Browse Topic: Rare earth metals
With rising environmental concerns, developing lead-free solders is crucial for sustainable electronics. Traditional lead-based solders, while effective, pose health and environmental risks, prompt a shift to safer alternatives that retain reliability. Sn-9Zn alloys, when alloyed with elements such as cerium (Ce) and chromium (Cr), show enhanced mechanical and thermal properties suited for modern electronics. This study examines the effects of Ce and Cr, and their combination in Sn-9Zn solder alloy, analyzing improvements in microstructure, thermal, wettability, and hardness properties. Microstructural analysis reveals that Ce and Cr additions refine the alloy’s structure, benefiting performance. Wettability testing shows that Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce achieves the lowest wetting angle, while Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce-0.1Cr displays a balanced angle between Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce and Sn-9Zn-0.1Cr. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results indicate that Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce has the lowest melting temperature, while Sn-9Zn-0.1Cr has the highest, with Ce and Cr together reducing the melting temperature by 2.83°C from the peak in Sn-9Zn-0.1Cr. Apart from this, the Vickers microhardness test reveals the highest hardness in Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce-0.1Cr with 19.62 HV, underscoring the strengthening effects of Ce and Cr. The outcomes suggest Ce and Cr alloying as a promising approach to enhance the performance of lead-free solders in eco-friendly electronics.
An ultrathin coating was developed that contradicts a physics phenomenon of materials related to thermal radiation: The hotter an object gets, the brighter it glows. The new coating is engineered from samarium nickel oxide, a unique tunable material. The coating “breaks” the relationship between temperature and thermal radiation; essentially, there is a temperature range within which the power of the thermal radiation emitted by the coating stays the same.
System optimization and lifecycle analysis are key to taking heavy rare earths out of next-gen motors for commercial EVs. All components of an electric propulsion system - the motor, battery pack and inverter, in particular - are interrelated and optimized for a system function. Still, there are significant trade-offs in cost and what's best for sustainability when developing today's e-drive systems, according to David Fulton, director of rotating electric machines, PowerDrive Systems at BorgWarner Inc. “The dominant design for motors today is probably the worst for sustainability in terms of KPIs [key performance indicators] as well as highest in cost. But it serves the greater good of the system [by enabling] the lowest cost for the battery pack and inverter,” Fulton said at the 2023 SAE COMVEC conference, during his presentation on next-gen motor technology for commercial vehicles.
Automobile Catalyst are used to convert Harmful gases emitted by vehicle (CO, HC, and NOx) to less Harmful gas (CO2, H2O and N2), Catalyst Loading comprises of Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium (Rare earth metals) metal powders combined in slurry and wash-coated onto a ceramic brick. Ever since the introduction of BS6 Emissions norm (stricter emission regulation), Catalyst loading content has increased in all vehicles. The Price of these rare earth metal are increasing day by day. Typically, a BS6 regulation catalyst contains a few grams of loading content. In some vehicles there are more than one catalyst (due to regulation requirement) and in some cases catalysts are also located in the underbody, in such cases, Number and location of catalyst makes the vehicle an easy target for thieves. Recently local police authorities around the country have captured many catalysts theft gangs. In this paper, Case study of a particular model is used to understand the modus operandi of theft and exploring different low-cost design iterations to prevent catalyst theft and implementation of effective solution in the market.
Thermal Barrier Coating (TBCs) is one of the most promising technologies for reducing heat dissipation through the combustion chamber in Internal Combustion (IC) Engines. In this paper, Gadolinium Zirconate (GZ) was chosen as a coating material and prepared using a solid-state synthesis process. Cast iron (GJL 300) was selected as the substrate, which is predominantly used as the cylinder head material, and GZ was deposited using Electron Beam Physical Vapor Deposition technique (EB-PVD). The mechanical, thermal, and tribological properties were evaluated as per the ASTM standards. Improved hardness and wear resistance is noted on coated substrates. The thermal conductivity and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) of the coated substrates decreased by 3.43% and 5.03% respectively when compared with uncoated substrates. Hence, it is confirmed that thin-film TBCs has potential to provide the thermal and wear protection inside the combustion chamber of IC engines.
