displacement of 1.2 liter, equipped with a port fuel injection system. The study compares conventional gasoline with an E30 (i.e. 30% ethanol in gasoline). Tests are performed starting from cold engine conditions and stopped when a fully warmed state is reached. The experimental campaign is conducted at a fixed operating condition of 2000 rpm and 20 Nm load, representative of typical warm-up operation. The analysis focuses on the warm-up duration, defined as the time required to reach steady thermal conditions, and on engine performance

Falbo, Luigi, Falbo, Biagio, Perrone, Diego, Castiglione, Teresa

NOx Formation Characteristics of Lean Hydrogen Combustion: From 0D Analysis to Comprehensive 3D-CFD Engine Investigations

2026-01-0732To be published on 07/01/2026

The transition toward climate-neutral transportation requires powertrain concepts that combine high efficiency with low pollutant emissions. In this context, hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines represent a promising solution when hydrogen is produced from renewable energy sources. Owing to its specific molecular properties, hydrogen offers new possibilities for influencing and optimizing the combustion process and reducing the emission formation. This paper presents a numerical approach for characterizing the NOx formation in a single-cylinder research engine equipped with port fuel injection and a passive pre-chamber ignition system. The single-cylinder is operated over a wide range of engine loads and speeds, covering air-to-fuel ratios from λ=1.5 to 2.5 and achieving up to 23 bar indicated mean effective pressure. The study focuses on the influence of engine load and mixture composition on NOx emissions. A dedicated look-up table approach in combination with several reaction

Gal, Thomas, Vacca, Antonino, Chiodi, Marco, Schmelcher, Robin, Kulzer, Andre Casal

CFD Modelling of an Asymmetric Hydrogen Injector Cap for Direct Injection Applications: Design Impact on Jets Structure and Momentum Flux

2026-37-0011

6/9/2026

The adoption of hydrogen as a carbon-neutral sustainable fuel for internal combustion is regarded as a promising solution to reduce greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions. In this framework, the injection system plays a crucial role, being responsible for delivering a large amount of fuel to the combustion chamber. Currently, low-pressure direct injection is considered one of the best solutions to ensure the appropriate fuel delivery. The use of caps has proven particularly effective, as they enable a potentially unlimited range of geometries while minimizing modifications to the injector hardware. Experimental campaigns and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations can be used together as complementary tools to speed up the development process and explore multiple combinations of parameters, thereby optimizing the overall design of both the engine and the caps. In the present paper, a single-hole GDI-derived hydrogen prototype injector equipped with a two-hole asymmetric cap

Pavan, Nicolo, Breda, Sebastiano, Duni, Andrea, Martino, Manuel, Fontanesi, Stefano, Postrioti, Lucio

Comparison of Detailed Chemistry and Flamelet-Based Models for Hydrogen Combustion in a Heavy-Duty PFI Engine

2026-37-0014

6/9/2026

Addressing climate change requires substantial reductions in CO2 emissions from the transportation sector, where alternative fuels for internal combustion engines play a crucial role. Hydrogen stands out as a compelling energy carrier capable of enabling low-carbon combustion while leveraging existing engine technologies. Its adoption can support a transition toward fuel-flexible powertrains and deliver rapid decreases in exhaust carbon emissions. This approach is particularly relevant for hard-to-abate segments, where full electrification remains challenging. Building on this perspective, this numerical study investigates the modelling behaviour of a heavy-duty port fuel injection (PFI) internal combustion engine fuelled with hydrogen. Initially, the mixture was assumed to be fully premixed to avoid uncertainties related to injection and mixing processes and to significantly reduce computational cost; this assumption was subsequently validated through selected injection simulations. A

Scopelliti, Alex, Misul, Daniela Anna, Baratta, Mirko, Gallo, Alessandro, Rapetto, Nicola, Vargiu, Luca

Investigation of Influential Parameters on the Integrated Hydrogen Argon Power Cycle

2026-37-0012

6/9/2026

This study investigates hydrogen combustion in an argon–oxygen environment for argon power cycle application using computational fluid dynamics. The numerical framework, developed based on previously validated model, is applied to examine the influence of key operating parameters on combustion efficiency and indicated efficiency under constant cycle pressure conditions. A parametric analysis is conducted to evaluate the effects of excess oxygen ratio, argon rate, start of injection, and injector discharge coefficient on ignition characteristics, combustion efficiency, and engine performance. The results indicate that less fuel injection improves combustion efficiency but leads to a significant reduction in engine load. Increasing the argon rate enhances engine thermal efficiency, primarily due to the higher specific heat ratio of argon, which improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle. However, elevated argon concentrations significantly reduce combustion efficiency because of

Chitsaz, Iman, Ahammed, Sajid, Kakoee PhD, Alireza, Salahi, Mohammad Mahdi, Andwari, Amin, Ahmad, Zeeshan, Hyvonen, Jari, Mikulski, Maciej

Investigating the Potential of Two Individually Controlled Injectors per Rotor for a Direct Injection Hydrogen Wankel Engine

2026-37-0008

6/9/2026

Hydrogen-fueled rotary engines offer a promising zero-emission solution for compact commercial powertrains. This study reports experimental results from the further development of a naturally aspirated, direct-injection hydrogen rotary engine by HTM. Initial applications, such as an airport baggage tractor, demonstrated technical feasibility but revealed pre-ignition that limited maximum torque. To address this, mixture formation was investigated using an experimental setup with two independently controlled injectors feeding a single rotor injection channel. The effects on operating behavior, efficiency, and NOx emissions were evaluated. The dual-injector configuration significantly shortens injection duration and improves spatial distribution of hydrogen within the combustion chamber. Enhanced mixture control suppresses pre-ignition and enables higher mean effective pressure. Systematic variation of injection timing under representative steady-state conditions also shows potential for

Endres, Jonas, Beidl, Christian, Herold, Tim, Lavall, Philipp, Schmidt, Marvin, Hofmann, Silas, Kahl, Jonas

Experimental Investigation on Cold Start and Warm-Up Phases for an Ethanol Fueled SI Engine

2026-37-0031

6/9/2026

The reduction of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions represents a key challenge for the transportation sector, requiring the adoption of renewable fuels capable of ensuring both environmental benefits and compatibility with existing internal combustion engine technologies. In this context, bioethanol emerges as a viable solution for Spark Ignition (SI) engines, offering a low life-cycle CO₂ footprint and favorable combustion characteristics. Nevertheless, despite its well-known advantages under steady-state operation, the widespread use of high-ethanol-content fuels is still limited by critical issues during engine cold start. The aim of this work is to experimentally investigate the influence of ethanol content on cold-start behavior and idle warm-up transient operation of a Naturally Aspirated (NA), Port Fuel Injected (PFI) SI engine. The experimental campaign was carried out under idle conditions using four fuels with increasing ethanol content, namely commercial gasoline (E5), E30, E60

