Browse Topic: Energy consumption

Items (3,093)
The range energy consumption testing of electric vehicles is usually completed in an environment where the environmental chamber and chassis dynamometer are built. The vehicle is bound to the chassis dynamometer to simulate the range performance on a real road, and the vehicle's fixing method is particularly important, as it even affects the test results. In order to investigate the impact of vehicle fixation as a key testing factor on the range test results of electric vehicles, this study conducted comparative experiments using rigid fixation test vehicles at different positions. By relying on a chassis dynamometer to simulate road resistance and following the Chinese Light Vehicle Test Code (CLTC-P), a range test is conducted on the same electric vehicle under strictly controlled environmental conditions. The experiment collected data on endurance mileage, total energy consumption, and segmented energy consumption. By comparing the differences in simulated resistance and electric energy change trends of chassis dynamometer under different binding methods of test vehicles during the test process, the comprehensive energy consumption results were different. The results showed that the rigid fixation at different positions significantly affected the sliding results of the test vehicle chassis dynamometer, leading to differences in the comprehensive endurance energy consumption results. The comprehensive endurance mileage difference reached 24 kilometers, and the comprehensive energy consumption difference reached 4Wh/km. This study reveals potential sources of system bias in laboratory testing and analyzes the impact of vehicle fixation methods on comprehensive range energy consumption results. The research conclusions can provide a theoretical basis and empirical reference for improving the current standards for energy consumption and range testing of electric vehicles, and enhancing the accuracy and reproducibility of test results.
Zhou, MengJiang, ZhijieGeng, Peilin
The heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems are one of the main factors that contribute to the building’s energy usage. Achieving an effective balance between reducing energy use and maintaining acceptable thermal comfort is the key challenge in conventional HVAC systems. To overcome this challenge, integrating the occupant-centric controls coupled with digital twins into HVAC systems is another potential technique for this effective balance. For this purpose, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) offers the potential, in combination with other surrogate models for real- time applications to enhance the system's performance further. In general, the CFD is applied to investigate indoor airflow/temperature distributions. These are essential for occupant health, comfort, and energy optimisation for the HVAC design state. The objective of this study is to propose an initial step toward building an occupant-centric HVAC digital twin by validating a CFD model of an office against dense in-situ sensing data. The model has been used to resolve airflow and temperature stratification under conventional HVAC operations, using ANSYS Fluent. The boundary conditions have been derived from measured supply parameters, internal gains, and local weather conditions. The results from this study show that the air velocity and temperature at selected durations follow the same trend with low errors, compared to the sensing and measurement data. The model validation from this study establishes the basis for a weather- aware, occupant-feedback digital twin for larger floorplates and multi-zone systems. To achieve the target of the energy and comfort co-optimisation in Industry 4.0-ready buildings, the future work will focus on surrogate modelling to enable near-real-time inference for closed-loop occupant-centric controls, which will directly support dynamic set-point adjustments and multi-zone system ventilation.
Larpruenrudee, PuchaneeHellany, AliFamakinwa, TosinShrestha, SurendraAttwater, RogerCalheiros, Rodrigo Neves
This paper focuses on the parameter matching of key components and the improvement of overall vehicle performance for a certain front-wheel drive pure electric vehicle. Firstly, based on the target performance of the vehicle, the rated/peak power, speed, and torque of the permanent magnet synchronous drive motor, as well as the capacity, voltage, and series-parallel scheme of the LiFePO4 power battery, are systematically calculated. Meanwhile, the gear ratio of the transmission system is determined based on the dual constraints of the maximum speed and the maximum gradeability. Subsequently, the vehicle model is built using AVL Cruise, and the maximum speed, 0-100 Km/h acceleration time, maximum gradeability, and NEDC range are simulated and verified under steady-state and transient conditions. The results show that the maximum speed of the prototype vehicle reaches 139 Km/h, the 0-100 Km/h acceleration is 7.98 s, the maximum gradeability is 33.2%, the power consumption per 100 Km is 12.12 KWh, and the range is 485 Km, all of which are superior to the design indicators. The research verifies the rationality of the proposed parameter matching scheme and can provide a theoretical basis and engineering reference for the forward development of the power system of pure electric vehicles of the same level.
