Browse Topic: Crankcase lubricants

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Digital AI Based Formulation Development Platform for Crankcase Lubricants2022-01-10968/30/2022
In lubricating and specialty oil industries, blending is routinely used to convert a finite number of distillation cuts produced by a refinery into a large number of final products matching given specifications regarding viscosity, flash point, pour point or other properties of interest. To find the right component ratio for a blend, empirical or semi-empirical equations linking blend characteristics to those of the individual components are used. Mathematically, the problem of finding the right blend composition boils down to solving a system of equations, often non-linear ones, linking the desired properties of the blend with the properties and percentage of the blend components. This approach can easily be extended to crankcase lubricants, in which case major blend constituents are base oils, additive packages, and viscosity index improvers. Artificial intelligence (AI) tools allow accurate predictions of the basic physicochemical properties of such blends. This allows one to speed up formulation development as the number of test blends and the amount of testing can be significantly reduced. Furthermore, formulation price optimization is possible, taking into account available raw material inventories, shared use of certain raw materials across a number of finished products, etc. There also are tools for price capping that allow blenders to counter risks associated with supply disruptions and price volatility. After completing the “virtual” formulation development, the candidate lubricant properties are fed into the engine tribology simulation block that allows predictions of advanced properties, such as performance in mandatory API and/or ACEA engine test sequences. With the current state-of-the-art, only fuel economy and wear protection can be predicted with sufficient accuracy, for instance the top ring wear (TRW) in Cummins ISM test or Sequence VI FEI. The effect of friction modifiers is factored in using empirical quantifiers for the friction modifier efficacy, depending on which the asperity-asperity friction contribution obtained using the EHD tribology simulations is adjusted. Other difficult to predict properties - cleanliness, cam wear, tappet wear, soot, carbon deposits, etc - require co-processing of large amounts of experimental data and application cases. This is where machine-learning algorithms come handy. In the present communication, the application of AI tools is demonstrated with a focus on ACEA 2021 engine oil development. The AI Formulator Assistant software developed by SBDA using the industry standard CRISP-DM (CRoss Industry Standard Process for Data Mining) platform keeps record of all tests - including failed ones - and uses this information to continuously improve its predictive power.
Zhmud, Boris, Chizhevskiy, Yan, Tomanik, Eduardo, Tormos, Bernardo, Jiménez, Antonio J.
Developing Efficient Motorcycle Oils2018-32-002110/30/2018
Motorcycle OEMs faced with stringent global fuel economy and emission regulations are being forced to develop new hardware and emissions control technologies to remain compliant. Motorcycle oils have become an enabling technology for the development of smaller, more efficient engines operating at higher power density. Many OEMs have therefore become reliant on lubricants to not only provide enhanced durability under more extreme operating conditions, but to also provide fuel economy benefits through reduced energy losses. Unlike passenger car oils that only lubricate the engine, motorcycle oils must lubricate both the engine and the drive train. These additional requirements place different performance demands versus a crankcase lubricant. The drive train includes highly loaded gears that are exposed to high pressures, in turn requiring higher levels of oil film strength and antiwear system durability. Wet starter and drive clutches require specific oil friction profiles for good operation and durability. These friction requirements render wet clutches sensitive to friction reducing additives that would typically be used to improve fuel economy in passenger car oils. The formulating complexity for such shared lubricant applications can be further compounded by a need to deliver these higher levels of performance while complying with physical and elemental restrictions to ensure compatibility with the latest emissions control systems. In this study, the development of emission control system compatible motorcycle oils having improved efficiency while maintaining uncompromised durability will be presented. Performance balance was achieved through a combination of reduced operating viscosity (enabled by enhanced antiwear technology and shear-stable functional polymer technology) in combination with clutch-friendly friction reducing technologies. Significant fuel economy benefits were demonstrated using tribological bench testing in conjunction with proprietary fired motorcycle engine testing. Further proof of real-world fuel economy performance was obtained via chassis dynamometer motorcycle testing using World Motorcycle Test Cycle (WMTC).
Zhang, Yanshi, Hanthorn, Jason, Wilkes, Mark, Chamberlain, Jack, Donnelly, Kieron, Pathak, Satya Prakash, Telang, Kapil, Bhattacharya, Supriyo, Dunfee, Ron
Co-Engineering Durable, Fuel Efficient Engine Oils for Diesel Passenger Cars2013-26-00041/9/2013
Rising fuel prices and global concern over climate change have resulted in the need to deliver vehicles with improved fuel efficiency. The aim is to achieve this without compromising vehicle performance, durability or cost. Passenger car manufacturers worldwide are looking at various ways to optimize fuel economy performance. One option is for a vehicle OEM to re-design engine componentry in an effort to reduce engine friction and thereby reduce tailpipe emissions. There is also an increased focus on the crankcase lubricant as a potential tool to improve engine efficiency. This has led to a close collaborative working model between equipment manufacturers and engine oil marketers to create state of the art fluids capable of delivering higher fuel economy benefits without compromising engine durability. This paper describes a structured approach to the design of an advanced engine oil for a diesel passenger car. The aim of this formulation was to deliver a tangible improvement in fuel efficiency whilst maintaining a high level of engine durability. A carefully designed matrix of crankcase fluids was developed with the intention of investigating the relative effect of key lubricant parameters on fuel efficiency. The fuel economy impact of these formulations was assessed using a vehicle running an industry standard emissions drive cycle on a chassis dynamometer. Selected oils were then taken forward for durability evaluation using an engine test bed. The results of the testing showed that this approach to the design and development of an advanced crankcase lubricant can offer a significant improvement in fuel efficiency without compromising durability when compared to conventional oils.