Global warming due to exhaust emissions, rapid depletion of crude oil, and strict carbon control legislation has forced researchers to search biofuels as substitute for petroleum diesel fuels. Biodiesel is a renewable and oxygenated fuel. It is free from sulfur, non-toxic and a biodegradable. The different non-edible vegetable oils such as Algae, Karanja and Jatropha could be used to produce biodiesel. Biodiesel is a green fuel with an exception that it emits 15-20% more NOx as compared to diesel fuel. The emissions of nanoparticles are more hazardous to human health. The nanoparticles emission of biodiesel must be measured according to the new strict regulations. The engine performance and the lower emission characteristics, except for NOx emission, for Algae, Karanja and Jatropha oil biodiesels are similar to those of diesel fuel. Present study has investigated the performance, combustion and emissions, including nanoparticle emissions, for Algae, Karanja and Jatropha oil biodiesel using CeO2 as fuel additive in military heavy duty, 582kW, CIDI engine. In research investigations, engine power output with Algae, Karanja, and Jatropha biodiesel fuel was found to be marginally lower as compared to diesel fuel. Biodiesel fuels blended with Cerium oxide as fuel additive, resulted in lower engine exhaust emissions with 22-28% reduction in NOx emissions as well as lower nanoparticle emissions.
Research activities in the development of reliable computational models for aftertreatment systems are constantly increasing in the automotive field. These investigations are essential in order to get a complete understanding of the main catalytic processes which clearly have a great impact on tailpipe emissions. In this work, a 1D chemical reaction model to simulate the catalytic activity of a Pd/Rh Three-Way Catalyst (TWC) for a Natural Gas heavy-duty engine is presented. An extensive database of tests carried out with the use of a Synthetic Gas Bench (SGB) has been collected to investigate the methane abatement pathways, linked to the lambda variation and oxide formation on palladium surface. Specific steady-state tests have shown a dynamics of the methane conversion even at fixed λ and temperature conditions, essentially due to the Pd/PdO ratio. Furthermore, combining the results of such test with dedicated Rich-Lean λ transitions it has been demonstrated that the presence of NO reduces the rate of the methane oxidation reaction. Given the high reliability of the experimental data and the possibility of managing the chemical composition of the gas entering the catalyst, important aspects related to the NH3 formation were analyzed. In the proposed kinetic scheme, NH3 decomposition phenomena are also present at high temperature due to the presence of Rh in the catalyst. Reactions involving Cerium for oxygen storage and release characterization are included in the proposed model in addition to the surface reaction mechanism, reasonably determining the TWC conversion efficiency of the main species.
Erbium (Er) doped phosphate glass exhibits many beneficial properties, which has led to an increased demand in recent years for Er:glass lasers for applications as wide-ranging as laser rangefinding, long-distance communications, dermatology, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Erbium fiber amplifiers enable rapid global communication in the transpacific cable between Hong Kong and Los Angeles, Er:glass laser rangefinders are increasingly used in defense applications and reconnaissance, and Er:glass aesthetic lasers are gaining traction for removing scarring and even treating hair loss caused by androgenetic alopecia.
Piston is the most imperative part of an automotive engine in which it exchanges drive due to expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft through the piston rod. During the combustion of fuel charge inside the ignition chamber, high pressure and temperature are developed and the piston is imperiled to high mechanical and thermal stresses. The main objective of the proposed work is to analyse the stress distributions and thermal behaviour of uncoated A356 with 5wt% SiC and 10wt% Fly Ash HMMC piston crown and Plasma sprayed Yttrium Stabilized Zirconia (Y-PSZ) coated A356 with 5wt% SiC and 10wt% Fly Ash HMMC piston crown. A356 with 5wt% SiC and 10wt% Fly Ash HMMC were fabricated via squeeze casting to improve the performance of a petrol engine. A structural model of an HMMC piston crown was made using CREO software and structural and thermal analysis was done using ANSYS. Further coupled field analysis is done to find the stress and temperature distribution on the piston. Output responses of the analysis show a significant decrease in thermal conductivity of an HMMC piston crown coated with Y-PSZ which in turn increases the surface temperature of the piston crown from increased air-fuel mixture temperature. This Y-PSZ Coated A356 with 5wt% SiC and 10wt% Fly Ash HMCC were suggested for fabrication of the piston for automotive applications.