He, YuefanZhang, BaopingTang, ShujianChen, HanbangJin, Biao
The energy management strategy of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is critical to achieving overall vehicle efficiency. Current global optimization methods involve significant computational complexity. Conventional or adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) also presents challenges in robustness and calibration efficiency, as it typically depends on real-time driving condition recognition and online parameter adjustment. To address these issues, this study proposes an engineering optimization framework based on a system efficiency lookup table approach. This method uses offline iterative simulation to determine a globally representative equivalent factor. It pre-computes optimal system efficiency, drive modes, and energy allocation across the entire operating range. These results are stored in a lookup table that the vehicle control unit (VCU) can access in real time. This approach eliminates the uncertainties associated with online optimization. It also provides calibration engineers with a quantitative tool to directly balance competing objectives, such as fuel economy and NVH. The optimized strategy increases the proportion of electric and parallel mode operation. This concentrates engine operating points within the high-efficiency zone and significantly reduces losses from multi-stage energy conversion. Simulations, dynamometer tests, and real-world road tests confirm the strategy’s effectiveness and repeatability. The approach achieves a fuel consumption reduction of approximately 0.2 L/100 km, with all test coefficients of variation (CV) remaining below 5%. The framework demonstrates good extensibility and can be adapted to different architectures, such as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). It offers a universal and efficient engineering solution for optimizing energy consumption in hybrid powertrain systems.
Lin, HaoqiangWang, JinhangChen, LihuaLi, Huan
Innovators at NASA Johnson Space Center, in collaboration with innovators at American Oxygen, have developed a solid-state system and process that separates oxygen from ambient air and compresses the resulting purified oxygen — with a significant reduction in power consumption compared to prior state-of-the-art. It is based upon a proven solid oxide electrochemical oxygen separation and compression technique that derives purified oxygen from ambient air and compresses it using an electrochemical pumping method.
To address the ambiguity in the relationship between design parameters and energy characteristics in pneumatic systems caused by gas compressibility and low viscosity, which leads to design redundancy, this paper proposes a dynamic characteristic characterisation method based on the pneumatic frequency ratio. This aims to establish a correlation mechanism between system energy consumption and dynamic performance. By constructing a nonlinear dynamic model of a double-acting cylinder, the dimensionless aerodynamic frequency ratio (Ω) is defined to characterise the matching relationship between the system’s natural and operating frequencies. Analytical relationships between Ω and key design parameters—such as cylinder diameter and valve sound velocity conductance—are derived, thereby establishing a normalised similarity criterion. Through combined simulation analysis and experimental validation, the regulatory patterns of Ω on the dynamic characteristics of displacement, velocity, and pressure are systematically investigated. Results indicate that under consistent Ω conditions, the normalised dynamic characteristic error across aerodynamic systems with varying parameters can be controlled within 4%. A significant linear correlation exists between the frequency ratio and the amplitude of cylinder chamber pressure differentials, with errors below 3%. The study further reveals that Ω exerts a nonlinear regulatory effect on system responsiveness and stability: increasing Ω enhances dynamic response speed but exacerbates pressure fluctuations, whereas decreasing Ω slows response but improves pressure stability. This methodology provides a theoretical foundation for energy-efficient design, parameter matching, and intelligent control of pneumatic systems, effectively addressing a gap in existing research on energy-dynamics coupling analysis.