Symonds, Matthew, Ritchie, Craig, Rai, Raman
In-Service Low Temperature Pumpability: Field Performance vs. Bench Tests2012-01-17089/10/2012
The most important property of the engine oil is its ability to reach all engine parts. Once there, it can build an oil film which protects these parts from wear and ultimately from destruction. No other lubricant property is relevant if the oil cannot be delivered to the critical engine parts. Thus engine oil pumpability, especially pumpability at low temperatures when the viscosity of the lubricant is the highest, is crucially important. The crankcase lubricant industry has recognized this, in requiring good low temperature pumpability for the last three decades. While good low temperature properties of the fresh oils are a necessary requirement for a lubricant, they are not sufficient to ensure the lifetime performance of the oil in the engine. The oil gradually ages in the engine and its properties, including low temperature pumpability, change. A number of bench and engine tests have been developed to predict low temperature pumpability of the aged oils, such as Sequence IIIGA, Romaszewski Oil Bench Oxidation (ROBO) and a new low temperature pumpability test under development by CEC TDG-L-105 group. In this paper we examine the low temperature pumpability of several oils in a modern 2010 emission complaint Heavy Duty Diesel (HDD) engine. We show that good fresh oil low temperature properties such as MRV TP-1 apparent viscosity or gelation index do not guarantee good field performance. We also evaluate a number of bench tests as predictors of field ageing and low temperature performance of the used oils, and we show that while some bench tests exhibit reasonable correlation with the field, not all bench tests can predict failing performance in the field.
Oberoi, Sonia, Goldmints, Isabella
Optical Analysis and Measurement of Crankcase Lubricant Oil Atomisation2012-01-08824/16/2012
Crankcase emissions are a complex mixture of combustion products and, specifically Particulate Matter (PM) from lubricant oil. Crankcase emissions contribute substantially to the particle mass and particle number (PN) emitted from an internal combustion engine. Environmental legislation demands that the combustion and crankcase emissions are either combined to give a total measurement or the crankcase gases are re-circulated back into the engine, both strategies require particle filtration. There is a lack of understanding regarding the physical processes that generate crankcase emissions of lubricant oil, specifically how the bulk lubricant oil is atomised into droplets. In this paper the crankcase of a motored compression ignition engine, has been optically accessed to visualise the lubricant oil distribution. The oil distribution was analysed in detail using high speed laser diagnostics, at engine speeds up to 2000 rpm and oil temperatures of 90°C. High resolution calibrated images show the passive behavior of lubricant oil once it has been supplied to critical engine components. The major mechanisms of oil atomisation have been identified and quantified from high speed images, the generation of oil droplets dp = 10 μm - 3 mm has been captured. The most significant generation mechanism was atomisation of oil films present on the surface of rotating components. The isolated contribution of the crank and camshafts to the atomised oil droplets present in the top of the engine has been recorded. Further breakup, evaporation and condensation from the surface of the atomised oil droplets will generate coarse and fine PM. Results from imaging data show good correlation with sub-micron PN sampling measurements captured in a previous study [1]; namely an increase in particle number concentration with increasing engine speed.
Johnson, Benjamin T., Hargrave, Graham K., Reid, Benjamin A., Page, Vivian J., wagstaff, Stuart
Impact of Biodiesel on Lubricant Corrosion Performance2009-01-266011/2/2009
The global use of biodiesel fuel blends derived from fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) is increasing; driven by legislation derived from political, economic and environmental factors. The presence of FAME biodiesel changes the operating environment of the engine and after treatment devices, affecting the performance characteristics and requirements of the lubricant. As part of a wider research project into the impact of biologically-sourced fuels on crankcase lubricant performance, this paper documents the impact of biodiesel on corrosion-related performance. The effect of FAME biodiesel on lubricant corrosion control and the differences in performance due to FAME source are described. Mechanistic studies into the corrosive nature of FAME are reported. Novel lubricant technologies tailored to control the negative impact of FAME in the crankcase are demonstrated.
Richard, Katherine M., McTavish, Stuart
The Use of Life Cycle Assessment with Crankcase Lubricants to Yield Maximum Environmental Benefit – Case Study of Residual Chlorine in Lubricant2008-01-237610/6/2008
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a methodology used to determine quantitatively the environmental impacts of a range of options. The environmental community has used LCA to study all of the impacts of a product over its life cycle. This analysis can help to prevent instances where a greater degree of environmental harm results when changes are made to products based on consideration of impacts in only part of the life cycle. This study applies the methodology to engine lubricants, and in particular chlorine limits in engine lubricant specifications. Concern that chlorine in lubricants might contribute to emissions from vehicle exhausts of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), collectively called PCDD/F, led to the introduction of chlorine limits in lubricant specifications. No direct evidence was available linking chlorine in lubricants to PCDD/F formation, but precautionary principles were used to set lubricant chlorine limits. To complete this study, the LCA was supplemented by detailed emissions testing from the use and disposal phase of lubricants. Used in this way, it provides a model methodology to determine the optimal method of engine oil specifications to reduce total environmental impact. In the specific case of chlorine limits, the LCA and testing demonstrate that restricting chlorine does not (at least below 259 mgkg-1- the highest level tested in the study) produce lower PCDD/F, and the higher energy costs and reduced frictional performance of low-chlorine dispersants can lead to greater overall environmental impacts.
Dyke, Patrick, Sutton, Mike, Thiele, Terry, Collins, Michael
Design Considerations in Formulating Gasoline Engine Lubricants for Improving Engine Fuel Economy and Wear Resistance Part I: Base Oils and Additives2007-01-414310/29/2007
It is generally accepted that significant gains in fuel economy can be accomplished by reducing friction between the moving surfaces in key engine components (e.g. valvetrain, piston, crankshaft). This paper provides an overview of how specific tribological/rheological properties (e.g. viscosity, volatility, friction coefficient, film thickness, wear volume) can be considered in the design of fuel efficient crankcase engine lubricants that promote high wear resistance. Here, an example in how base stock, viscosity modifier (VM) and friction modifier (FM) can impact the surface friction is given. Friction and wear measurements from bench level lubrication characterization test methods mainly, high frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR) and mini-traction machine (MTM), are presented.
Phillips, Cory B., McQueen, J. Scott, Gao, Hong, Stockwell, Robert T., Hardy, Bryant J., Graham, Mary E.