Falbo, Luigi, Falbo, Biagio, Perrone, Diego, Castiglione, Teresa

Effects of Engine Geometries on the Combustion Characteristics of a Heavy-Duty Hydrogen Spark-Ignition Engine

2026-37-0046

6/9/2026

For heavy-duty applications, hydrogen (H2) internal combustion engines offer a practical solution for future transportation. However, the influence of cylinder head flow characteristics and piston geometry on lean H2 combustion remains insufficiently understood. This study presents a comprehensive computational investigation of three engine configurations characterized by distinct in-cylinder flow dynamics: mild swirl and tumble (Engine a), strong tumble (Engine b), and strong swirl (Engine c). High-fidelity three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulations were performed for both port-fuel injection (PFI) and direct injection (DI) strategies. The impact of piston geometry was evaluated by comparing the baseline piston with a flat piston, while the spark timing was optimized to achieve favorable combustion phasing. Combustion and NOx formation were modeled using a G-equation-based combustion framework incorporating diffusive-thermal instability effects and a validated in-house

Liu, Xinlei, Menaca, Rafael, Cenker, Emre, Silva, Mickael, Qahtani, Yasser A., Pei, Yuanjiang, Turner, James W.G., Im, Hong G.

Effect of Pre-Chamber Geometry on Methanol Cold-Start Combustion in an SI Engine

2026-01-0307

4/7/2026

Vehicle pollutant emissions are a major challenge in the development of internal combustion engines. To meet increasingly strict regulations, the automotive sector is exploring alternative fuels and lean-burn strategies. Methanol is gaining importance as a carbon-neutral fuel due to advances in green production technologies. Methanol, despite its potential for renewable production, faces severe limitations due to its inherent poor cold-start performance with conventional ignition systems. In this context, the present study aims to investigate the influence of pre-chamber ignition on cold-start combustion by using high-speed optical diagnostics to visualize flame propagation while simultaneously measuring in-cylinder pressure and engine performance. A major result concerns the significant cyclic variability of conventional spark ignition (SI) under cold-start conditions, which exhibits significant cyclic variability. Instead, passive pre-chamber ignition significantly enhances cold

Sementa, Paolo, Altieri, Nunzio, Tornatore, Cinzia

Experimental Characterisation of Combustion, Performance, and Emissions in a Hydrogen Fueled Opposed Piston Engine

2026-01-0335

4/7/2026

Recent studies have demonstrated that the current Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) can be adapted to operate with hydrogen for the decarbonisation of transport and gensets. This is mostly done by conversion of conventional 4-stroke compression ignition diesel engines or spark ignition gas engines for heavy-duty vehicles or 4-stroke spark ignition gasoline engines for light-duty applications. This study aims to assess the adoption of pure hydrogen direct injection technology on a novel two-stroke opposed-piston engine designed by Carnot Engine Ltd. The engine provides a flexible platform that can operate in both compression ignition and spark ignition modes, allowing it to adopt multiple fuels. For the first time, a single cylinder prototype version of this new engine was operated and tested with hydrogen at Brunel University of London. During the engine experiment, a spark ignition timing sweep was carried out at low and mid-loads up to 10 bar IMEP to identify the Minimum ignition

Mohamed, Mohamed, Roeinfard, Nima, Wang, Xinyan, Zhao, Hua, Watts-Farmer, Archie, Rahman, Nadiur, Lempp, Francis

Study of Deposit Control Additive Efficacy in Gasoline Direct Injection Engines

2026-01-0349

4/7/2026

There is an increasing adoption of Direct-Injection Spark-Ignition (DISI) engines in the market, which per 2024 US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Automotive Trends Report represents 73% of new vehicles sold in the US. And while it is well accepted that DISI offers advantages over Port Fuel Injection (PFI) technology in meeting stringent CO2 emissions and fuel economy requirements set by the EPA, DISI engines are also associated with increased formation of injector deposits. These deposits may foul injectors and accumulate on the injector tip causing distorted spray patterns and diffusive combustion. Ultimately, this leads to engine performance deterioration and increased harmful emissions. To control deposit formation, detergent-type chemistries are added to the fuel in small amounts. Deposit Control Additives (DCAs) function by preventing the formation of deleterious injector deposits as well as removing existing ones. This study used standardized protocols describing the

Soriano, Nestor, Williams, Rod, Cracknell, Roger, Lang, Wendy, Chahal, Jasprit

Model-Based Development of a Heavy-Duty H ₂ -ICE and Integrated, Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) System

2026-01-0426

4/7/2026

Changing global economic conditions and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are driving the need to develop efficient, near-term, alternative propulsion system technologies for heavy-duty vehicles. This study combines a hydrogen internal combustion engine (H2-ICE) with electrically assisted turbocharging, exhaust energy recovery, and mild hybridization to maximize propulsion system efficiency and reduce NOx emissions. To reduce cost and packaging impact of integration of these technologies on an engine, the study presents a model-based development and optimization of an Integrated Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) system that combines the enabling components into a single compact unit. In the first phase of this study, a H2-ICE and aftertreatment concept for a MY2027 7.7L medium heavy-duty on-road engine was developed and evaluated through 1D simulation. The concept was to convert a diesel engine by changing the cylinder head to implement a port fuel

Bustamante, Oscar, Correia Garcia, Bruno, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael

Numerical Study of Gasoline Direct Injection Sprays at Conditions Relevant to Engine Cold-Start Operation

2026-01-0338

4/7/2026

Gasoline direct injection (GDI) remains a key technology for enhancing engine efficiency and meeting regulated engine-out soot limits, particularly when combined with downsizing and boosted operation. The performance of modern GDI engines strongly depends on the in-cylinder spray process, which governs mixture formation and combustion quality under a wide range of operating conditions. In this context, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is an effective tool for supporting the design and operation of an engine. However, accurately modeling a spray’s evolution —from early to late injections and across varying ambient conditions —remains a major challenge. This study employs a CFD framework with an optimized spray modeling approach to investigate spray morphology and dynamics under various engine cold conditions. Although all simulations are conducted with a single-injection setup, the early- and late-injection cases are designed to emulate different phases of split-injection operation by

Lien, Hao-Pin (Paul), Torelli, Roberto, Zhao, Le, Park, Ji-Woong, Zhang, Anqi, Pei, Yuanjiang, Hwang, Joonsik, Lee, Kyungwon

