Browse Topic: Molding

Items (2,067)
ABSTRACT Barriers to the introduction of composite materials for ground vehicle applications include material property selection and cost effective material processing. Advancements in processing of thermoplastic composites for use in applications for semi structural and structural applications have created opportunities in “Out of Autoclave” processing utilizing preconsolidated unidirectional reinforced tapes. Traditional tooling for the bending formation of high temperature reinforced structural thermoplastic laminates typically involves matched metal tooling consisting of steel or aluminum and are costly and heavy. In this research, a comparative analysis was performed to evaluate the use of a large scale 3D printed forming tool in comparison to a traditional metallic mold. Material processing considerations included the development of a technique for localized laminate heating to achieve optimized energy input in the forming process. Considerations in tooling development included
Erb, DavidDwyer, BenjaminRoy, JonathanYori, WilliamLopez-Anido, Roberto A.Smail, AndrewHart, Robert
Bemis Manufacturing and BASF collaborated to develop a lighter-weight and lower-cost hydraulic tank for compact excavators that was recognized with a lightweighting award traditionally reserved for automotive innovations. Receiving an honorable mention in the Enabling Technology category of this year's Altair Enlighten Awards, the development team leveraged a combination of injection molding and vibration welding techniques to lower costs by approximately 20% and reduce mass by about 5% compared to the traditional roto-molding process. The solution also is more eco-efficient, delivering both environmental savings (reductions in lifecycle CO2 emissions) and reducing lifecycle costs
Gehm, Ryan
The use of aluminum to manufacture injection molds aims to maximize the productivity of plastic parts, as its alloys present higher heat conductivity than tool steel alloys. However, it is essential to accurately control the injection molding parameters to assure that the design tolerances are achieved in the final molded plastic part. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the use of aluminum alloys in high-volume production processes. It delves into the correlation between the type of material used for mold production (steel or aluminum) and the thickness of the injected part, and how these variables affect the efficiency of the process in terms of the quantity and quality of the produced parts. The findings suggest that replacing steel molds with aluminum alloys significantly reduces injection molding cycle time, the difference ranging from 57.1% to 72.5%. Additionally, the dimensional accuracy and less distortion provided by aluminum have improved product quality. In case of
Marconi, PedroAmarante, EvandroFerreira, CristianoBeal, ValterRibeiro Júnior, Armando
This research examines the impact of different amounts of copper (Cu) powder on the wear characteristics of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)–Cu composites. Various formulations of ABS–Cu composites have been produced using injection molding, with different amounts of surfactant. Wear properties were evaluated by conducting tribological testing in accordance with ASTM standards. The findings indicated a decrease in wear loss, particularly when using a mixture consisting of 23% ABS, 70% Cu, and 7% surfactant. Machine learning regression algorithms successfully forecasted wear behavior with R-squared values over 0.97. The models used in the analysis included linear, stepwise linear, tree, support vector machine (SVM), efficient linear, Gaussian progression, ensemble, and neural network regression models. This research emphasizes the significance of composite materials in fulfilling contemporary technical requirements. The acquired insights enable the development of materials with
Jatti, Vijaykumar S.Saiyathibrahim, A.Murali Krishnan, R.Balaji, K.