New Crankcase Lubricants for Heavy-duty Diesel Engines: Effect on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions2005-01-371710/24/2005
The effect of crankcase lubricant on fuel consumption and engine exhaust emissions was investigated. Seven different lubricants were measured in a 9.6-liter bus engine, representing Euro 2 emission-level technology. The measurements were made using six different steady-state load conditions. In addition to fuel consumption measurements, gaseous and particle mass emissions and particle size distribution measurements were performed. The average difference between the worst and the best lubricant on fuel consumption was 1.6%. There was a clear correlation between the viscosity of the lubricant and the fuel consumption. Also, changes in total hydrocarbons and particle mass emissions occurred. The differences ranged between 0.6 to 22%.
Murtonen, T., Sutton, M.
Effect of Oil Drain Interval on Crankcase Lubricant Quality2003-01-195710/27/2003
The average oil change interval for passenger vehicles in the USA is gradually increasing, and is currently approaching 8,320 km (5,200 miles). This paper details the results of lubricant condition monitoring on samples taken from hundreds of vehicles at intervals ranging from 0 to 25,600 km (16,000 miles). The data indicate steady additive depletion by 4,800 to 9,600 km (3,000-6,000 miles), resulting in a concomitant decrease in measured oxidation resistance. Oxidation and nitration of the basestock was also found to be present at this point, resulting in a gradual increase in both kinematic and HTHS viscosity. As a result, it is predicted that excessively long drain intervals will produce a measurable increase in fuel consumption and associated CO2 emissions. Many owners' manuals recommend service intervals of 12,000 and 4,800 km (7,500 and 3,000 miles) under “normal” and “severe” service conditions, respectively. Overall, the data indicate that the majority of passenger vehicles operate under “severe” service conditions. This finding is confirmed by a survey of owners, many of which are unaware that “normal” service does not include stop and go traffic, short trips, etc. However, the data indicate that longer drain intervals are possible for lubricants formulated using synthetic basestocks.
Lacey, P.I., Gunsel, S., Ferner, M.D., Pozebanchuk, M., Alim, A
Lubricant Requirements of an Advanced Designed High Performance, Fuel Efficient Low Emissions V-6 Engine2001-01-18995/7/2001
Modern high power density gasoline fueled engines place an ever-increasing demand on the engine lubricant. In this study, it is shown that advances in engine design to increase performance, improve fuel economy and lower emissions have outpaced the development of typical commercial engine lubricants. Advanced designed engines began to experience oil starvation as a result of a combination of driving cycles, oil quality and poor maintenance practices. The cause was traced to excessive increases in borderline pumping viscosity as measured by MRV TP-1 (ASTM D4684). Used oil analysis for MRV TP-1 showed viscosity greatly increased in excess of stay-in-grade requirements and in many cases the crankcase lubricant was solid at the temperature appropriate for its viscosity grade. However, at the same time CCS values were in grade or only slightly (1W grade) elevated. An investigation examining used oil showed high levels of oil oxidation and nitration to be the primary forces at work in degrading the engine lubricant. Formulating solutions were investigated and the outcome of that work will be discussed. An aggressive field trial was conducted to show proof of performance of the optimized reformulated engine lubricants and the results are presented. Finally, there is discussion of further work to be conducted and a proposal for a new sequence test to address oxidation, nitration, piston deposits and pumpability for the next ILSAC category (GF-4).
Batko, Michael, Florkowski, Dennis, Ebeling, Victoria, Geibach, Rolf, Williams, Lewis
Low Temperature Rheological Properties of Aged Crankcase Oils2000-01-294310/16/2000
The low-temperature pumpability of engine oil throughout the engine at startup is an important property. Insuring that fresh oils can be pumped at low temperatures has been a requirement of crankcase lubricants for approximately two decades. Extending the assurance of the oil's low temperature pumpability as it ages under engine operation has been the concern of car manufacturers and lubricant marketers for some time. In order to determine the factors influencing the aged oil's low temperature pumpability, we have undertaken a fleet test. We found that as lubricants are aged, excellent low temperature pumping properties can be maintained if lubricants are formulated with viscosity-index improvers incapable of forming polymer networks, base oils with a low tendency to form wax networks, effective pour-point depressants, and if oil drain intervals are not extended beyond the performance limitations of the specific lubricant category.
Batko, Michael A., Florkowski, Dennis W., Devlin, Mark T., Li, Shoutian, Eggerding, David W., Lam, William Y., McDonnell, Thomas F., Jao, Tze-Chi
Review of Organic Friction Modifiers - Contribution to Fuel Efficiency?2000-01-17926/19/2000
Friction modifiers have been around for many years. Originally, the application was for limited slip gear oils, automatic transmission fluids and multipurpose tractor fluids. Since fuel economy became an international issue, initially to reduce crude oil consumption, friction modifiers have been introduced into automotive crankcase lubricants as well. The current emphasis is to improve the fuel efficiency through the engine lubricant and to reduce emissions to the environment. This paper describes the chemistry of the various organic friction modifiers as well as the non-organic types. A basic understanding is given on the mechanisms how and why these products work as friction modifiers and what is known about structure - activity relationships. Definitions are given about the various lubrication regimes as well as figures to what extend these regimes are present in current engine tests measuring fuel economy. In addition, it is described which type of friction modifiers is most active in the various lubrication regimes. Factors influencing the friction reducing properties, like base fluid characteristics and competing additives, are covered and appropriate tests to measure frictional properties are described. Finally, some recent work regarding the effect of some friction modifiers on frictional levels, determined with a pin-on-ring tribometer, is shown.
Kenbeek, Dick, Buenemann, Thomas, Rieffe, Han
Development of Improved Arctic Engine Oil (OEA-30)1999-01-15235/3/1999
U.S. Army arctic engine oil, MIL-L-46167B, designated OEA, provides excellent low-temperature operation and is multi functional. It is suitable for crankcase lubrication of reciprocating internal combustion engines and for power-transmission fluid applications in ground equipment. However, this product required 22-percent derated conditions in the two-cycle diesel engine qualifications test. Overall, OEA oil was limited to a maximum ambient temperature use of 5°C for crankcase applications. The technical feasibility of developing an improved, multi functional arctic engine oil for U.S. military ground mobility equipment was investigated. The concept was proven feasible, and the new oil, designated as OEA-30, has exceptional two-cycle diesel engine performance at full engine output and can be operated beyond the 5°C maximum ambient temperature limit of the MIL-L-46167B product. Multi functional requirements of OEA-30 were achieved by including selected portions of Allison Transmission Division C-4 and Caterpillar TO-4 specifications. Performance specification, MIL-PRF-46167C, for improved arctic engine oil was issued.