Challenges of Mixture Formation in Methanol Port Fuel Injection Engines

2026-01-0337

4/7/2026

Port fuel injection (PFI) is an attractive strategy for methanol adoption in both spark-ignition and dual-fuel compression-ignition engines due to its lower cost and simpler hardware compared to direct-injection. However, methanol PFI mixture formation can be challenging due to methanol’s high heat of vaporization, low volatility at cold conditions and high tendency to wall wetting. Understanding and addressing these challenges is critical to ensure robust engine operation. In this study, the effects of injector geometry, coolant temperature, intake temperature and fueling rate on mixture formation of methanol PFI have been investigated for anhydrous methanol and for a blend of 90%vol methanol plus 10%vol water in an optical engine. Mie scattering and infrared imaging were applied to assess the liquid and vapor methanol distribution in the cylinder. For a high-flow injector compatible with methanol, significant amounts of liquid were detected in the cylinder at all conditions tested

Lee, Sanguk, Narayanan, Abhinandhan

The Influence of Split Injection Ratio on Efficiency and NO _x Emissions in a Pilot Diesel-Ignited Hydrogen Direct Injection Engine

2026-01-0329

4/7/2026

This study investigates the impact of the hydrogen split injection ratio on the combustion of pilot diesel-ignited hydrogen direct-injection engines, which is expected to affect hydrogen-air mixture conditions and thus flame propagation and diffusion flame developments. Experiments were conducted on a 1-litre single-cylinder diesel engine equipped with an additional hydrogen injector operating at 35 MPa. Hydrogen accounting for 95% of total input energy was injected at 150 and 60 °CA bTDC for the first and second pulses, which were selected as high-efficiency injection timings from previous equal-split injection tests. The 5% diesel energy was injected near TDC to control CA50 at 10 °CA aTDC. While varying the split ratio between the two hydrogen injections, in-cylinder pressure/aHRR profiles, engine efficiency/power output and engine-out emissions of NOx and CO2 were evaluated. Results showed that the hydrogen split ratio does not significantly affect IMEP/efficiency, which

Zhao, Yifan, Chan, Qing Nian, Kook, Sanghoon

Achieving Euro 7 WHSC NOx Emission Targets from a Spark Ignited Engine Using Methanol-Hydrogen Co-Fuelling

2026-01-0321

4/7/2026

E-methanol is increasingly seen as a promising clean fuel because its chemical makeup is close to fossil fuels, making it easier to use in existing engines. It offers a carbon-neutral option to help reduce greenhouse gases in sectors where cutting emissions is especially difficult, such as transportation. However, while e-methanol avoids adding new carbon dioxide, burning it in internal combustion engines still releases harmful gases like oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and other toxic by-products like formaldehyde and formic acid that damage both health and the environment. This report explores a new strategy that combines methanol with hydrogen to run engines under “ultra-lean” conditions and its impact on emissions, performance and efficiency. Experiments were carried out on a single-cylinder spark ignition engine, with directly injected methanol and port fuelled injection of hydrogen. The findings show that adding about 10% hydrogen (energy basis) at low engine loads can extend the lean

Ambalakatte, Ajith, Geng, Sikai, Cairns, Alasdair, Varaei, Amirata, Harrington, Anthony, Hall, Jonathan, Bassett, Mike, Cracknell, Roger

A Helical Compression Spring Fracture under Impact Velocity in Pump Operation by Theoretical Study and FEA

2026-01-0271

4/7/2026

Helical compression springs have been used widely in various industries from automotive, aerospace and construction to electronics and medical devices. In the automotive industry, they appear in many places such as suspension, valvetrain, etc., as well in the discharge check valve of Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) pump, which is the subject of study due to a recent fracture in lab testing. A theoretical study is conducted first to establish the equation governing spring dynamic motion under impact velocity, which can be in high magnitude with surging shock wave along spring axis. A new spring shock wave equation is developed for spring axial motion coupled with coil torsional effect. This newly derived shock wave equation has a broader term than the classic spring formula found in most engineering books. In this paper, it shows that the classic spring shock wave equation is only a special case for the general wave equation newly discovered. Then, a theoretical formula on spring shock

Pang, Michael L., Gunturu, Srinu, Norkin, Eugene

Optimal Strategies for SI H2 Combustion System and Pre-Ignition Investigation through Advanced Optical Techniques

2026-01-0324

4/7/2026

The rapidly transforming mobility sector is confronted with a dual challenge: achieving market expansion while significantly reducing emissions. Even if vehicle electrification tends to be favored in developed nations, it is widely acknowledged that no single solution is universally optimal. Within this context, hydrogen emerges as a compelling energy vector. It can be used both in fuel cells and internal combustion engines. This latter benefits from a well-known architecture and existing production infrastructures constituting a viable short-term and cost-effective solution especially for light or heavy-duty and off-road applications. In this context, investigation on the hydrogen spark-ignited internal combustion engine was performed, focusing especially on critical abnormal combustions. Indeed, during early development phase, abnormal combustion management was a challenge requiring the identification of the root cause of these issues. This work, based on the use of a versatile

Londos, Benoit, Bardi, Michele, Serrano, David, Laget, Olivier, Gautrot, Xavier, Bramoullé, Clément, Cordier, Matthieu

A Novel Chemical Clustering Approach for the Acceleration of 3D CFD Simulations of Internal Combustion Engines with Complex Fuels

2026-01-0495

4/7/2026

Detailed kinetics simulations coupled with 3D CFD offer a powerful analysis tool for combustion and emissions. Such methods allow consistent modeling of multi-component fuels from evaporation to combustion and correctly capture the effects of local inhomogeneities created by preferential evaporation on the performance and emissions of modern powertrains. Such computations are extremely computationally demanding, prompting interest in the development of calculation acceleration techniques that can effectively balance the speed and accuracy of the chemical source calculation terms. Chemical kinetics clustering methods are widely used for that effect. However, such techniques must be not only effective but also robust with respect to the engine conditions and fuel composition changes, to reduce the computational demands introduced by the need to calibrate the parameters of the acceleration method itself. In this paper, an extended chemical kinetics clustering approach is proposed. A

Hernandez, Ignacio, Turquand d Auzay, Charles, Shapiro, Evgeniy, Shala, Mehmet, Borg, Anders, Seidel, Lars, Mauss, Fabian

Analysis of In-Cylinder Flow for Hybrid Gasoline Engine using High-Speed Particle Image Velocimetry