In this study, an experimental investigation was carried out to evaluate the effect of Iron Oxide Nanofluids on the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of Low Heat Rejection (LHR) diesel engine operated with methyl esters of Waste Cooking Oil (WCOME). In the first phase of the work, single-cylinder, direct injection diesel engine test rig was developed and tested for its baseline readings with diesel at different power outputs. In the second phase of the work, the test engine was operated with WCOME and tested for its characteristics. In the third phase of the work, the test engine was modified to operate in the LHR mode so the engine components such as cylinder head, valves, and piston crown were initially machined to 300 microns for the required coating thickness to maintain the compression ratio and then the components were firstly coated with 100 microns bond- coat of Nickel, Chromium, and aluminum alloys (NiCrAl) and on the top of it 200 microns of lower thermal conductivity ceramic material Yttrium Stabilized Zirconia (8%YSZ) coated with help of plasma spray coating techniques. Then the LHR engine was fuelled with WCOME and tested for its characteristics in the fourth phase. Finally, WCOME was blended with 50 ppm of iron oxide nanofluids (WCOMEN) with help of Ultrasonicator model Leela Sonic-UPP250 with a frequency of 20 kHz and investigated for its characteristics in LHR engine and results were compared. From the experimental results, it comes to know that, the inclusion of the iron oxide nanofluids has significantly improved the stability as well as the viscosity of the WCOME. This has been reflected in the engine's characteristics operated with coated WCOMEN. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of the LHR engine operated with WCOMEN was found to be 12.4% higher than the uncoated WCOME. Also very attractively on the emission side, the hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide(CO) and smoke emissions were reduced minimum to 30%, 15%, and 40% with WCOMEN in the LHR mode. This improvement could be due to the combination of thermal barrier coating and the presence of iron oxide nanoparticles which ensures complete combustion of injected WCOMEN. However, with LHR mode the oxide of nitrogen (NOx) was increased by 22.5% with WCOMEN and 28.3% over WCOME compare with uncoated WCOME. From the experimental results, the diesel engine operated with WCOMEN in LHR mode has shown better performance and emission characteristics with a penalty on increase in oxides of nitrogen emission. Hence, this study suggest that, iron oxide nanofluids were one of the less toxic, which decreases the safety aspects and adding nano additives in liquid form into the WCOME prevents the sedimentation issue and enhance the properties of WCOMEN with improved engine’s characteristics.
The fuel injection pressures used in gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines have increased in recent years to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. Current GDI engines use injection pressures of up to 350 bar, and there is evidence that even higher fuel injection pressures could yield further improvements in atomization. Higher injection pressures could also improve mixture formation by increasing the spray velocity; however, the research with higher injection pressures over 1000 bar is limited due to a limit of mechanical components. This manuscript summarizes experimental investigations into the effect of injection pressure, injection mass, and nozzle shape on spray-induced air motion with ultrahigh injection pressure over 1000 bar. Fuel sprays were generated at a range of injection pressures with different injection masses and nozzle geometries, and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) was performed using a Charge-coupled device (CCD) camera and an Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet) laser to characterize the vector fields in the surrounding air and the rate of air entrainment into the sprays. Sprays generated with higher injection pressures and injection masses induced stronger large-scale air motion: an injection pressure of 1500 bar with an injection mass of only 5 mg caused almost the same amount of air entrainment as an injection pressure of 200 bar with an injection mass of 27 mg. However, the spray-induced air motion dissipated within 5 ms after the end of injection (EOI) in all cases. The air entrainment rate was also increased by using a divergent nozzle rather than a convergent one. Interactions between the spray and the surrounding air are thus strengthened by using a high injection pressure and a divergent nozzle.