Frame, Edwin A., Yost, Douglas M., Villahermosa, Luis A., Bowen, Thomas C.
Experimental and Simulation Approaches to Understanding Soot Aggregation1999-01-15165/3/1999
During 1998, the US Federal authority introduced a requirement for vehicles powered by heavy duty diesel engines that NOx emissions shall be less than 4 g/bhp.h. This represents a 20% reduction over current levels and has prompted significant further hardware changes. As a result of these increasingly tighter NOx emission constraints, soot loading of diesel engine lubricants - due to retarded fuel injection, is becoming an ever more significant issue in crankcase lubricant formulation. For this reason, increased understanding is required of the mechanism of soot particle aggregation and resultant aggregate morphology - together with the likely consequences for the performance of soot-laden lubricants, for viscosity increase, filter blocking, sludging and (directly or indirectly) - soot-induced wear. We describe here a combined experimental and simulation approach to screening formulated lubricants and characterising soot aggregate structures. By using transmission electron microscopy combined with image analysis we can characterise the aggregate structures from soot-laden engine oils (e.g. Mack T-8 and Cummins M-11 tests) in a two dimensional imaging approach. Utilising carbon black-loaded fresh oils, we have extended this to a screening technique. To provide further understanding, we have developed a convenient two dimensional simulation model which uses the essentials of the diffusion limited cluster aggregation (DLCA) approach. This has been modified to allow for variable levels of colloidal stability in the primary soot particles. The simulation model is lattice-based, so computationally efficient and can allow for particle or cluster aggregation under a variety of particle loading regimes and in conjunction with variable levels of particle colloid stability. With the simulation model and experimental data, we can begin to understand such factors as dispersant architecture variables and soot loading rate influences on aggregate morphology and their effects on dispersion viscosity development in the lubricant.
Wedlock, David J., Shuff, Phillip, Dare-Edwards, Martin, Jia, Xiaodong, Williams, Richard A.
Lubricating Oil, Internal Combustion Engine, Military Combat/Tactical ServiceJ2359_199811 (Historical)11/1/1998
This SAE Standard covers engine military oils suitable for lubrication of reciprocating internal combustion engines of both spark-ignition and compression-ignition types, and for power transmission fluid applications in combat/tactical service equipment (see 7.1). This document is equivalent to MIL-PRF-2104G when all requirements are met.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Lubricating Oil, Internal Combustion Engine, Preservation Break-InJ2361_199811 (Historical)11/1/1998
This SAE Standard covers military engine oils suitable for preservation, break-in, and lubrication of reciprocating internal combustion engines of both spark-ignition and compression-ignition types and of power transmission fluid applications in equipment used in combat/tactical service (see 7.1). This document is equivalent to MIL-L-21260 when all requirements are met.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
The Effect of Lubricant Composition on Vehicle Exhaust Emissions97293010/1/1997
The effect of lubricant composition on vehicle exhaust emissions has been investigated. Emissions from two vehicles were measured when lubricated with four different crankcase lubricants. All emissions tests were performed with California Phase II gasoline over the FTP-75 cycle. The lubricants tested were a conventional mineral oil based lubricant, poly-alpha olefin (PAO) based lubricant, hydrocracked based lubricant and a Volvo first fill lubricant. The first three lubricants were designed to have similar high temperature viscosities whilst using the same additive package. This meant that there were some small differences in the low temperature viscosities. This resulted in the two mineral oil based lubricants being 10W-30 grades and the PAO and hydrocracked based lubricants being 5W-30 grades. The two test vehicles used were both Volvo 850 vehicles, however one was a European specification vehicle and the other a Californian TLEV. The European vehicle was equipped with a five cylinder 2.0 litre engine. The TLEV was powered by a five cylinder 2.5 litre engine, and was fitted with a secondary air pump and small volume starter catalyst immediately upstream of the main catalyst. This additional hardware enabled the TLEV to achieve rapid catalyst light off. Each vehicle/lubricant combination was tested a minimum of four times. Lubricant composition had no effect on the emissions of total hydrocarbons, non-methane hydrocarbon, non-methane organic gases, speciated hydrocarbons or carbon monoxide. NOx emissions from both vehicles were affected by lubricant composition, with the NOx emissions from the TLEV being more sensitive to compositional changes in the lubricant. The PAO and hydrocracked lubricants gave lower NOx emissions, by up to 29%, compared to the mineral oil based products. These reductions can be explained by small differences in the tailpipe mixture strengths.
Bennett, Paul J., Copp, David E., Linna, Jan-Roger, Målberg, Henrik
Understanding Soot Mediated Oil Thickening Through Designed Experimentation Part 4: Mack T-8 Test9716935/1/1997
Fundamental knowledge investigations of soot-lubricant interactions continue. In earlier work [1-2], we examined the impact of formulation variables, engine type and mode of engine operation on the formation and nature of diesel soot and its interactions with the crankcase lubricant. Three types of North American heavy duty diesel engines were utilized: Mack EM6-285, GM 6.2L and GM 6.5L. Experiments identified additive compositions capable of providing good viscosity and wear control. Furthermore, we identified soot agglomeration, rather than amount of soot, as the phenomenon responsible for roller follower wear at low dispersant levels. Oil thickening results from the level of soot contamination, in combination with the “state” of the soot. The latter is noticeably affected by the lubricant dispersant level. Part 4 of our studies examines the impact of oil composition on a fluid's ability to handle soot in the Mack T-8 Test. A statistically designed experiment was used to examine the effects of dispersant level, dispersant type, antioxidant level, and detergent metal type on viscosity growth and other selected responses. Our studies identified dispersant type and level as key factors in controlling viscosity increase, pentane insolubles, size of soot particles and stability of soot particles in the used oil. We found that oil thickening has a complex dependence on soot, oil composition and oil sump temperature. No oil oxidation products were detected. We also examined the effect of our matrix factors on rocker cover sludge, oil consumption, filter plugging and filter mass, as well as on TBN decrease and wear metal contamination of the lubricants.