2026-01-0298

4/7/2026

To increase the thermal efficiency of a hybrid inline 4-cylinder direct injection engine, combustion promotion was carried out by enhancing the in-cylinder flow. The intake port and piston top shape were optimized using CFD. In-cylinder flow analysis in steady flow showed that the mean steady flow tumble ratio with the in-cylinder flow enhancement specification increased to 1.7 compared to 1.0 with the previous model and 1.4 with the early development specification. The limit engine speed, which is the engine speed at when the mean flow coefficient decreases due to the choke, and the mean steady flow tumble ratio with the in-cylinder flow enhancement specification were positioned on the trade-off line between the NA and the TC engine. In-cylinder flow analysis on the single-cylinder optical engine showed that the in-cylinder flow entering the cylinder smoothly flowed to the exhaust side, and the in-cylinder flow descending on the exhaust side was smoothly converted to the upward flow

Okura, Yasuhiro, Urata, Yasuhiro

Development of an ‘Online’ Combustion System Calibration Method using a Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm

2026-01-0285

4/7/2026

Calibration is a major resource bottleneck and source of risk in powertrain technology development. A promising alternative to the typical design-of-experiments (DoE) approach is the use of a ‘Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm’ (NSGA) calibration method, where an iterative process is used to directly identify the Pareto Fronts between performance metrics, for example, net mean effective pressure (NMEP) and NOx emission. The goal of the present work was to develop and demonstrate a fully ‘online’ combustion system calibration method based on an NSGA, where the algorithm operates directly on experimental data rather than empirical models as is typical in the literature. This was completed by first designing an optimal NSGA for combustion system calibration and then demonstrating its use for an experimental combustion system calibration on a single cylinder gasoline engine at one operating condition. Results from the design process here indicate that ‘online’ NSGAs have a strong

Mansfield, Andrew

Experimental Study on the Effect of Ignition Strategy on Combustion and Emissions in a Direct Injection Hydrogen Engine

2026-01-0330

4/7/2026

Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines (H₂ICEs) are a promising pathway toward carbon-neutral transportation, but their efficiency and emissions performance are highly sensitive to ignition control strategies. This study systematically investigates the combined effects of spark timing (−10 to −26 °CA BTDC) and spark energy (25–40 mJ) on combustion characteristics in a direct injection H₂ICE operating at a constant speed of 1400 r/min under low, medium, and high load conditions. Results show that spark timing advance produces load-dependent effects: at low load, it increases the peak heat release rate while delaying peak pressure and shortening combustion duration; at medium and high loads, it advances both peaks toward TDC with an optimal spark timing shifting closer to −14 °CA. Ignition delay was only slightly reduced at low load but significantly shortened by about 3 °CA at high load. NOx emissions increased nearly linearly with spark advance, while slight retardation

Zhao, Keqin, Lou, Diming, Zhang, Yunhua, Fang, Liang, Tan, Piqiang, Hu, Zhiyuan

In-Situ Raman Measurements of Fuel Dilution of Lubricant Films in a Direct-Injection Spark-Ignition Engine

2026-01-0355

4/7/2026

To measure the fuel proportion within the lubricant film, an in-situ Raman spectroscopy technique was employed in a specially modified single-cylinder direct-injection spark-ignition engine. The engine block was engineered for optical access with a fused silica window, enabling a focused laser beam to probe the lubricant film on the engine liner under motoring conditions. The lubricant used was GTL8 base oil with ZDDP additive, and iso-octane was injected as a model fuel to study fuel-lubricant mixing. A calibration curve was established by recording Raman spectra of known mixtures of GTL8 oil and iso-octane. The Raman intensity ratio of the iso-octane peak to the oil peak was used as a quantitative indicator of fuel concentration. During engine operation, Raman spectra were acquired in real time, on a cycle-by-cycle basis, through the optical window. Upon iso-octane injection, its characteristic Raman peak appeared in the spectrum, and the intensity ratio was referenced against the

Bolle, Bastien, Augoye, Kobi, Wong, Janet, Aleiferis, Pavlos, Hall, Jonathan, Bassett, Mike, Cracknell, Roger

How higher-quality gasoline keeps modern engines CLEAN AND EFFICIENT

26AUTP03_03

3/1/2026

Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines are the most common technology on American roadways in 2025, and soon, an industrywide gasoline quality standard will better reflect their unique operational needs. Here's why that's important. It's no secret that fuel economy has been one of the greatest driving forces of automotive evolution over the past several decades. As corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards have grown increasingly lofty, OEMs eke out new efficiencies from every area of the vehicle. One of those areas, of course, is the engine, and many OEMs have deployed gasoline direct injection (GDI) technology, which is becoming the most common engine technology on American roadways. But while GDI engines proliferate, varying fuel additization throughout North America has not necessarily kept pace with their unique needs and can, in fact, hinder those engines from meeting and sustaining their full fuel economy potential.

Blackburn, Brett

Influence of Lubrication Oil on Hydrogen Fuel-Share Combustion in a Conventional Medium-Speed Marine Diesel Engine

2026-01-5014

2/23/2026

Carbon-free fuels present a potential solution for achieving climate-neutral operation of marine engines. However, their availability is minimal at the moment, though a steady increase can be expected in the coming years. During this transition phase, engine concepts that offer conventional diesel operation and a partial blending of alternative fuels to substitute diesel become interesting. This can be achieved, for example, by blending hydrogen in the intake air of a diesel engine, known as hydrogen fuel-share. Due to the high reactivity of hydrogen, its use in engines is limited by abnormal combustion phenomena (e.g., pre-ignition, knocking combustion), which current research on pure gas engines has shown to be strongly promoted by lube oil reactivity. Building on these fundamental investigations, this paper examines the influence of lubricating oil on the combustion characteristics of a H2 fuel-share medium-speed diesel engine and quantifies the potential to increase the hydrogen

Achenbach, Tobias, Meinert, Robert, Mahler, Kay, Kunkel, Christian, Rösler, Sebastian, Prager, Maximilian, Jaensch, Malte

CFD Simulation of Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Pure Spirulina Microalgae Biodiesel in a Single-Cylinder DI Diesel Engine

2026-28-0043

2/12/2026

In this study, the combustion and emission characteristics of a single-cylinder direct injection (DI) diesel engine fueled with Spirulina biodiesel along with diesel blends were examined using a combined CFD and thermodynamic simulation framework. Three test fuels, including pure diesel (D100), Spirulina biodiesel blends (B20 and B40), and pure Spirulina biodiesel (B100), were analysed at 1500 rpm under full load. In the first stage, CFD simulations were performed in ANSYS Fluent, where the Discrete Phase Model (DPM) was applied to capture spray atomization and droplet evaporation, while a non-premixed combustion model coupled with the RNG k-ε turbulence model was employed to resolve in-cylinder flow and heat release dynamics. Subsequently, the Diesel-RK software was utilised to predict engine performance and exhaust emissions based on compression ratios (18.5) and injection timings. Results from the CFD analysis revealed faster atomization and reduced ignition delay for biodiesel