Aitiip is a leading Spanish research and development institute and serves companies in the aeronautics, automation, industrial, and packaging sectors. The institute possesses strong platforms for the characterization of materials and processes and is known as a powerful integrator of technologies, which is constantly on the lookout for the next transformative technology. A year ago, Aitiip implemented an NXE 400 industrial resin 3D printer platform from Nexa3D to explore integrations of additive manufacturing and injection molding. Nexa3D is the Ventura, California-based provider of high-speed industrial printing technologies whose portfolio continues to grow, reflected in its acquisition of Essentium, one of the world's most well-known providers of extrusion 3D printing, earlier this year. Liebherr is one of the world's largest providers of a variety of industrial goods, services and products. Aerospace and transportation systems is one of 13 different product segments supplied by the
Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs), produced through injection molding, are increasingly preferred over steel in automotive applications due to their lightweight, moldability, and excellent physical properties. However, the expanding use of FRPs presents a critical challenge: deformation stability. The occurrence of warping significantly compromises the initial product quality due to challenges in part mounting and interference with surrounding parts. Consequently, mitigating warpage in FRP-based injection parts is paramount for achieving high-quality parts. In this study, we present a holistic approach to address warpage in injection-molded parts using FRP. We employed a systematic Design of Experiments (DOE) methodology to optimize materials, processes, and equipment, with a focus on reducing warpage, particularly for the exterior part. First, we optimized material using a mixture design in DOE, emphasizing reinforcements favorable for warpage mitigation. After careful consideration of
Seo, Kyeong-BaePark, Sang SunLee, ChoonSoo
The experimental investigation aims to improve natural composite materials aligned with feasible development principles. These composites can be exploited across several industries, including the automobile and biomedical sectors. This research employs date seed powder and neem gum powder as reinforcing agents, along with polyester resin as the base material. The fabrication route comprises compression moulding, causing the production of the natural composite material. This study focuses extensively on mechanical characteristics such as tensile strength, flexural strength, hardness, and impact resistance to undergo comprehensive testing. Furthermore, the chemical properties of the composites are examined using the FTIR test to gain understanding by integrating different proportions of date seed powder (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) and neem gum powder (0%, 3%, 6%, and 9%) in the matrix phase. These investigation goals are to evaluate the strength and performance of the fabricated composite
DINESH, D.Boopathiraja, K.P.Rajamurugan, G.Ramamoorthi, R.Yuvaraj, K.P.Babu, N.
The study will involve conducting analyses on microstructures consisting of 40% aluminium and 10% nickel, with variations in the rate of hardening. The aluminium and nickel, both of commercial grade, were subjected to a crucible furnace where they were heated to a temperature of 1600 degrees Celsius until they reached a molten state. The utilization of permanent moulds was necessary for casting the metal at temperatures of 20, 60, and 100 degrees Celsius. In order to document the freezing curvature of the castings, a centralized data collection technique was implemented. The microstructure and mechanical properties of this alloy were examined by researchers. The rate of solidification was observed to increase and the duration of the process was observed to decrease as the temperature of the mould was reduced. The microstructure has been modified due to disparities in solidification rates. An increase in the rate of solidification leads to a reduction in the spacing between secondary
Srinivasan, V.P.Selvarajan, L.Balu Mahandiran, S.Venkataramanan, K.Sasikumar, R.Shanthi, C.
In the process of injection molding, the vacuum pump rear housing is prone to warping deformation and volume shrinkage, which affects its sealing performance. The main reason is the improper control of the injection process and the large flat structure of the vacuum pump rear housing, which does not meet its production and assembly requirements (the warpage deformation should be controlled within 1 mm and the volume shrinkage within 8.6%). To address this issue, this study initially utilized orthogonal experiments to obtain training samples and conducted a preliminary analysis using gray relational analysis. Subsequently, a predictive model was established based on a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D CNN). Input parameters from the injection molding process, including melt temperature, mold temperature, packing pressure, packing time, injection pressure, injection time, and cooling time, were used while warping deformation and volume shrinkage were considered as outputs
Hua, JunyiFan, XiyingGuo, YonghuanZhang, XinranZhu, ZhiweiZhang, Lanfeng