A growing interest towards heavy-duty engines powered with NG, dictated by stringent regulations in terms of emissions, has made it essential to study a specific Three-Way Catalyst (TWC). Oxygen storage phenomena characterize the catalytic converter efficiency under real world driving operating conditions and, consequently, during strong dynamics in Air-to-Fuel ratio (AFR). A numerical “quasi-steady” model has been set-up to simulate the chemical process inside the reactor. A dedicated experimental campaign has been performed in order to evaluate the catalyst response to a defined λ variation, thus providing the data necessary for the numerical model validation. In fact, goal of the present research activity was to investigate the effect of very fast composition transitions of the engine exhaust typical of the mentioned driving conditions (including fuel cutoffs etc.) on the catalyst performance and on related emissions. A surface reactions kinetic mechanism, representing CH4, CO, H2 oxidation and NO reduction, has been appropriately calibrated in steady-state operation, using a step-by-step procedure all over the engine operating conditions at different AFRs. Then transient conditions were numerically reproduced, through cyclical and consecutive transitions of variable frequency between rich and lean phases. The model includes a proper calibration of the reactions involving Cerium inside the catalyst, in order to reproduce oxygen storage and oxygen release dynamics. Monitoring the reaction rates of the adopted mechanism permitted to evaluate their impact on the exhaust stream composition in several operating conditions. The proposed model predicts tailpipe conversion/formation of the main chemical species starting from experimental engine-out data and provides a useful tool for evaluation of the catalyst performance.
Rapid depletion of petroleum reserves, stringent emission legislations and global warming has given us an opportunity to find biodiesel as an alternative to diesel fuel. Biodiesel is a biogradable, renewable, sulphur free, non-toxic, and oxygenated green fuel. Recent emission legislations have also restricted the nano particles emission in addition to particulate matter, due to their adverse impact on health. Karanja and Jatropha oils are non-edible vegetable oils. Karanja and Jatropha oil methyl ester biodiesel are prepared by the process of transesterification. Biodiesel emits lesser gaseous emission as compared to diesel fuel. However, the only major concern in the use of biodiesel is that it increases NOx emission. Nano particle fuel additive is one of the essential techniques to overcome the NOx emission drawback of biodiesel. In the present study, the engine performance and emission of CO, UHC, NOx and PM including nano particle emission, were compared for diesel, Karanja and Jatropha oil biodiesel with Cerium Oxide nano particles fuel additive, in a 12-cylinder, 585 kW, CIDI military heavy-duty diesel engine. The experimental results showed that engine performance with Karanja and Jatropha oil biodiesel with fuel additive, increased by 3-4%, along with lower gaseous emission including 15% - 25% lower NOx emission and lower nano particles emission, as compared to mineral diesel fuel.
Biodiesel fuels are an alternative to diesel fuel. Biodiesel is an oxygenated, sulphur free, non-toxic, biogradable and renewable fuel. It is derived from vegetable oils. Since straight vegetable oils have quite high viscosity compared to mineral diesel, they have to be modified to bring their combustion-related properties and viscosity closer to mineral diesel. This is done by modifying their molecular structure through a transesterification process. In the present study, a military heavy duty 38.8 liter, 585 kW supercharged, compression ignition diesel injection (CIDI) engine was fuelled with diesel, Karanja oil methyl ester (KOME) biodiesel, and KOME biodiesel with cerium oxide fuel additive, respectively. These were subjected to 100 hours long term endurance tests. Lubricating oil samples, drawn from the engine fuelled with these fuels after a fixed interval of 20 hours, were subjected to elemental analysis. Atomic absorption spectroscopy was done for quantification of various metal debris concentrations. Lubricating oil samples were also subjected to ferrography test which indicated lower wear debris concentrations for a biodiesel with fuel additive operated engine. Number of tests was conducted in order to evaluate the comparative performances of these fuels such as lubrication measurement, density measurement, viscosity measurement, total base number etc. The experimental result showed that engine performance with Karanja oil biodiesel with fuel additive increased by 5%, along with lower gaseous emission including 14% - 25% lower NOx emission, and lower total particulate number concentration, as compared to diesel fuel The performance of biodiesel fuel is found to be superior to that of diesel oil. Also, the lubricating oil life is found to be longer while operating the engine on biodiesel with fuel additive. Engine metals wear were found 26% lower for a KOME biodiesel with cerium oxide fuel additive operated engine.