Kumar, B Varun

Enhancing Combustion, Performance and Emission Profiles Using Kapok Methyl Ester Blends with Hydrogen

2026-28-0058

2/12/2026

This study investigates the potential of using a dual green alternative fuel combination, the one is hydrogen fuel and another one is biodiesel for enhancing the Performance, combustion and emission profile of a compression ignition engine. The kapok oil biodiesel was blended with Diesel in proportions of 20% (K20) and 40% (K40) by volume. The hydrogen gas was supplied at a constant flow of 4 liter per minute (LPM). The experimental fuels are neat diesel D100, K20 (80% Diesel and 20 % kapok methyl ester), K40 (60% Diesel + 40 % Kapok methyl ester), K20 + H4L (K20 with 4 LPM hydrogen) and K40+H4L (K40 with 4 LPM hydrogen). These test blends are investigated in a single cylinder direct injection CI engine under 0% to 100% load conditions at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm combustion, and emissions characteristic were evaluated and compared with base fuel. The outcomes indicated that the use of B20 and B40 blends without hydrogen led to reduced BTE because of their lower cetane number and

Anbarasan, B, M, Kumaresan, Balamurugan, S, Rajesh, Munnusamy

Research on Active Predictive Speed Control of Dual-Fuel Engine for Hardware Real-Time Applications

03-19-01-0004

2/9/2026

The present article proposes an active observation speed prediction control algorithm architecture for embedded applications, with the aim of addressing the problems of complex operating conditions, strong perturbations, and high control real-time requirements of high-pressure direct injection (HPDI) dual-fuel engines. A nonlinear speed prediction model with diesel and natural gas injection mass as inputs has been established, and the nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) method is used to realize the optimized control of engine speed. In order to enhance the operational efficiency of the algorithm on the embedded platform, a system has been developed that includes an event triggering mechanism and a warm-start strategy. These mechanisms work in tandem to dynamically adjust the computation cycle. Additionally, a torque reduced-order expansion state observer (RESO) has been integrated to improve the accuracy of perturbation estimation and computational efficiency. The model-level

Yang, Xinda, Li, Yunhua, Chen, Dongdong, Li, Yao, Zhang, Shutao, Zhao, Feiyang, Yu, Wenbin

Potential of a Hydrogen Fuel-Share Combustion Concept for a Conventional Medium-Speed Marine Diesel Engine

2026-01-5007

2/2/2026

To meet the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) short-term greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction targets, partial decarbonization of the existing fleet, often powered by medium-speed diesel engines, is required. One approach for reducing CO2 emissions is to enrich the charge air with hydrogen to substitute diesel. However, hydrogen’s high reactivity can lead to combustion abnormalities such as backfire, pre-ignition, and knocking, thus limiting the feasible admixture rates. These challenges are particularly relevant in medium-speed diesel engines designed for high power output and efficiency at low rpm. While hydrogen fuel-share has previously been tested in small-bore engines at moderate loads, this study investigates the influence on combustion and achievable hydrogen admixture rates in a medium-speed, 4-stroke diesel engine operating with up to 30 bar net indicated mean effective pressure (net IMEP). To minimize retrofitting efforts and to preserve diesel performance, the

Achenbach, Tobias, Meinert, Robert, Mahler, Kay, Kunkel, Christian, Rösler, Sebastian, Prager, Maximilian, Jaensch, Malte

Rolls-Royce pursues pure methanol for marine engines

26TOFHP02_05

2/1/2026

Rolls-Royce has successfully tested the world's first high-speed marine engine powered exclusively by methanol on its test bench in Friedrichshafen, Germany. The company began this engine-development journey six years ago when it gathered experts to determine what the future fuel of the maritime industry should be, according to Denise Kurtulus, senior vice president of global marine at Rolls-Royce. “For us, it's clear. It's methanol,” she said. Rolls-Royce worked with industry partners as part of the joint project meOHmare, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy. Injection system specialist Woodward L'Orange and the WTZ Roßlau technology and research center contributed their expertise. Their goal was to not only develop a comprehensive concept for a CO2-neutral marine engine based on green methanol, but also to run it on the test bench by the end of 2025.

Gehm, Ryan

Increasing the Efficiency of Hydrogen Direct Injection Internal Combustion Engines through the Use of Miller Cycles and Water Injection

03-19-01-0001

1/31/2026

Hydrogen-fueled reciprocating engines typically feature reasonable efficiencies and low engine-out emissions but low power density, compromising their utility and economics. Previous hydrogen engine research has found efficiency and anti-knock benefits when using either Miller cycles or water injection. This article therefore studies, for the first time, a directly injected (DI), spark-ignited, heavy-duty, turbocharged and hydrogen-fueled engine operated with both Miller cycles and water injection. Miller cycles, with either early or late intake valve closure, and water injection combine to achieve high engine efficiencies approaching 50%, which is significantly higher than the same engine with standard valve timing. The increased susceptibility of hydrogen autoignition in these Miller cycles is overcome by water injection, which simultaneously increases the charge density, counteracting both lean-burn hydrogen’s and Miller cycles’ commonly observed power loss. This demonstrates that

Mortimer, Joel, Poursadegh, Farzad, Brear, Michael, Yang, Yi

Development of a CNG-Diesel Dual Fuel Tractor with Mechanical Fuel Injection System

2026-26-0114

1/16/2026

Identification of renewable and sustainable energy solutions remains a key focus area for the engine designers of the modern world. An avenue of research and development is being vastly dedicated to propelling engines using alternate fuels. The chemistry of these alternate fuels is in general much simpler than fossil fuels, like diesel and gasoline. One such promising and easily available alternate fuel is compressed natural gas (CNG). In this work, a 3-cylinder, 3-liter naturally aspirated air-cooled diesel engine from the off-highway tractor application is converted into a CNG Diesel Dual fuel (CNG-DDF) engine. Part throttle performance test shows the higher NMHC and CO emissions in CNG-DDF mode which have been controlled by an oxidation catalyst in C1 8-mode emission test. A comparative performance shows that the thermal efficiency is up to 2% lower with CNG-DDF with respect to diesel. However, it has shown the benefit of 44% in Particulate Matter, while retaining the same NOx