Bardasz, Ewa A., Carrick, Virginia A., George, Herman F., Graf, Michelle M., Kornbrekke, Ralph E., Pocinki, Sara B.
Crankcase Lubricants for Natural Gas Transportation Applications96192010/1/1996
The conversion of spark ignited and compression ignited engines to run on natural gas is established technology Engines have also been designed and built specifically for natural gas These engines have been used primarily in stationary applications with relatively constant operating conditions More recently, environmental pressures and economic considerations have made the use of natural gas attractive for transportation applications The urban transit bus population is particularly well suited to compressed natural gas fueling The basic engine designs for stationary natural gas service and conventionally fueled (diesel and gasoline) transportation service are similar Differences in operating conditions and maintenance practices have resulted in two distinct lubricant product groups Stationary natural gas engine lubricants tend to be high viscosity monograde formulations with a low ash content Lubricants for conventionally-fueled transportation applications are frequently multigrades with considerably higher ash content The lubricant needs for natural gas in transportation applications may not be adequately met with the lubricant product groups widely usable for stationary natural gas or conventionally fueled transportation Lubricant products have been designed to combine features identified as desirable for natural gas fueling and the needs of transportation usage The performance of these products is supported by laboratory engine data
Chamberlin, W. B., Curtis, T. T., Smith, D. M
Understanding Soot Mediated Oil Thickening Through Designed Experimentation - Part 2: GM 6.5L96191510/1/1996
In our earlier work [1], an investigation was conducted to study lubricant formulation effects, engine type and mode of engine operation on the composition and nature of diesel soot and its interactions with the crankcase lubricant. Tests were run in two types of heavy duty diesel engines the Mack EM6-285 and the GM 6.2L. Part 2 studies the impact of oil composition on the surface and bulk chemistry of soot and on the ability of the fluid to handle soot produced in the GM 6.5L engine. The study also determined what portion of lubricant viscosity growth is related to bulk oil oxidation versus soot contamination. A statistically designed experiment was developed to examine the effects of dispersant level dispersant type, antioxidant level, and detergent metal type on average roller follower shaft wear, viscosity growth and other measured responses. The effect of run order on these measurements is also studied. Key results of this study are as follows. Higher levels of dispersant were associated with lower wear. No oxidation products were detected in the drain oils. Engine run order was associated with increases in many measured parameters, such as end of test (EOT) soot level and oil consumption. Roller follower shaft wear did not show this same trend, thus refuting the theory that wear is directly related to the amount of soot contamination in the lubricant. A new theory is proposed, that soot agglomeration, rather than the amount of soot, is responsible for roller follower shaft wear. Oil thickening results from the level of soot, in combination with the “state of the soot in the oil. The latter is noticeably affected by the dispersant level present in the oil.
Bardasz, Ewa A, Carrick, Virginia A, Ebeling, Vikki L, George, Herman F, Graf, Michelle M, Kornbrekke, Ralph E, Pocinki, Sara B
Effects on Resources and Environmental Impact by Modern Fuels and Lubricants95183510/1/1995
The principal targets for engine, fuel and lubricant R & D have always been quite similar like improving customer satisfaction or minimising the environmental impact. But the development processes went on nearly independent from each other. As environmental limitations in future legislation will be tightened further, it becomes increasingly important to regard the system Engine-Fuel-Lubricant as a tripartite unit which must be kept in optimal balance. This principle is the basis for rational use of resources in reaching a well defined environmentally benign target. Following this principle, in Austria a new, sulphur reduced diesel fuel with a multi purpose performance additive package in combination with a special crankcase lubricant for passenger cars was introduced recently. To optimise costs and results both developments were carried out hand in hand under careful consideration of current and future engine technologies.
Baumann, W., Buchsbaum, A., Zeiner, W.
ENGINE OIL TESTSJ304_199503 (Historical)3/1/1995
The purpose of this SAE Standard is to describe test conditions and performance evaluation factors for both diesel and gasoline engine tests. Specifically, the tests described in this document are used to measure the engine performance requirements for engine oils described by the API Service Categories described in API Publication 1509, ASTM D 4485, SAE J183 and SAE J1423 standards, and U.S. military specifications.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Some Aspects of Biodegradability of Lubricating Oils9510242/1/1995
Brief consideration has been given for a need of development of environmentally friendly lubricants. Different biodegradation testing methods have been described. Using three selected methods (in water, in soil and BOD) the biodegradability of some base esters as well as mineral and synthetic crankcase lubricants has been examined. Among a range of tested commercial crankcase lubricants the biodegradability of synthetic oil based on esters has been found to be the greatest.
Gawrońska, Halina, Górski, Wiesław, Ostaszewski, Włodzimierz R.
Predicting Viscosity-Shear Relationships of VI Improved Lubricants94202510/1/1994
The majority of crankcase lubricants are now formulated to contain polymeric additives to improve the viscosity temperature properties to provide a better lubricating film in the various bearing systems in an internal combustion engine. These VI (viscosity index) improved lubricants are non-Newtonian under the high shear conditions that exist in most automotive bearing systems. The conditions of interest range from starting the engine at temperatures of as low as -40°C to operating the engine at normal operating conditions including bearing temperatures of 150°C or higher. This paper presents a method for predicting the viscosity shear relationship for a series of SAE multigrade engine oils as a function of temperature and shear stress. The method is demonstrated using three types of polymeric VI improvers currently used in SAE multigrade engine oils. The polymer types include olefin copolymers (OCP), polymethacrylates (PMA), and styrene-isoprene copolymers (SI).
Chen, C. I., Wu, P., Duda, J. L., Klaus, E. E.