This work aims to develop a PA6 nanocomposite with glass fiber (GF) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) focusing on automotive parts application. Polyamide 6 is a semi-crystalline polymer that exhibits high fatigue and flexural strength, making it viable for rigorous applications. Along with the improved electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical performance achieved in PA6 and GF-based nanocomposites, they can fill complex geometries, have great durability, and are widely utilized due to their capacity of reducing the weight of the vehicle besides a cost reduction potential. The glass fiber is a filamentary composite, usually aggregated in polymeric matrices, which aims to amplify the mechanical properties of polymers, mainly the tensile strength in the case of PA6. Nanocomposites, on the other hand, are hybrid materials in which at least one of the components has nanometric dimensions, and the other component serves as a matrix, such as the dispersed particles of GF and GNPs present
Dantas, Patrícia Alluede Freitas, Camila Mendonçade Souza, Camila Gomes PeçanhaLopes, Rodolfo RodrigoOsti, Reinaldo
Aircraft icing is an important subject for investigation due to its critical effects on flight performance. Ice accretion analysis is commonly carried out using computational tools, from which parameters such as the mean ice shape and roughness characteristics can be obtained, as these parameters have a strong effect on the physics of aerodynamics and ice accretion. Hence, the accurate digitization of a generated ice shape through ice measurement techniques is of crucial importance. This study aimed to validate the use of photogrammetry for measurement of ice geometries and roughness on UAV airfoils, by comparing it with the cast-and-mold method. Two test cases, one mixed and second rime ice, were analyzed, each case with three subcases varying in the number of photographs used. For test case 1, mixed ice, photogrammetry method resulted in an underestimation of mean ice height by 0.5 mm in the smooth zone and overestimation by 0.2 mm and 0.6 mm on the pressure and suction sides
Baghel, Anadika PaulSotomayor-Zakharov, DenisKnop, InkenOrtwein, Hans-Peter
Side door latches in an automotive play a major role in occupants’ safety. The latches consist of both retention assembly and actuator assembly. The actuator assembly majorly consists of motor, gear & other components and these are protected through a Plastic Lower case and Housing. The Lower case (over-mold) with the Electrical Component Carrier - ECC (pre-mold) plays an important role in providing electrical power supply to the latch system. Since these parts are manufactured with terminal traces & plastics, upfront mold flow simulations help the product teams to evaluate the short fills, warpage, and other quality aspects in the critical areas of these components. In the part assembly station, the ECC (pre-mold) and the Lower case (over-mold) are connected to the Motor on one side and the Connector on the other. The proper alignment of the pre-mold pins is of great importance and the pre-mold must not be externally visible once the molding is complete. During the prototype build
LONKAR, VISHWAVINUTANAC, Rupesh KumarManjunath, ArunKumar, Naveen
Vehicle aesthetic appearance is critical factor in the perceived quality of a vehicle. Auto OEM focuses on the improvement of perceived quality. The perceived quality of a vehicle is improved by achieving a superior finish on the visible parts. Plastic parts used in visible areas are painted to achieve a superior finish & aesthetic. However, the painting process is very energy intensive, releases a lot of harmful VOCs into the environment, emits carbon di-oxide into the environment & is a very costly process. Also, painted parts pose a challenge for recycling at the end of life. For painting one square meter area, around 6.5 Kg of co2 is released. Additionally, the painting cost contributes to around 60 % of the part cost. As the emphasis has increased on sustainability & reducing the cost, we took the challenge to develop novel mold in color material to eliminate the painting process without compromising the aesthetic & functional requirements of part. The challenge was to develop the
jha, AshutoshHatwalne, Mrunal R.
This SAE Standard specifies requirements for vulcanized rubbers in sheet form for use as standards in characterizing the effect of test liquids and service fluids. The appendices contain the standard reference elastomer formulas. The property changes of the SRE in contact with the indicated fluid under specified test conditions are the responsibility of the user. See 7.3 and Table 1. This standard is not designed to provide formulations of elastomeric product compositions for actual service
Committee on Automotive Rubber Specs
This specification covers a closed cell silicone rubber sponge in the form of sheet, strip, extrusions, and molded shapes
AMS CE Elastomers Committee
Fiber-reinforced composites are widely used in injection molding processes because of their high strength and high elastic modulus. However, the addition of reinforcing agents such as glass fibers has a significant impact on their injection molding quality. The difference in shrinkage and hardness between the plastic and the reinforcement will bring about warpage and deformation in the injection molding of the product. At the same time, the glass fibers will be oriented in the flow direction during the injection molding process. This will enhance the mechanical properties in the flow direction and increase the shrinkage in the vertical direction, reducing the molding quality of the product. In this study, a test program was developed based on the Box-Behnken test design in the Design-Expert software, using a plastic part as an example. Moldflow software was used for simulation, and data analysis of the experimental data was carried out to investigate the significance of the influence