Li, MengruDu, HongwangWang, JiajiaYuan, TingtingXiong, Wei
Solar greenhouses in winter or mountainous areas can be at risk of roof snow accumulation, leading to collapse, poor lighting, and sudden drops in temperature. The snow removal technologies presently employed on these greenhouses have the disadvantages of being cumbersome to adjust, being intricately structured, having a high cost, having high energy consumption, and being poorly adaptable to the curvature of the plastic. An intelligent snow removal device for removing snow on a northern solar greenhouse roof, and an automatic alarm safety system were designed to solve the problems. The device consists of a snow-clearing mechanism, a traversing mechanism, and detection-alarm modules. The mechanism for snow removal consists of a crank-slider with a curved guide rail. The snow removal rod is driven by the gear motor, which goes back and forth on the arched top. A bevel gear transmission system drives the gear motor mechanism. Due to this, the transverse mechanism moves with an interrupting jump-action on transverse rails around many different zones. The system for monitoring snow pressure has a distributed sensor that is programmed as a shield using an Arduino software system. The sensors detect the pressure of the snow in real-time. When the snow pressure hits the threshold, it activates the mechanism for coordinated functioning. This mechanism triggers snow clearing when the pressure threshold is achieved to avoid energy consumed through “premature clearing”. It also fits well on the curved surfaces of the greenhouse without any jamming. The snow removal machine’s various components and operations would accomplish full span snow removal and make it possible to overcome high labour intensity, slow manual response, energy waste, and others. The technology can enhance the safety of winter production of northern greenhouse crops and improve the disaster-resistant capacity of modern agriculture facilities. This technology has been granted a patent for invention.
Fu, ChengguoWei, ShanxiangZhang, RongxianDing, XuefengGao, Yulan
The driving cycle is the basic model of certification of vehicle fuel consumption and emissions, or calibration of powertrains. Standard regulatory driving cycles, such as WLTC, in general assume flat roads during their generation and fail to take into account the strong effect that road gradients have on vehicle operation and driving energy consumption. Such a shortcoming, then, leads to gross mismatches in adaptability when used for urban environments with typical hilly topography. To solve this problem, in this paper, we proposed a method for building driving cycles that consider the impact of slope with actual driving data. Initially, high-precision onboard data collectors were used to generate a total sum of 21, 350 km of driving data from the Munich area, thus creating a diversified driving data set with details such as vehicle speed, slope, and environmental information. Subsequently, joint probability distributions of “speed-acceleration” and “slope-slope change rate” are proposed by using the Micro-trip Method, and a novel chi-squared test algorithm is used to obtain a higher fidelity of urban driving cycle representative of typical conditions. Results of the driving cycle results show that the driving cycle built was close to the actual kinematics, indicating a deviation of less than 5%, and can capture the average uphill characteristic of 1.7%, which is quite well represented. Finally, in fact, validation of whole vehicle environmental chamber tests further demonstrates that the energy consumption prediction error of the developed driving cycle is just 2.2%, much lower than 19.1% error of WLTC. It highlights the importance of considering slope parameters in improving the accuracy of energy consumption calibration for an EV operating on complex slope terrains. Furthermore, it underscores that converting the real-world driving data into lab-based driving cycles can reduce the cost and time of actual road tests for Chinese companies going to the overseas markets, thereby offering support for the international marketing strategy of a global database.
Tian, LichenJiang, PingGao, WangLiang, YongkaiMa, KunqiYu, Hanzhengnan
Dual-motor architectures provide additional operating degrees of freedom for electric commercial vehicles (ECVs), but the integration of automated manual transmissions (AMTs) introduces torque discontinuities during gear-related mode transitions. Existing energy management strategies usually focus on steady-state efficiency optimization, while the mechanical feasibility of mode transitions is often considered separately or neglected. To address this issue, this study proposes a topology-aware hierarchical control framework for dual-motor ECVs. The framework combines an offline global efficiency map with an online transition-feasibility arbitration mechanism. In the offline layer, the energy-oriented operating mode and torque split are extracted over the vehicle-speed and wheel-torque domain. In the online layer, a topology-based transition matrix is used to identify mechanically singular mode transitions, and potentially torque-interrupting commands are re-routed through feasible bridge modes. The proposed method embeds powertrain topology constraints into the real-time implementation of an offline optimal map, thereby complementing conventional global optimization methods with transition-feasibility arbitration. Simulation results under the CHTC driving cycle show that the proposed strategy improves torque continuity during mode transitions while retaining most of the energy-saving benefit of the unconstrained efficiency-oriented strategy. Compared with the rule-based strategy, the proposed method reduces SOC-equivalent energy consumption by 10.7%, and recovers 65.5% of the DP-achievable energy-saving potential. Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) results further demonstrate that the proposed online arbitration logic can be executed within the controller sampling period.