Choudhary, Vasu, Mukherjee, Nalini, Kumar, Sanjeev, Tripathi, Ayush, Nene, Devendra

Establishing a High-Pressure Direct Injection Hydrogen Engine Test Facility with Integrated Ammonia Fuel Capability: Technical Considerations, Safety Framework, and Best Practices

2026-26-0267

1/16/2026

The transition toward zero-carbon propulsion technologies has highlighted the urgent need for specialized test infrastructure to support hydrogen and alternative fuel research. This paper presents the conceptualization, design, and operation of a High-Pressure Direct Injection (HPDI) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2 ICE) test facility with integrated ammonia fuel testing capability, marking a significant advancement in India’s sustainable automotive research efforts. Drawing from practical experience, it outlines crucial technical specifications, safety protocols, and best practices for establishing robust, adaptable, and secure testing environments. Addressing the industry’s need for dedicated infrastructure, it is engineered for adaptability across various engine types including heavy-duty, light-duty, and multi-utility vehicles while aligning with global technical standards. Key technical considerations include a transient dynamometer with an advanced automation system for

Dhyani, Vipin, Kurien, Caneon, Subramanian, Balaji, Khandai, Chinmayananda, Muralidharan, M

Strategic & Frugal Technology Approach to Meet the Stringent CPCB-IV+ Emission Norms

2026-26-0059

1/16/2026

In CPCB-IV+ Emissions regulations NOx & PM are reduced by 90% from CPCB-II limits in the power band 56 < kW ≤ 560. Obvious technology approach adopted by industry to meet this requirement is the introduction of CRDI fuel injection system & DOC+SCR+ASC aftertreatment technology, leading to substantial modifications at both engine & genset level. This result into huge development expenditure, high incremental product cost, timelines and increased total cost of ownership. This paper describes the frugal technology approach to keep development cost, product cost, development time to the minimum using electronically governed, high pressure mechanical fuel injection equipment, with DOC+SCR+ASC without any external thermal management strategy while comfortably achieving target CPCB-IV+ emission levels. This integrated approach also helped in completing the entire development in < 12 months. 1D-thermodynamic & 3D-combustion simulation approach was adopted to predict the engine out emissions

Arde, Vasundhara, Juttu, Simachalam, Kadam, Atit, Gothekar, Sanjeev, Karthick, K, Vandana, Suryanarayana, Thipse, S, Kendre, Mahadev

Technologies and Strategies for High Brake Thermal Efficiency Gasoline Engine to Meet the Future CO ₂ Emission Targets in India

2026-26-0072

1/16/2026

The Indian automobile industry is experiencing a significant shift, propelled by environmental necessities and national climate obligations set at the CoP26 summit, aiming for a 45% decrease in CO₂ emissions by 2030 and reaching carbon neutrality by 2070 [1]. Transportation continues to be a significant source of air pollution; consequently, India is enhancing its regulatory frameworks with BS VI Stage 2 regulations, CAFE Phase III norms set for 2027, and CAFE Phase IV by 2032 [2]. Furthermore, the transition from MIDC to WLTP driving cycle is meant to increase the accuracy of the efficiency and emissions assessments [2]. To comply to these upcoming regulations, the automotive industry is moving toward producing high efficiency engines in India. A naturally aspirated (NA) 1.5L, 4-cylinder inline gasoline engine was selected from Indian market for this study. Maximum Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of this engine is around 37%. Assessment of new technologies were performed by

Garg, Shivam, Fischer, Marcus, Emran, Ashraf, Jagodzinski, Bartosch, Franzke, Bjoern

Misfires Detection in Bi-Fuel Engines – A Brief Note

2026-26-0120

1/16/2026

With the expansion of compressed natural gas (CNG) filling station in India, bi-fuel vehicles are gaining popularity in recent times. Bi-fuel engine runs on more than one fuel, say in both CNG and petrol. Hence, the engine must be optimized in both the fuel modes for performance and emissions. However, due to the inherent differences in combustion characteristics: ignition dynamics and fuel properties, they pose a significant challenge in case of detection of misfires. Misfires are caused because of faulty injection systems and ignition systems and incorrect fuel mixture. Accurate detection is essential as misfires deteriorate the catalysts performance and may impacts emission. Misfires (or engine roughness) is calculated from engine crankshaft speed signal. In this study, the effectiveness of crankshaft-based misfires detection method, comparison of misfire signals magnitude in bi-fuel modes and practices developed for accurate detection of misfires is presented.

Thiyagarajan, Abhinav, N, Gobalakrishnan, R, Hema

Performance Optimization of 2 Cylinder Flex Fuel Engine for Small Commercial Vehicle – A STEP TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

2026-26-0119

1/16/2026

Increasing ethanol blending in gasoline is significant from both financial (reducing dependency on crude oil) and sustainability (overall CO2 reduction) points of view. Flex Fuel is an ethanol-gasoline blend containing ethanol ranging from 20% to 85%. Flex Fuel emerges as an exceptionally advantageous solution, adeptly addressing the shortcomings associated with both gasoline and ethanol. Performance optimization of Flex Fuel is a major challenge as fuel properties like knocking tendency, calorific value, vapour pressure, latent heat, and stoichiometric air-fuel ratio change with varying ethanol content. This paper elaborates on the experimental results of trials conducted for optimizing engine performance with Flex Fuel for a 2-cylinder engine used in a small commercial vehicle. To derive maximum benefit from the higher octane rating of E85, the compression ratio is increased, while ignition timing is optimized to avoid knocking with E20 fuel. For intermediate blends, ignition timing

Kulkarni, Deepak, Malekar, Hemant A, Upadhyay, Rajdip, Katkar, Santosh, Undre, Shrikant

Correlation of Particulate Matter Species on Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Vehicle with Ethanol Blended Gasoline: Real Drive Emissions based Portable Emission Measurement System

2026-26-0216

1/16/2026

On the way to net zero emissions and to cut the oil import bills, NITI Aayog, Government of India and Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas (MoP&NG) has rolled out roadmap for ethanol blending in India during 2020-2025. Also, National Policy on Biofuels – 2018, provides an indicative target of 20% ethanol blending under the Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme by 2030. Considering these Government’s initiatives current studies were performed on BSVI compliant gasoline direct injection vehicle on RDE compliant route (Route formulated by Indian Oil R&D Centre) with different ethanol blended gasoline fuel formulations i.e., E0 (Neat Gasoline), E10 (10% Ethanol in gasoline) & E20 (20% Ethanol in gasoline). The study aims to determine the compliance of Conformity Factor (C.F.) for ethanol blended gasoline fuel on Direct Injection gasoline engine. The conformity factors were calculated in each case for CO, NOx & PN using moving window average evaluation method. For reference CO2