Wang, DezhaoFan, XiyingGuo, YonghuanLu, XiangningWang, ChangjingDing, Wenjie
Innovative robotic rotational molding technology allows for the use of new materials in manufacturing parts and hard cases for military and aerospace applications. This is creating opportunities for new product geometries, tighter tolerances, and less waste than traditional plastic molding. There are thousands of applications within the aerospace and defense industries using plastic parts and storage containers. Today, the production of specialized parts and protective hard cases for military applications can call for unique materials to meet more stringent standards (flammability, high heat/cold tolerances, airtightness, watertightness, electromagnetic interference shielding, multi-layering, to name a few). Meeting these strict requirements can be challenging when using traditional molding processes such as rotational molding, thermoforming, blow molding, or injection molding
Design for manufacturing (DfM) is a huge focus for the medical device sector today, and it becomes an ever more important consideration when production moves from time-worn and conventional manufacturing processes to more esoteric processes such as micro additive manufacturing (AM) and micro injection molding, both of which are at the cutting edge of precision plastic part and component manufacturing
Halogen detector is an important halogen gas leakage detection instrument. In order to ensure that the upper and lower shells have the same quality, it is necessary to use one mold and two pieces in production. Compared with the conventional one-mold two-cavity process, it is easier to produce warpage and volume shrinkage. To solve this problem, a multi-objective injection molding process optimization method based on deep neural network (DNN) model based on stochastic weight average (SWA) method and multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on decomposition (MOEA/D) was proposed. Melt temperature, mold temperature, injection pressure, holding pressure, holding time, and cooling time are the six parameters and important structure parameters (gate diameter) as design variables, warpage, and volume shrinkage rate as the optimization goal. The neural network model between variable and goal was established, and the MOEA/D algorithm was used for global optimization. The multi-objective
Wang, ChangjingFan, XiyingGuo, YonghuanLu, XiangningWang, DezhaoDing, Wenjie
This specification covers a mold release agent in the form of a liquid
AMS P17 Polymer Matrix Composites Committee
As the complexity of signal challenges in aerospace and defense technology increases, design engineers need to creatively combine materials to solve multiple problems at once. Comolding, which involves combining two uncured elastomers with different electrical properties into one homogeneous material or molding elastomers with metal, fabric or composite structures, is an innovative way to address these challenges
This specification covers a polyimide plastic in the form of isostatically molded rod, bar, and tube, unidirectionally molded plaque, and direct formed parts
AMS P Polymeric Materials Committee
Compared with traditional plastics, glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) has more outstanding performance advantages, which is more and more widely used. To improve the quality of the products manufactured by the GFRP injection molding, the injection parameters are optimized in two stages. In the first stage, the range of optimization parameters including the glass fiber content and six molding parameters is selected by the Moldflow recommendation. The warpage and shrinkage of each orthogonal experiment are obtained by the Moldflow simulation. Then, a comprehensive evaluation method called GRA-TOPSIS and the range analysis method are utilized to identify the optimal level values of all optimization parameters. According to the order of influence of each parameter, the range of these parameters is adjusted for the second stage. In the second stage, the orthogonal array table is also arranged for the training samples, and the Latin hypercubic sampling (LHS) table is arranged for the
Liu, XinFan, XiyingGuo, YonghuanLiu, ZiqiDing, Wenjie
This specification covers a corrosion and heat-resistant nickel alloy in the form of metal injection molded (MIM) parts
AMS F Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys Committee
With hypersonics vital to national security, LIFT, the Detroit-based Department of Defense manufacturing innovation institute, along with the Department of Defense (DoD), recently awarded ATC Materials, Inc. one of the institute’s nationwide Hypersonics Challenge projects. The challenge goal: To demonstrate the repeatable and reliable production of their RIPS molded radio frequency (RF) material. Operating at speeds of Mach 5 or higher, hypersonic and counter-hypersonic vehicles are among the Department of Defense’s top priorities, as well as the development of a safe and secure domestic supply base