Song, DafengChen, LexinZeng, XiaohuaNi, Lixin
The extreme cold environment has a significant impact on the mechanical properties of welded hollow ball nodes, which are crucial components in large-span steel structures. In this paper, based on the comprehensive test data of drum-shaped welded hollow sphere nodes from Beijing Daxing International Airport, a sophisticated finite element model incorporating welding residual stress is established. Through detailed static loading analysis and systematic hysteresis performance studies, the research thoroughly explores the influence mechanisms of low temperature on node bearing capacity, deformation capability, and energy dissipation performance. The investigation reveals that while the bearing capacity of the nodes increases significantly in low-temperature environments, both their plastic deformation capacity and energy consumption performance are notably reduced. These findings provide valuable theoretical references for the design and optimization of large-span mesh frame structures in cold regions, enabling engineers to better account for temperature effects in structural calculations and safety assessments. The results have important implications for improving the reliability and durability of steel structures in extreme cold environments.
Luo, YanzhiJin, Changming
This paper solves the problem of resource and energy constraints on orbit computing for LEO satellites. By combining MADDPG reinforcement learning and Lyapunov optimization, the paper proposes a computing framework and implements an adaptive task offloading model for space flight using a multi-agent deep actor critic algorithm, MADDPG. The joint optimization mechanism is implemented by multi-agent dynamic task offloading. Through the transformation from the state with long-term constraints into optimization of the status of queue stability, the load scheduling under threshold energy in accordance with the characteristics of energy constraints was realized by introducing Lyapunov virtual queues into the process of policy evaluation of deep reinforcement learning. The experimental results show that the proposed framework enables a lightweight preliminary calculation, balanced energy consumption to reduce resource allocation, and realizes the stable queues through adaptability of tasks under energy balance conditions, which can provide high-efficiency computing assistance and support for space orbit tasks such as monitoring remote sensing of Earth.
Yan, MingZhao, LiangXu, LexiZhou, XiaofeiHawbani, AmmarSun, Yunhe
The global trend towards green and low-carbon development is that hydrogen fuel cells, as a new type of green power device, have the characteristics of zero emissions and no pollution. Its basic principle is that hydrogen fuel directly converts chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions, achieving energy conversion between fuel cells and internal combustion engines, thereby providing sustained and stable power. The PEMFC has attracted significant attention due to advantages such as fast start-up times and long lifespans. However, excessive temperature during the reaction process of solid-state hydrogen proton fuel cells can lead to a decrease in efficiency. This article studies the temperature control device of solid-state hydrogen fuel cells and finds that active temperature control technology can achieve precise temperature regulation, but it consumes more energy; the passive temperature control scheme can reduce energy consumption, but the response speed to low-temperature start-up is limited; The application of intelligent algorithm fuzzy PID significantly improves the temperature control accuracy under dynamic loads and effectively enhances the hydrogen release rate.
Ma, YueyueLiu, JingyiShi, JianLu, ZhaonaBao, Xueqin
In order to improve the transportation efficiency of high-speed trains, reduce the operational energy consumption and ensure the on-time arrival of trains, the operation curve optimization is regarded as a key way to achieve the above objectives. In this paper, a distributed control method and system for grouped trains based on multi-objective running curve optimization is introduced. Firstly, the train dynamics equations are established by considering the combined forces during train operation and the train driving maneuvering strategy, combining with the line conditions, and dividing the train operating conditions; secondly, combining with the virtual grouping technology, the train units are kept in a high safety and smooth tracking operation with small intervals between the train units; and then the constraints, such as setting up safety protection distance and Then, the constraints of safety protection distance and space-time safety protection are set, and with energy-saving and comfort as the optimization goals, the multi-objective hiking optimization algorithm (MOHOA) is adopted to optimize the operation curve according to the train's working conditions; finally, the high-speed train tracking and operation system model is considered to have nonlinear and parameter-variable characteristics, and is susceptible to external factors. Finally, considering that the high-speed train tracking system model has nonlinear and time-varying characteristics and is easily affected by external disturbances, a distributed control law is designed for the optimized running curve, and a sliding mode control method is adopted for tracking operation. By optimizing the running curve of the train and realizing the precise protection strategy, the control method established based on the optimized curve can ensure the smooth running of the train while improving the efficiency of railroad transportation.