Kant, Chander, Arora, Ajay, Saroj, Shyamsher, Kumar, Prashant, Sithananthan, M, Chakradhar, Dr Maya, Kalita, Mrinmoy

Experimental Evaluation of Energy and Exergy of Hydrogen, CNG and Gasoline Fuelled High-Speed Spark Ignition Engine

2026-26-0258

1/16/2026

The maximum power is recorded with Gasoline than CNG and Hydrogen fuel. The maximum exergy and energy efficiency is with Hydrogen, followed by CNG and then Gasoline. Hydrogen fuel has a maximum potential to convert into energy. The maximum energy destruction of 48.7kW for gasoline fuel at 3000 rpm and followed by CNG and hydrogen. The maximum entropy generation of 85.5 W/K with Gasoline and 60.72 W/K and 29.39W/K for CNG and hydrogen engine respectively at 10000 rpm. The entropy generation rate increase with engine speed. The highest rate of heat release is from hydrogen fuel, followed by Gasoline and CNG.

Shinde, Apurwa Balasaheb, Kadam, Tushar, karunamurthy, K, SHINDE, DR BALU

Combustion Noise Quality Improvement in a Common rail Diesel Engine at Low Idle using Taguchi DOE

2026-26-0329

1/16/2026

Noise quality at idle condition is an important factor which influences customer comfort. Modern diesel engines with stringent emission norms together with fuel economy requirements pose challenges to noise control. Common rail engine technology has advantage of precise fuel delivery and combustion control which needs optimization to achieve the conflicting requirements of noise, emission and fuel efficiency. Engine noise at low idle condition is dominated by combustion noise which depends on rate of pressure rise inside the cylinder during combustion. The important parameters which influence cylinder pressure rise are fuel injection timing, pilot injection quantity and its separation, rail pressure and EGR valve position. The study on effect of these parameters at varying levels demand large no of experiments. Taguchi design of experiments is a statistical technique which can be used to optimize these parameters by significantly reducing no of experiments needed to achieve the desired

P, Priyadarshan, Chavan, Amit, A, Kannanswamy, Patil, Sandeep, Chaudhari, Vishal V

Comparitive Study of Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Performance for Port Fuel Injected and Direct Injected Technology Routes using 1D Simulation

2026-26-0250

1/16/2026

Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (HICE) has the promise of zero carbon solution for the mobility industry. The key beneficiary would be the medium and heavy-duty segment of transportation which are likely to adapt the battery electric or fuel cell electric solution in longer term. This particular segment of engines need high low end torque, peak torque and rated power which cannot be compromised. Additionally, a competitive thermal efficiency w.r.t diesel engines would be advantageous. Direct Injection (DI) of hydrogen gives higher specific power and thermal efficiency as compared to Port Fuel Injection (PFI). This study focuses on the performance characteristics of these technology routes to aid in the HICE development process. Current work involves the use of 1-D thermodynamic simulation using GT-SUITE for modeling the performance of HICE. Both predictive and non-predictive methodologies of modeling the combustion were employed. Initially, the model validation of the PFI engine

Parthiban R, Varun, Karthikeyan, K R, Narayana Reddy, J, Paramasivam, Prakash, Manjunath, M, Kumar D, Kishore, N R, Varatharaj, Suresh, K, G, Yogesh Bolar, Sadagopan, Krishnan, Pandey, Sunil Kumar

Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Lean-Boosted Direct Injection Hydrogen Combustion System for Retrofitting Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

2026-26-0268

1/16/2026

To address the imperative for decarbonizing the heavy-duty transport sector and advancing sustainable energy solutions, this paper presents a novel lean-boosted Direct Injection (DI) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2 ICE) combustion system. This system is developed to retrofit existing flat-deck Diesel engines, offering a viable pathway towards drastically reduced emissions. Building on consolidated expertise from prior production-oriented Port Fuel Injection H2 engine development (DUMAREY 6.6ℓ V8), this research focuses on leveraging the distinct advantages of DI for hydrogen. An experimental assessment, supported by 1D and 3D-CFD analyses, demonstrates the system's capability to achieve highly efficient operation in Spark Ignition (SI) mode under ultra-lean and EGR-diluted conditions. The study confirms the elimination of combustion anomalies such as backfiring, pre-ignition, and knock, while achieving ultra-low engine-out NOx emissions and near-zero CO2, HC, CO, and PM. The

Gessaroli, Davide, Golisano, Roberto, Pesce, Francesco, Boretto, Gianmarco, Accurso, Francesco

Development of above 500 kW Diesel Engine & After Treatment System to Meet CPCB-IV+ Emission Norms

2026-26-0234

1/16/2026

The CPCB-IV+ emission compliance for genset application is applicable with effect from 1st July 2023 as per as per GSR 804(E). The CPCB-II to CPCB-IV+ changeover in very stringent in emission front by almost 90 % emission reduction. It’s a significant advancement in environmentally sustainable powertrain technology. To meet the CPCB-IV+ Emission, combustion development & ATS technology plays an important role. First is the base engine need to optimize enough with combustion & associated parts. Second is the after treatment system which will carry the battle further to the engine emission with minimum margin of 10 % engineering target. This paper present the systematic approach followed to meet CPCB-IV+ emission norms for upgradation of 21 litre TCIC engine for the power range (56 < P ≤ 560). Here the challenge to avoid major changes in the existing CPCB-II FIE recipe & meet the CPCB-IV+ emission with ECU calibration & ATS system calibration with its potential. Here interesting parts

Rane, Vikas, Jagtap, Shailesh, Gothekar, Sanjeev, Pawar, Narendra V, Khedkar, Prasad, Kagade, Samadhan, Kendre, Mahadev, G Bhat, Prasanna, Thipse, S

All New 1.2L Turbocharged Gasoline Direct Injection Engine from Tata Motors

2026-26-0071

1/16/2026

There is continuous push from the legislation for stringent fuel economy and emission regulations while the modern customers are demanding more engaging driving experience in terms of performance and refinement. To meet this Tata Motors has developed an advanced 1.2L 3-cylinder turbocharged gasoline direct injection engine. This next-generation powertrain delivers optimum efficiency, reduced emissions, superior performance with refined NVH characteristics. The key features used to enable these demanding requirements includes a 35 MPa fuel injection system, Miller Cycle operation and electrically actuated variable nozzel turbocharger (VNT). A uniquely designed BSVI complaint (WLTP ready) exhaust after-treatment system with Four-Way Conversion Catalyst (FWC+TM) ensures optimum emission control. A centrally mounted variable cam phaser minimizes pumping losses. The lightweight yet rigid all-aluminum engine structure, featuring an integrated structural oil sump, enhances durability and