Global warming with stringent emission legislation along with the depletion of fossil fuel has given us an opportunity to find biodiesel as alternative to diesel fuel. Biodiesel has been widely accepted as comparable fuel to diesel in diesel engine. This is due to its renewable property, better lubricity, along with lesser gaseous emission as compared to diesel fuel. However, there is a major disadvantage in the use of biodiesel as it increases NOx emission. Fuel additive becomes one of the essential tools to overcome the drawback of biodiesel required to meet the international standard of performance and emission. In this study, the performance, combustion, and gaseous emission of CO, CO2, HC, NOx and PM including particle size number distribution characteristics, were compared for diesel, Karanja oil biodiesel, and Karanja oil biodiesel with Cerium Oxide Nano particles fuel additive, in a 12 cylinder, 585 kW, CIDI military diesel engine. The experimental result showed that engine performance with Karanja oil biodiesel with fuel additive increased by 5%, along with lower gaseous emission including 14% - 26% lower NOx emission, lower particulate size number distribution, lower particle size surface area distribution, and lower total particulate number concentration, as compared to diesel fuel.
The rising awareness of environmental protection on a global level is leading to more stringent automobile emissions regulations. In addition, there are calls to reduce the use of precious metals as catalysts due to concerns about resource depletion. Recently, the number of hybrid vehicles and vehicles featuring idling engine stop functionality is increasing as fuel-efficient vehicles rapidly becoming the norm for all models. In these vehicles the amount of NOx emissions increases when the engine restarts after an idling stop and it is difficult to reduce the use of precious metals in the catalyst. Consequently, it is necessary to develop a catalytic technology that can make effective use of the Rh component because this is essential to NOx conversion. In this study, an examination was conducted using the following two approaches for the purpose of reducing the amount of transient NOx. Approach (1) It was found that the use of a Praseodymium (Pr)-doped oxygen storage capacity (OSC) material as a support for precious metals resulted in accelerating metalation of the precious metals that cause an increase in NOx conversion under air-fuel ratio switching conditions. Approach (2) It was found that Praseodymium (Pr) and Yttrium(Y)-doped Zirconium oxide works as a precious metal support to accelerate the steam reforming reaction, which results in higher NOx conversion. In this study, a mechanism was investigated to improve NOx conversion under transient conditions from the perspective of structural changes to the Praseodymium-doped OSC material and its effects on the state of precious metals. In addition, another mechanism was also investigated to improve NOx conversion via the steam reforming reaction due to the effects of additional elements and structural changes to the precious metals.
This paper describes a newly developed motor and inverter system with maximum torque of 320 Nm and maximum power of 110 kW for a 2018 model year EV. The system achieves this performance with no increase in size from the previous 2013 model year system with maximum torque of 254 Nm and maximum power of 80 kW. The specific features of the new system described in this paper are summarized below. A new inverter power module that adopts a direct cooling structure produces higher current density than the previous model. The designs of components experiencing structural and electrical variation that affects heat generation by the power semiconductors were confirmed. Furthermore, the motor temperature is estimated for thermal protection. These features allow for control logic that can optimally manage the temperatures of the power semiconductors and the motor to facilitate the high torque performance of the system. The motor voltage management has also been optimized in order to reduce the current level and thereby contributes to the system’s high power performance and high efficiency. The motor also adopts magnets with reduced heavy rare earth elements. This improves heat resistance and obtains resource savings. In addition, one of the novel features of the new EV is e-Pedal that provides not only deceleration but also stopping by operating only the accelerator pedal. This is achieved by motor control logic of the motor and inverter system that generates the optimum motor torque in response to each road grade.
Four lasers can be used for micro welding: pulsed neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG), continuous wave (CW) fiber, quasi continuous wave (QCW) fiber, and nanosecond fiber. Each laser type offers unique features that work best for specific applications. This article presents a comparison of the pulsed Nd:YAG laser with the three fiber laser options and discusses why and when one might be chosen over the other. In some cases, several options may work; in that case, cost of ownership and serviceability can tip the scales.
The main objective of this research was to construct an optical pump system that would allow the study of Er:GaN materials under 980 nm resonant excitation to be carried out. The results obtained from the optically pumped studies could then be utilized to guide crystal growth and laser design.