Jiang, QiqiChen, GuangwuShi, JianqiangWang, DongSi, YongboLi, PengZhang, WentaoYang, Yang
To address the high operating cost of online cylinder pressure monitoring systems for low-speed engines in ships and the limitations of existing alternatives - i.e., the lack of flexibility of the mechanical model under different operating conditions and the lack of physical interpretability of the data-driven model - this study proposes a hybrid-driven based in-cylinder pressure calculation model. Taking the 6EX340EF marine low-speed engine as the object of study, the method first constructs a mechanical model and optimizes the Wiebe function parameters using the Dung Beetle Optimizer (DBO). Subsequently, the mapping relationships between operating parameters, Wiebe parameters, initial compression stage temperature and charge mass are learned by constructing a combined neural network of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Bi-directional Long and Short-Term Memory Network (Bi-LSTM). Finally, the overall calculation of in-cylinder pressure was realized by integrating a multidimensional parametric framework of engine configuration parameters, real-time running inputs and dynamic MAP maps. The results show IMEP R2 = 0.9864 and peak pressure error ≤ 2%, confirming that the model can provide technical support for long-term real-time pressure measurement and closed-loop optimization control based on in-cylinder pressure for marine low-speed engines.
Huang, Jialong
The way we drive has a big effect on how much energy electric cars use, so making better driving habits can help make electric cars use less energy. By utilizing a set of real EV driving data, this paper classifies and analyzes EVs from the perspective of energy consumption, and establishes an intelligent scoring system for EV driving behavior based on a decision tree model. Experimental results show that this method is able to successfully distinguish different driving behaviours and the critical driving behavior factors, such as vehicle speed, accelerator pedal change rate, etc., and braking behavior are identified. Use intelligent scoring to give driver suggestions; this way, they can improve on their driving techniques and lower their energy consumption.
Liang, YongkaiZhang, HaoLiu, YuYu, Hanzhengnan
To minimize energy input and preheating time, this study first analyzed the energy consumption of intake air, lubricating oil, and coolant preheating through simulations. Temperature rise data were collected under various heating parameters. Next, simulations evaluated the hybrid power system’s resistance characteristics immediately after startup and the combustion parameters during the first cycle post-ignition under different temperatures. The temperature thresholds for successful start-up were identified, defining the feasible domain for optimization. Optimization calculations aimed to minimize preheating time and energy input, constrained by maximum preheating power. Results show that intake air heating has the greatest impact on start-up success, followed by lubricating oil heating. It is recommended to increase energy allocation to intake air and lubricating oil heating. This optimized strategy reduces preheating time and energy input by approximately 26% without changing the preheating equipment.
Wei, ShengchenZhao, Zhenfeng
The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) with longer driving range demands high-power charging solutions that are efficient, scalable, and reliable. This work introduces a comprehensive simulation framework for megawatt-scale charging systems, focusing on the integration and control of multiple DC/DC converters. With the primary objective of maximizing overall system efficiency during megawatt-scale charging operations. A multi-agent adaptive control strategy is implemented to dynamically optimize operating points and allocate charging currents across converters in real time so that each participating converter operates at its optimal operating point where the maximum possible efficiency is delivered. This multi-agent adaptive control strategy allocates not only the individual optimal operating points of the multiple DC/DC converters but rather determines the optimal number of participating DC/DC converters at each time instance during the charging session. In addition to that, the strategy provides the option of delivering the optimal charging current during each time instance, so that maximized system efficiency is guaranteed during the charging process. Simulation results demonstrate that even a small efficiency improvement of 0.5% can yield substantial environmental benefits at a scale, where a 10 MW charging park avoids nearly 0.9 GWh of energy use and more than 350 t of CO₂ emissions over 10 years. By fully passing these efficiency gains to customers, charging becomes more affordable without compromising service provider margins, while the resulting climate benefits scale directly with utilization, installed capacity, electricity prices, and system lifetime. The proposed approach enables intelligent supervisory control for next-generation high-power charging stations, combining efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. These findings support the development of modular, resource-efficient infrastructure for future EV ecosystems.