Extension of the Temperature and Shear Rate Range for Polymer Containing Lubricants Using the Cannon HTHS Capillary Viscometer93269510/1/1993
The Cannon High Temperature High Shear (HTHS) capillary viscometer is currently used in the ASTM D4624 procedure to measure the viscosity of polymer containing lubricants at 150°C and shear rate of 106 sec-1. An expansion of the utility of this Cannon instrument is described in this paper to cover the temperature range of lubricants from 35 to 175°C and shear rates of up to 106 sec-1. A finite difference model is used to solve the transport equations for capillary flow at each temperature. The solution accounted for temperature, pressure, non-Newtonian and kinetic energy effects on viscosity. Fitting these data to a double truncated power law model provides the incipient non-Newtonian shear rate γ̇1, the power law index n, and the incipient second Newtonian shear rate γ̇2. All these parameters can be measured at temperatures of around 100°C or less. The n and γ̇2 were found to be regular functions of temperature while γ̇i is always in the measured range. The behavior of typical polymer containing multigrade crankcase lubricants fit this model thus providing an accurate measure of viscosity at 150°C and 106 sec-1 shear rate and allowing for an accurate prediction of viscosities at temperatures of 150 to 175°C and 107 sec-1 shear rates.
Bala, V., Klaus, E. E., Duda, J. L., Palekar, V.
ENGINE OIL TESTSJ304_199306 (Historical)6/1/1993
The purpose of this SAE Standard is to describe test conditions and performance evaluation factors for both diesel and gasoline engine tests. Specifically, the tests described in this document are used in the requirements for engine oils in U.S. military specifications, as well as in the API Engine Service Classification system described in API Publication 1509, and the ASTM D 4485, SAE J183, and SAE J1423 standards.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Four-Ball Wear Studies of Steel-on-Steel, Steel-on-Ceramic and Ceramic-on-Ceramic Bearing Systems9301603/1/1993
Sequential four-ball wear tests have been used to evaluate automotive crankcase oils for use as heavy-duty hydraulic fluids and automotive crankcase lubricants. This test technique has been adapted for use with steel-on-steel, steel-on-ceramic and ceramic-on-ceramic bearing systems. In addition to the conventional “run in” and “steady-state” wear studies, the data produced have been used to interpret bearing unit load levels for the various bearing systems involved. The data produced show that in many cases hybrid bearing systems (steel-on-ceramic) and ceramic-on-ceramic bearing systems may be useful at higher unit loadings than the conventional steel-on-steel systems. These studies focused on achieving low boundary lubricated wear rates. The bearing unit loadings were obtained from the unit bearing pressures after the “run in” of the specific bearing system.
Chen, C. I., Li, H., Klaus, E. E., Duda, J. L.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINE OILSJ357_199106 (Historical)6/1/1991
This SAE Information Report reviews the various physical and chemical properties of engine oils and provides references to test methods and standards used to measure these properties. It also includes general references on the subject of engine oils, base stocks, and additives.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
ENGINE OIL TESTSJ304_199102 (Historical)2/1/1991
The purpose of this SAE Standard is to describe test conditions and performance evaluation factors for both diesel and gasoline engine tests. Specifically, the tests described in this document are used in the requirements for engine oils in U. S. military specifications, as well as in the API Engine Service Classification system described in API Publication 1509, and the ASTM D 4485, SAE J183, and SAE J1423 standards.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
A Modified Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test (TFOUT) for the Evaluation of Lubricant Stability in ASTM Sequence IIIE Test90212110/1/1990
A modified thin-film oxygen uptake test (MTFOUT) has been developed for use with oils for the ASTM Sequence IIIE test. The thin-film oxygen uptake test (ASTM D4742) was originally developed to evaluate the oxidation stability of automotive crankcase lubricants under conditions similar to ASTM engine sequence IIID test. The test utilized fuel fractions and mixed metals catalysts to simulate the chemical environments in the engine test. Results on reference oils from TFOUT have been shown to agree with those obtained from the ASTM IIID sequence test. Recently, ASTM Sequence IIIE test was developed to replace the IIID. The IIIE defines a new oil category having improved performance in oxidation, wear and deposits. The oxidation severity of IIIE is increased by using smaller oil charge and increased blow-by to oil charge ratio. There are two technical issues with TFOUT: effectiveness in simulating IIIE conditions and the ability to rank oils containing copper inhibitors with oils that do not. The metals catalyst was reformulated and the fuel catalyst was modified. The new catalyst package appears to be effective in simulating IIIE conditions on a series of reference oils. Validation of the modified TFOUT awaits further user experience.
Ku, Chia-Soon, Pei, Patrick T., Hsu, Stephen M.
ENGINE OIL PERFORMANCE AND ENGINE SERVICE CLASSIFICATION (OTHER THAN "ENERGY CONSERVING")J183_199006 (Historical)6/1/1990
The scope of this document is to outline the joint engine oil classification efforts of API, ASTM, and SAE. The designation, status, and descriptions of the categories are presented, as well as the test techniques and primary performance criteria.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Sequence IID Crankcase Pressure - Investigation of Condenser Plugging by Emulsion Formation8921099/1/1989
The Sequence IID engine test procedure, traditionally used to evaluate the anti-rust performance of lubricants, has also been used to measure emulsion forming tendencies of lubricants. In the IID engine, emulsion collects at the base of the crankcase ventilation breather tube condenser which causes partial plugging and an increase in crankcase pressure. The purpose of this paper is to describe the chemical nature of the emulsion and to elucidate physical factors which have been found to influence emulsion buildup on the lower face of the Sequence IID condenser. The process of emulsion formation was observed in real time using a fiber optic video camera which aided in understanding the influences of condenser face roughness and lubricant chemistry on crankcase pressure. The effect of substituting unleaded fuel for standard Sequence l!D leaded fuel was also determined. Finally, an abbreviated version of the Sequence IID procedure was used in conjunction with proprietary bench-scale tests to suggest formulation solutions that prevent excessive crankcase pressure buildup in the Sequence IID engine.
Salomon, M. F., Galic, M., Jones, R. N., Dix, R. W., Stoffa, J. V., Domonkos, B. D., Covitch, M. J.
ENGINE OIL TESTSJ304_198906 (Historical)6/1/1989
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Field Performance Benefits of World-Class Super Premium Passenger Car Engine Oils86151410/1/1986
The engine dynamometer testing of crankcase lubricants that is required to demonstrate API CC/SF quality fails to provide significant discrimination when applied to oils formulated to far exceed these minimum performance targets. Lubricants with increased levels of dispersancy and detergency (“Super Premium World-class Oils”) have been compared in these tests and also in severe field tests to oils of standard quality API SF or SF/CC quality. All of the standard quality lubricants used as reference oils in this work have given satisfactory field performance in normal service. The severe service conditions in this report are believed to be similar to those encountered by a small but significant proportion of vehicles in the world. The Super Premium products have outperformed the reference oils under both low and high temperature conditions in severe field tests run in North America and Europe. The superior performance was evident in used oil condition, in engine sludge deposit control and in wear protection.