In order to achieve NOx tailpipe targets of current diesel regulation standards two main catalytic technologies have been employed, specifically NH3-SCR and LNT. However both of these technologies face challenges with the implementation of newer / colder test cycles such as “Real Driving Emissions” (RDE), combined with CO2 targets (95 g/km is 2020 target in Europe). These cycles will require higher NOx Storage Capacity (NSC) in the low temperature region (120-350°C). Conversely, lean-burn Gasoline vehicles, with their higher operational temperatures, will require improved NSC over a broader temperature range (200-500°C). Therefore, the development of NSC materials to meet these opposing requirements is an area of extensive study by Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), washcoaters, and raw materials suppliers. Today, ceria is a key component in the formulation of active NSC washcoats. It is often combined with barium in order to improve its high temperature NSC, but this also leads to a significant loss of specific surface area and thus a decrease in overall performance at low temperature. This paper reports recent progress made on NSC materials, with the aim to enlarge their operational temperature window. In this regard, Solvay has developed an innovative solution: rare earth and barium hybrid compounds as advanced NSC materials, the details of the development and optimisation being described herein. Synthetic gas bench tests were performed on powder model catalysts and show a significant increase in NSC at low temperatures and a significant benefit in NSC at high temperatures in comparison to a current commercial reference, Solvay ‘High Stability Ceria’ doped with Barium (or ‘Basic Ceria’). A range of hybrid products were developed with different acido-basic properties in order to optimize the trade-off between stability, NOx performance and desulfation capacity depending on the application specific needs.
With Increasing environmental concerns and high fuel prices, the automotive industry is shifting its focus to electric vehicles (EVs). Electric motor being the heart of an electric vehicle, faces a major design challenge to have optimum performance and structural strength at an affordable cost. Synchronous reluctance motor offers higher power density at low cost since the rotor is free from rare earth permanent magnets or field excitation. However, torque fluctuations and resulting vibrations are a major concern. This is amended by optimizing the end-barrier width and end-barrier orientation angle in the rotor so as to maximize the torque and minimize the ripple. Simulations are also performed with ferrite magnets assistance to achieve an enhanced torque output. In each case, a structural analysis is done to verify the mechanical strength and rotor deformation considering structural and electromagnetic forces. The analyses are performed using finite element simulations. A comparison study is made to check the impact of ferrite assistance on electromagnetic and structural performance of the motor.
YAG-based fiber lasers could offer efficient operation at power levels beyond those achievable in current state-of-the-art silica-based fiber lasers if losses can be minimized. To address this, researchers have investigated creating both single-crystal and polycrystalline YAG fibers. Among the cases reported is the preparation of single-crystal YAG fibers using laser heated pedestal growth (LHPG), which resulted in fiber diameters of 400 μm and optical losses around 1–2 dB/m in the 1–3 μm wavelength range. Single-crystal YAG fibers with diameters of ~ 30 μm have even been reported.
In the early 1980's, some promising research and development efforts focused on powder metallurgy revealed that aluminum alloys containing 4 wt% cerium exhibit high temperature mechanical properties exceeding those of the best commercial aluminum casting alloys currently in production. Cerium oxide is an abundant rare earth oxide that is often discarded during the refining of more valuable rare earths such as Nd and Dy. Therefore, the economics are compelling for cerium as an alloy additive. In this paper, we report select results obtained during an investigation of the castability of aluminum-cerium alloys and determine compositional modifications that may be required to ensure the compatibility of the alloy with near net shape casting methods such as advanced sand casting, die casting, permanent mold casting and squeeze casting. Al-Ce alloys were cast in binary composition of 6-16 wt% Ce. Commercially pure aluminum ingots were melted and held at approximately 785°C. Ternary and quaternary alloys with Si and Mg additions were also investigated. Test bars were cast to establish mechanical properties and step plates and hot tear molds were used to determine sensitivity to solidification conditions and hot tearing sensitivity respectively. Finally, air cooled engine cylinder heads were cast in sand molds to get a sense of castability in complicated shape castings.
This paper describes a new catalyst powder has been developed that provides cleaner exhaust emissions and reduces the consumption of precious metals. In recent years, precious metal usage has been increasing due to the tightening of emission regulations and the increase in automobile production worldwide. Minimizing the use of precious metals in exhaust catalysts is crucial not only for reducing the cost of vehicles but also for effective utilization of scarce resources. Iron is one of the alternative material candidates for precious metals. It was found that the Iron catalyst was activated by iron becoming the low oxidation state while iron oxide and cerium oxide synchronized in a nanostructure interface. A catalyst with improved iron support technology that enables better contact between highly dispersed particles of iron and ceria was found to exhibit higher exhaust gas cleansing performance than precious metal catalysts even after aging.
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