Salah, AliaAbu Mohareb, Omar
The optimization of energy management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles is crucial for minimizing fuel and electrical energy consumption while maintaining the energetic stability of the electrical system. Conventional heuristic, rule-based approaches typically rely on classical optimization techniques and manual calibration by experienced engineers. These methods often suffer from simplified assumptions, sub-optimality, and are increasingly time-consuming given the growing complexity of modern hybrid powertrain architectures. This research proposes a novel methodology for the development of a learning-based energy management strategy (EMS) via deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to transition toward highly automated, data-based, and optimization-based development approaches. The methodology utilizes the Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) algorithm, an off-policy actor-critic method, to train an agent through experiences by interacting with an environment. The environment consists of a backward-looking, quasi-static vehicle longitudinal dynamics simulation model of an exemplary P2 plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) combined with a database of customer-representative driving profiles. The agent learns optimal control policies through defined states and actions, optimizing a multi-criteria reward function that balances fuel efficiency against energetic stability. The framework permits the definition of both non-predictive and predictive states. Additionally, a shield function is implemented to consider hard constraints ensuring safe and stable operation. Variation calculations and sensitivity analyses regarding reward function shaping and hyperparameter tuning are conducted. The agent is trained in an offline simulation environment, and the learned policy of the trained deep neural network (DNN) is transferred into deterministic control maps, applicable to vehicle control units, ensuring interpretability, reproducibility, and compliance with certification requirements. Finally, exemplary simulation results of the DRL-EMS approach are presented and compared to benchmark equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS). In conclusion, the proposed methodology enables a generally valid approach for the development of learning-based energy management strategies towards close-to-optimal strategies while reducing manual calibration effort.
Metzler, SebastianWinke, FlorianJungen, MarioSchmiedler, StefanHofmann, PeterGeringer, Bernhard
In permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) ohmic losses occur in the stator windings. Reducing these losses contributes to a higher efficiency and increases the vehicles range. An effective approach to reduce frequency-dependent AC conduction loss is the use of litz wires. In addition, direct cooling helps to reduce DC conduction loss and winding temperatures. Therefore, this work presents a multiphysical modeling approach of a direct-cooled litz wire winding in a PMSM. It combines loss modeling of the winding with novel thermal and hydraulic calculation methods. AC conduction loss due to skin and proximity effect and DC conduction loss are modeled temperature dependent. Scaled-down conjugate heat transfer simulations are used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between wires and coolant. Additionally, the pressure drop is derived and converted into parameters for use in a porous media model. The derived parameters are used to generate surrogate models to enable computationally efficient predictions. Using the developed methods a case study is carried out. The influence of the number of turns per slot, litz wire diameter and number of parallel litz wires is investigated. In order to isolate the influence of the winding configuration, the geometry of the PMSM and the coolant volume flow remain constant. Performance indicators are energy consumption during a duty cycle, winding mass and pressure drop. Based on this study it is shown that the stator winding design is a multiphysical compromise. The method enables a targeted design of the winding configuration with respect to various objectives and facilitates the assessment of their influencing factors on the overall machine characteristics under conflicting performance requirements.
Blaschke, Wolfgang MaximilianMengoni, LeonardList, AdrianKulzer, André Casal
The electrification of heavy-duty vehicles is a critical pathway toward improved energy efficiency in the freight sector. The current battery electric truck technology poses several challenges to commercial vehicle operations, such as limited driving range, sensitivity to climate conditions, and long recharging times. Estimating the energy consumption of heavy-duty electric trucks is crucial to assessing the feasibility of fleet electrification and its impact on the electric grid. This article focuses on developing a model-based simulation approach to predict and analyze the energy consumption of electric trucks by considering the impact of weather and geographical conditions on vehicle road load and auxiliary components power consumption, as well as the impact these factors have on driving range. Specifically, drayage trucks employed in logistics around maritime ports are used as a case study, with consideration of seasonal climate variations and geographical characteristics at different locations. The article includes results for three major container ports within the United States, providing region-specific insights into the energy requirements and driving range of the electric drayage trucks in these regions, which will inform decision-makers in integrating electric trucks into the existing drayage operations and plan investments for electric grid development.