Outten, E. F., Robson, R.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINE OILSJ357_198606 (Historical)6/1/1986
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Balancing Crankcase Lubricant Performance with Catalyst Life84140710/1/1984
Emissions system durability may be influenced by many engine oil formulation variables. Previous studies have suggested that emissions system durability is optimized by high metal/phosphorus ratios. Reducing the level of phosphorus in the engine oils has also been suggested as a means of prolonging the efficiency of the catalytic converter. This paper explores engine oil formulation variables which may influence the efficiency of the emissions system. Phosphorus type and amount are examined as potential catalytic deactivators, as well as detergent metal interactions with the phosphorus. Dynamometer and over-the-road test data are presented which suggest that the volatility characteristics of the phosphorus component in the engine oil may influence the degree of catalyst contamination. To explore fully the many variables, however, will require an emissions performance test.
Chamberlin, W.B., Zalar, F.V.
Determination of the Viscosity-Shear Behavior of Polymer Containing Fluids Using a Single Pass, High-Shear Capillary Viscometer84139110/1/1984
A Penn State, single-pass, capillary high shear viscometer redesigned for use at shear rates up to 106 s−1 and viscosity levels as low as 2 cp. is described. The capability of handling the effects of temperature, pressure and kinetic energy changes of Newtonian fluids over a wide range of shear rates and viscosities has been demonstrated by using a series of capillaries of different lengths and diameters. The non-Newtonian characteristics of polymer containing fluids can be obtained with good precision by using the calibrated high-shear viscometer to determine the difference in flow behavior between a Newtonian and a non-Newtonian oil with similar temperature, pressure and kinetic energy corrections. This modified viscometer has been demonstrated with a series of viscosity index improved oils using VI improvers typical of current automotive crankcase lubricants. The viscosity shear behavior of these polymer blends was determined over the range of 102 to 106 s-1 shear rates at 121°C (250°F) and 149°C (300°F).
Graham, E. Earl, Klaus, E. E., Badgley, R. S.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINE OILSJ357_198405 (Historical)5/1/1984
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Microoxidation Evaluation of Automotive Crankcase Oils83167910/31/1983
The Penn State Microoxidation Tester coupled with gel permeation chromatography and clay column adsorption techniques has been demonstrated to be an effective tool to provide semi-quantitative analysis for automotive crankcase lubricant deterioration. This test simulates engine piston-cylinder zone high-temperature thin-film conditions. Oxidative behavior of a series of ASTM Sequence IIID hot engine test reference oils (with unknown base stocks and additive packages) has been found to be comparable to and consistent with that of a model fluid formulated with a good quality conventionally refined heavy neutral and a simple additive system composed of phenyl alpha naphthylamine and zinc dialkyldithiophosphate. Further simplification of the test procedure for evaluating varnish and deposit formation tendencies proves to be an effective aid in discriminating base oils as well as compounded fluids with a minimum of analytical equipment. High temperature evaluations of a number of commercial multigrade engine oils reveal the slight advantage of synthetic over conventional mineral base oils both in terms of oxidation resistance and volatility loss.
Cho, L. F., Klaus, E. E.
A Field Test Study of Camshaft Wear in a 2.3L OHC Engine and Its Correlation to the Sequence V-D Test83175810/31/1983
A field test was conducted to evaluate the valve train wear performance of new technology crankcase lubricants in 1980 vehicles powered by 2.3L overhead camshaft engines. Three SF/CD 15W-40 oils and two low phosphorus SF/CC 10W-30 passenger car oils were evaluated in commuter service with extended oil drain intervals for 48,000 to 80,000 km. interim wear measurements of the camshaft lobes and camshaft followers were performed throughout the test. All five of the new technology lubricants tested demonstrated good control of valve train wear in this service. These oils also passed the V-D test, thus, the test supports the use of SF wear limits in the V-D test for defining passenger oil quality levels. Wear profiles indicate that camshaft wear rates were significantly higher during break-in and were not particularly sensitive to oil chemistry during break-in. Oils formulated with secondary alkyl zinc dithiophosphate (Zn DTP) wear inhibitors provided significantly better wear protection than two different primary alkyl Zn DTPs. A secondary alkyl Zn DTP demonstrated good wear protection at phosphorus contents as low as 0.07 per cent (w).
Harris, S. W., Zahalka, T. L.
Evaluation of Automotive Crankcase Lubricants by Differential Scanning Calorimetry8212522/1/1982
A LABORATORY BENCH TEST has been developed to examine the oxidation stability of crankcase lubricants using a high pressure power-compensation differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Oxidation induction time measured at 175 °C and 3.62 MPa (525 psia) oxygen pressure was used to rank eight ASTM sequence IIID engine test stand reference oils. The DSC result correlated with the viscosity increase tendencies of the reference oils as determined by the engine tests. The new test method is rapid and requires only microliter sample size for testing with good precision. The method employs a mixture of soluble metal catalysts consisting of lead, iron, copper, manganese, and tin (82%, 7%, 4%, 3.5%, 3.5%) together with a synthetic oxidized high-boiling gasoline fraction. This combination was found necessary to simulate some of the engine conditions and chemistry. Laboratory tests which could assess the performance of lubricants in engines have long been sought. Such tests could be used by lubricant developers to screen lubricants and lubricant formulations, to aid development of products and processes, and to minimize the expenses for engine tests. This paper reports the development of a differential scanning calorimeter test method to evaluate the oxidation stability of lubricants under the ASTM Sequence IIID engine test conditions.
Hsu, S. M., Cummings, A. L., Clark, D. B.