Hosur, Viswanatha, Ghadge, Ganesh Narayan, Joshi, Manoj, Jadhav, Aashish, Panwar, Anupam

Development of a Passive Regeneration Diesel Particulate Filter System for an Agricultural Tractor Engine

2026-26-0217

1/16/2026

This paper presents the development and evaluation of a passive regeneration Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) system for a 4-cylinder, 3.18-liter naturally aspirated agricultural tractor engine based on the mDI engine family. The primary objective is to significantly reduce particulate matter (PM) emissions while maintaining optimal engine performance and fuel economy. The passive regeneration DPF system leverages the engine's operating conditions to generate sufficient heat for the oxidation of trapped particulate matter, eliminating the need for active regeneration techniques. The paper details the design process, including the selection of DPF material, filter geometry, and integration into the exhaust system. Rigorous experimental testing was conducted to assess the performance of the DPF system under various engine load and speed conditions. Results demonstrate substantial reductions in PM emissions without compromising engine power, torque, or specific fuel consumption. This

Maddali, Varun Suman, Jidigonti, Shashank, Kannan, S, Ramesh, Natrajan

Gasoline Particulate Filter for Future Indian Regulation

2026-26-0214

1/16/2026

Globally, emission regulations for LDVs (Light Duty Vehicles) are becoming increasingly stringent. In Europe, EU7 regulations will tighten the PN (Particulate Number) requirements by applying PN10 with PN value target 6.0+E11 [#/km] and changing the CF (Conformity Factor) value from 1.5 to 1.34 for RDE (Real Driving Emission). This necessitates the use of GPF (Gasoline Particulate Filter) capable of meeting these PN regulations. Similarly, India is also tightening its PN regulations by referencing European standards. Under the current BS VI Stage 2, in-use compliance test procedures, including RDE measurements using PEMS (Portable Emission Measurement System), necessitate GPFs for GDI (Gasoline Direct Injection) engines. Furthermore, around April 2027, the transition from BS VI Stage 2 to BS VI Stage 3 is expected, with a change of driving cycle from MIDC to WLTC up to Phase 3. Additionally, discussions on BS VII regulations, referencing EU7, have begun, and similar stricter PN

Sugimoto, Kentaro, Ohashi, Kenichi, Mori, Reon, Matsumoto, Tasuku, Aoki, Takashi, Sugiura, So, Hibi, Noriyuki

1D Simulation Approach for Common Rail Injection Systems for a Marine 2 Stroke Diesel Engine

2026-26-0395

1/16/2026

This study presents a comprehensive 1D simulation approach of an automotive solenoid-based diesel fuel injector and a common rail injection system for a marine engine using Simcenter AMESim. The injector model was developed to analyse the injection rate and total injected fuel at various solenoid actuation durations (1.2 ms and 2.0 ms) and common rail pressures. The experimental results from a well-established research study are used for validating the simulation results of the solenoid-based injector. Overall error in total fuel injected ranges from -6.14 percent to 1.93 percent, while timing errors for the start of injection vary from 1.7° crank angle (CA) to 0.08° CA and the end of injection from 2.8° CA to 0.20° CA at 1200 rpm demonstrating strong agreement at higher rail pressures (above 1000 bar) and solenoid actuation times. Building on this validated injector model, a detailed marine common rail system was developed incorporating key hydraulic components: a check valve to

Bhoware, Yash, Pise, Uday, Saha, Dipta, Gaikwad, Nilesh

Controls Solutions for Commercial Hydrogen Engines

2026-26-0112

1/16/2026

India’s commitment to carbon neutrality is significantly shaping the future architecture of commercial vehicle powertrains. While the use of CO₂-free technologies such as battery-electric drivetrains has already been successfully demonstrated across various applications, challenges related to limited range and the lack of high-power charging infrastructure continue to hinder widespread adoption, particularly for productivity-critical commercial vehicles. This has shifted the spotlight toward sustainable fuels, which offer the advantage of fast refueling times. Among these, hydrogen internal combustion engines (H₂ ICE) have gained increasing attention in recent years. In regions such as the European Union, the primary motivation for hydrogen is CO₂ reduction. In contrast, for markets like India, hydrogen also presents a strategic opportunity for reducing dependency on fossil fuel imports. Over the past four years, multiple performance and emission development projects across various H

Arnberger, Anton, Danninger, Alois, Mannsberger, Stefan, Breitegger, Bernhard

Impact of Fuel Properties and Aftertreatment Systems on Particulate Number Emissions from Euro 6 Gasoline Direct Injection Engines

2026-01-5002

1/15/2026

This study examines the influence of gasoline fuel properties on particulate number (PN) emissions from two Euro 6 gasoline direct injection (GDI) vehicles with contrasting aftertreatment systems. One vehicle with a gasoline particulate filter (GPF) and one without GPF were selected. Eight EN 228-compliant E10 gasolines were tested on these vehicles on a chassis dynamometer. The results demonstrate the significant impact of GPFs on particulate number emissions of particles above 10 nm (PN10). The vehicle equipped with GPFs showed a dramatic reduction in PN10 emissions, exceeding an order of magnitude decrease compared to the vehicle without one. However, the presence of a GPF complicates the evaluation of fuel effects on PN10 emissions, significantly reducing the variability observed between different fuels and essentially blurring these effects on PN10 emissions. Individual PN10 emission nonlinear models were developed for both vehicles, demonstrating a good correlation between

Kroyan, Yuri, Lehto, Kalle, Risberg, Per

Equivalent Circuit for Driving Piezoelectric Injectors

2025-36-0177

12/18/2025

The activation of the fuel injector affects both engine performance and pollutant emissions. However, the automotive industry restricts access to information regarding the circuits and control strategies used in its vehicles. One way to optimize fuel injections is using piezoelectric injectors. These injectors utilize crystals that expand or contract when subjected to an electric current, moving the injector needle. They offer a response time up to four times faster than solenoid-type injectors and allow for multiple injections per combustion cycle. These characteristics result in higher combustion efficiency, reduced emissions, and lower noise levels, making piezoelectric injectors widely used in next-generation engines, where stricter emission and efficiency standards are required. This study aims to design a drive circuit for piezoelectric injectors in a common rail system, intended for use in a diesel injector test bench. Experimental measurement of voltage was obtained from an

Moreira, Vinicius Guerra, Silveira, Hairton Júnior José da, Morais Hanriot, Sérgio de, Euzébio, Wagner Roberto

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