The emergence of additive manufacturing (AM) technology has enabled the internal cooling channel layout for high pressure aluminium die casting (HPADC) tools to be designed and modified without topological constraint. Optimisation studies of a full industrial HPADC mould for extending the tool service life has received limited attention due to the high geometrical complexity and the various physics with multi time- and length- scales in addition to the manufacturability limitations. In this work, a new computationally efficient algorithm that employs the adjoint optimisation method has been developed to optimise the coolant channels layout in a complete mould with various 3D printed inserts. The algorithms significantly reduced the computational time and resources by decoupling the fluid flow in the coolant channels from the tool and simulating them separately. The channel’s heat transfer coefficient values are then interpolated and mapped into the thermal model that implements the
Zeng, TongyanAbo-Serie, Essam F.Jewkes, JamesDodd, PaulJones, Rhys
Light weighting is an effective strategy in increasing energy efficiency in the automotive industry. In this paper, mass reduction with cost benefit was targeted in an exterior trim panel. Polypropylene copolymer (PPCP) compound was developed for a large exterior trim panel (1400 X 700mm) having an integrated grill mesh. The part had challenging requirements in terms of slow speed impact, structural durability, dimensional stability, aesthetics, thermal ageing resistance, cold impact resistance, scratch resistance and weathering resistance. By having ultra-high flow behavior, optimum tensile strength, modulus, impact strength and thermal properties, the PPCP compound met the requirements for a thin wall exterior trim panel with a thickness of 2.6mm. Structural durability of the design was validated by virtual engineering. Part design and material combinations with better tooling design iterations were analyzed by using mold flow analysis. Complete product performances were being
Govindaraj, KarthikVimalathithan, MurukesanYanamandra, BharadwajaD., Venkatesan
The fuel tank shield provides a protective boundary between the fuel tank and vehicle driveline in the event of a high-speed crash. Hence, it is important from the safety standpoint. The part must be carefully engineered to meet the challenging requirements in terms of stiffness, deflection, toughness, dimensional stability and thermal stability. In this paper, long glass fibre filled polypropylene material compound was selected and developed to meet the mentioned requirements for this part with significant mass reduction over other materials. The combination of material, optimized part and tool design led to weight savings and considerable cost reduction. This is a ready to mold material used in injection molding process. This long glass fibre reinforced polypropylene compound has been explored for thin wall protection shield with wall thickness of 2.5 mm. This part has critical functional requirements such as driveline load versus deflection durability criteria, thermal stability
Govindaraj, KarthikJayashankar, VC, Karthiban
In the preform preparation stage of the RTM process, the fabric is draped on the mold along the geometry. Before the filling and warpage analysis, the draping analysis will be performed to get the fabric orientation. Due to the anisotropy of the fabric material, the main direction of the material has a significant influence on the overall flow behavior and warpage of the product. In this study, the advanced simulation approach for the RTM process is demonstrated. The filling and warpage analysis integrate with the draping simulation result. The influences of fabric shearing and fiber orientation on the resin flow and product warpage in RTM process is studied. With more accurate fabric orientation prediction methods, the accuracy of predicting fabric ply orientation is improved and more accurate infusion and product warpage simulation results can be obtained
Yang, HsunChang, Hsi-HungHsu, Chih-Chung
Light weighting is important to improve energy efficiency in the automotive industry. In this paper, high performance unfilled polypropylene copolymer (PPCP) material was selected and developed to reduce weight and cost without compromising on functional requirements for interior trims such as door trims, lower pillar trims, scuff trims and rear quarter trims (RQT). Interior trims are loaded with challenging requirements such as stiffness, dimensional stability, haptic feel, scratch resistance, cleanability, thermal stability, toughness, low emission and weathering resistance. Reactor polymerized PPCP material compound met these requirements by having ultra-flow behavior, optimum tensile strength, balanced modulus - impact strength, scratch resistant, low emission and improved thermal properties. This is a ready to mold material used in injection molding process. This unfilled polypropylene copolymer material has been explored for thin wall interior trims with thickness of 2.5mm. These
Govindaraj, KarthikDeoli, ManishGregory, Koch
This paper presents a design method for continuous fiber composites in three-dimensional space with locally varying orientation distribution and their fabrication method. The design method is formulated based on topology optimization by augmented tensor field design variables. The fabrication method is based on Tailored Fiber Placement technology, whereby a CNC embroidery machine prepares the preform. The fiber path is generated from an optimized orientation distribution field. The preform is formed with vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding. The fabricated prototype weighs 120 g, a 70% weight reduction, achieving 3.5× mass-specific stiffness improvement
Nomura, TsuyoshiIwano, YoshihiroKawamoto, AtsushiYoshikawa, KatsuharuSpickenheuer, Axel