Influence of Crankcase Lubricant Viscosity on Fuel Consumption in a Medium-Speed Diesel Engine8211482/1/1982
The influence of crankcase lubricant viscosity on brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) has been evaluated in two medium-speed automotive diesel engines. An experimental procedure was established using steady-state operating conditions chosen to increase sensitivity of fuel consumption to changes in lubricant viscosity. The experimental procedure was used to evaluate Newtonian and non-Newtonian lubricants. Results show that, as a group, 15W-40 multigrades are slightly better in fuel economy than a SAE 30 single grade. This difference is attributed to temporary viscosity loss with the multigrades. Use of high shear stress viscosity data brings fuel consumption data with non-Newtonian lubricants into line with that of Newtonian lubricants with the same viscosity and accounts for the difference in fuel consumption observed between two multigrades blended with different molecular weight polymers of the same molecular type. A well known friction reducer shows no effect on bsfc. This confirms the predominance of viscosity in determining fuel economy in this engine.
Wall, J. C.
Development and Testing of Crankcase Lubricants for Alcohol Fueled Engines81120310/1/1981
The 1979 decision by the Brazilian government to confirm their plans for widespread distribution of neat ethanol fuel (100%) to reduce petroleum imports prompted many investigations of the effect of the ethanol on passenger car durability. This paper describes results of a program to develop crankcase lubricants suitable for service with ethanol fuel over a wide temperature range. Engine wear at low temperatures was found to be the major problem. A low temperature Sequence V-D (PV-1) test previously developed, provided a suitable environment for lubricant evaluation. Service station oils at the API SE and SF quality levels were developed based on consideration of their wear and corrosion inhibition when emulsified with ethanol. They were found to reduce critical wear parameters in the low temperature V-D test. Although vehicles operating in the warm climate of Brazil do not require all of the protection needed to pass the low temperature test, this work provides a useful start for the development of lubricants formulated for other oxygenated fuels such as methanol. Interest in the latter is growing in several areas of the world where temperatures below freezing are prevalent in the winter.
Chui, G. K., Millard, D. H. T.
Approaches to Extended Oil Drain Intervals in Army Tactical Equipment7809542/1/1978
The Military is interested in the development of multiseasonal extended-drain crankcase lubricants for the diesel-powered tactical fleet. Such lubricants offer potentially large savings in lubricant, logistics, and man-power costs plus they can greatly improve overall fleet readiness. To this end, a series of studies have been examining varying lubricant formulations and engine modifications to identify approaches to extended-drain intervals. Both conventional and synthetic lubricants are being evaluated for future tactical fleet applications. In addition, mechanical modifications to the engine which reduce the oil degradation rates are being studied. This paper not only outlines some of the important findings but also indicates the future direction of this activity.
Owens, E.C., Lestz, S.J., Quillian, R.D., McCormick, H.E.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINE OILSJ357A_197711 (Historical)11/1/1977
Fuels and Lubricants TC 1 Engine Lubrication
Engine Oil Pumpability and Related Properties7304802/1/1973
A bench test has been developed to simulate the ability of engine crankcase oil to flow from the sump to the pump inlet. The design of the system is geometrically equivalent to that found in a Chevrolet 230 CID L-6 engine. A number of crankcase lubricants have been evaluated in the rig to determine the effects of V.I. improver chemistry, soak time, fuel diluent content, and pour point on pumping rig delivery. In a more detailed phase of this study, the cold flow properties of 10 commercial oils have been compared to pumping rig results obtained at -20 and -30°F. The data suggest that the Brookfield viscometer is a more reliable indicator of oil pumpability than the GM pour time, CCS viscosity, or ASTM pour point.
Nolf, A. R.
Radioisotope Reveals Behavior of Lubricants in Two-Stroke Cycle Engines7204502/1/1972
Studies have been conducted for determining the distribution of the lubricant in a crankcase scavenged two-stroke cycle engine. Presently, it is not obvious how newly supplied oil reaches each engine part and how it leaves the engine through the exhaust gas. Furthermore, it is desirable to know what percent of the supplied oil is exhausted during the scavenging period and what percent is burned in the combustion chamber with the gasoline. Three different lubrication systems were studied utilizing radioisotopes: premixed fuel and oil; manifold supply system for the oil; and crankcase supply system for the oil. The lubricating oil was tagged with tritium. The lubricating oil behavior in the crankcase scavenged two-stroke engine has been investigated within the limited operating condition of these tests. The tests show that almost all supplied oil was exhausted within one hour, and the remainder was exhausted gradually. With the premixed supply system, the oil supplied to the engine is exhausted through the exhaust system more rapidly than when the separate lubrication supply system is used. Thus, in the separate supply systems-the manifold supply and crankcase supply systems-the amount of oil remaining in the engine is greater and the residence time longer than that of the premixed supply system for the same engine operating conditions. Consequently, superior lubrication characteristics can be expected with the separate lubrication systems for crankcase scavenged two-stroke cycle engines.
Kohayakawa, Takashi, Hirai, Yoshimi, Ogawa, Tsugio, Suzuki, Eizi
Some Effects of Exhaust Gas Recirculation Upon Automotive Engine Intake System Deposits and Crankcase Lubricant Performance7101422/1/1971
With control of oxides of nitrogen from automobile exhaust scheduled for 1971 in California, and expected to be applied nationwide in the future, the recirculation of exhaust gas appears promising as a method of lowering NOx emissions. This paper discusses work done to evaluate effects of exhaust gas recirculation on intake system cleanliness and crankcase lubricant performance. Intake system effects were evaluated with respect to the formation of deposits in the carburetor, intake manifold and ports, and intake valve tulips. Crankcase lubricant performance was evaluated with respect to both low-temperature deposition and high-temperature oxidation and copper lead bearing corrosion characteristics.
Gerber, A. F., Smith, R. G.
Spectrometric Analysis of Used Oils6907762/1/1969
This paper discusses the techniques and diagnostic significance of atomic absorption, atomic emission, and infrared spectrometric analysis of crankcase lubricants, with the use of supplementary data where pertinent. The parameters affecting used oil analytical data are discussed in terms of examples from Army general purpose vehicle test engines. Wear metals in used gear oils are also discussed and examples are given. Analytical methods and their applications are fully described, and the equipment and procedures for infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography techniques are outlined.
Stavinoha, L. L., Wright, B. R.
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