A global survey in December 2020 revealed a preference for surface and air disinfection in automobiles which may have been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The observed trend towards healthy cars may remain well after the current pandemic. Additionally, new safety features like CO2 gas sensors, antimicrobial fabrics, and enhanced air purifiers have emerged. While automobile air purifiers trap contaminants using cartridge filters, they are not particularly efficient at removing viral particles and create large pressure drops, which must be compensated with larger fans, increasing power requirements and noise in the vehicle cabin. A HVAC system with integrated UVC-LEDs can inactivating viruses, bacteria, and mold. UVC LEDs are desirable because unlike mercury lamps, they do not pose electrical, glass, and chemical hazards. With the recent improvements in UVC LED lifetime and power, UVC LEDs are becoming a better alternative, as highlighted by recent upsurge of successful in air
Randive, RajulMariita, RichardDavis, JamesSchwegler, TimFranchy, MikeKamtekar, SanjayRother, Heiko
This paper presents a ultra-high pressure sensor composed the measurement membrane manufactured by MIM (Metal Powder Injection Molding). The membrane should be sufficiently deformed within the measuring pressure range and not be broken at the burst pressure. Therefore, in general, the high pressure sensor membrane made of metal using machining methods such as milling and drilling. However, it requires additional process to assembly with other parts and is difficult to make complex structure such as screw. Thus, in this paper, we propose the product and design of the measurement membrane using the MIM method. We have developed the ultra-high pressure sensor capable of measuring to 900 bar.gauge. Figure 1 shows the ultra-high pressure and measurement part. The measurement membrane thickness is 900 μm and diameter is 3.2 mm. The MEMS sensor element mounted on the measuring membrane surface outputs an electrical signal according to the pressure. And then, the electrical circuit with ASIC
Jeon, MyounggunLim, SeungguLee, DongYoung
The author has been conducting research on UV based photocatalytic air purifier systems for the past 5 years to eliminate living organic germs, bacteria, pathogens, etc. from the cabin air. An HVAC system has been developed by using a filter impregnated by titanium di-oxide (TiO2) with UV lights to improve and maintain cabin air quality. The designed system can be used for conventional vehicles, EVs, ride sharing and for autonomous vehicles. The author has designed and constructed a 3rd generation HVAC unit for cabin air purification for automobiles that is based on UV photocatalytic process by using UV-C LEDs to eliminate viruses that typically exist in conditioned space. The author has conducted tests with the following viruses and bacteria that are typically encountered in a conditioned environment: (i) Staph Epidermititus: Infections in wounds (Anthrax) (ii) Erwinia Herbicola: Bacteria (Infection in soil and water) (iii) MS2: RNA, COVID-19 (iv) Phi-174: DNA, Herpes and HIV (v
Mathur, Gursaran
Shaping glass is mainly based on processes such as melting, grinding, or etching. These processes are decades old, technologically demanding, energy-intensive, and severely limited in terms of the shapes that can be realized. Researchers have developed a process that makes it possible to form glass easily, quickly, and in almost any shape using injection molding. The process combines polymer and glass processing, effectively replacing both mass-produced products and complex polymer structures and components with glass
Weight reduction in automotive applications have led to the processing of thermoplastic polymers by foam injection molding. The density of the foamed polymer can be reduced up to 20%. Whilst, work has been reported on the weight reduction of the foamed polymer by using different types of blowing agent technologies, there has been limited studies in the areas of the sound transmission loss and sound attenuation properties of these materials. The present study is intended to understand the effect of chemical blowing agent (CBA) on the properties of polypropylene. The molded specimens were characterized using density, Differential scanning colorimetry (DSC), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR) and sound transmission loss (STL) measurements. Specimens were also tested for tensile properties, flexural properties, Izod impact strength and Heat deflection temperature (HDT) as per standard test protocol. Cell structures were observed using stereo
Shukla, Sandeep KumarBalaji, K V
Polymers are substituting traditional materials, such as metals, in existing as well as new applications, both for structural and aesthetic applications as they are lightweight, customizable and are easy to mould into complex shapes. With such an extensive use of polymers, there is a need to carefully scrutinize their performance to ensure reliability. This is particularly the case in the automotive and electronic industries where the aesthetic appeal of their products is of prime concern and any visible scratch damage is undesirable. Concern for aesthetics has led to a need for the quantification of visibility due to scratch damage on polymeric surfaces Many painted plastic parts used in vehicles are being replaced with the molded-in color plastics for cost reduction and also due to environmental concerns associated with solvent emissions. There are multiple methods used for scratch evaluation of polymers and paints. With the boundaries of plastics and paints diminishing, there is a
jha, AshutoshHatwalne, MrunalKhan, ShadanPatil, Asha
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