Shiledar, AnkurVillani, ManfrediLucero, Joseph N. E.Sun, RuixiaoSujan, Vivek A.Onori, SimonaRizzoni, Giorgio
Knowing a detailed operating cycle is critical for developing and testing equipment. Operating cycles can be separated by two clear distinctions: (1) regulatory or non-regulatory and (2) application at the engine-only or full machine level. The Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Nonroad Transient Cycle (NRTC) may be a good representation of engine use in many types of equipment, but there is a gap in standardized and validated drive cycles specifically for nonroad material handlers. Lacking a standardized drive cycle makes it difficult to accurately benchmark machine performance and validate new powertrain technologies. The objective of this investigation is to illustrate the development of a custom drive cycle augmented with real-world customer use data that serves multiple purposes: (1) understand the range of operation and utilization that formulated inputs for electrified architecture analysis and (2) develop a repetitive and consistent maneuver to establish baseline energy consumption enabling equivalent comparison to future electrified prototype builds. This article presents a solution specifically for a 23-ton nonroad material handler in which material handling, machine transport, and extended idle were homologated to form representative short cycles defined by machine velocity and hydraulic cylinder position. The most intensive material handling short cycles had a load factor of 40% and an average fuel rate of 16 L/h. Combined with a visual aid, the short cycles exhibited low variability, having less than 5% root mean square (RMS) error in lift and reach position with respect to the average. The machine’s performance on these short cycles at the Advanced Power Systems Research Center (APSRC) was compared to results from two real-world customer locations operating the instrumented test machine in a cyclical manner, and for similar ground conditions were found to be comparable in fuel consumption.
Czarnecki, AlexanderGoodenough, BryantWorm, JeremyRobinette, DarrellLaTendresse, PhilWestman, John
Large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities for perceiving driving environments and making interpretable, logical decisions for autonomous driving. However, their potential for more comprehensive driving strategies, especially concerning energy efficiency, remains underexplored. Most existing studies primarily focus on driving safety, which may inadvertently increase energy consumption. To address this issue, this study explores the use of LLMs as high-level controllers to jointly optimize driving safety and energy efficiency. A textual prompt is designed for the LLM, incorporating few-shot examples that describe scenarios, states, and actions. The LLM processes the scenario and state prompts describing the surrounding traffic environment. It generates a high-level control signal, which is then translated into low-level vehicle motion commands in a high-fidelity traffic simulator with realistic physics, vehicle dynamics, road slopes, and network topology. Experiments in campus-scale digital twin car-following scenarios demonstrate that the proposed LLM-based framework achieves an average reduction of 4.16% in energy consumption compared to the reinforcement learning paradigm, while maintaining driving safety and providing interpretable high-level decision-making. This study highlights the potential of LLMs for longitudinal eco-driving applications under the evaluated simulation settings, extending previous LLM-based autonomous driving research that primarily focused on safety to also consider energy efficiency.
Wang, HaoyuLi, ZhenningWang, SiyingZhou, ZijingZhang, XiangYang, ZhifengOu, Shiqi (Shawn)Qi, Hao
This paper presents a novel concept for battery electric vehicles (BEVs), referred to as the low-voltage reconfigurable electric vehicle (LVREV). The LVREV is designed to bridge the gap between L- and M-class vehicles by adopting a <60 V multi-phase powertrain combined with a swappable battery system, maintaining the overall vehicle mass below one ton. This configuration enables adaptable driving range, optimized energy consumption in urban environments, and enhanced safety. The LVREV features two distinct operating modes. Frugal mode is intended for urban use and employs a smaller battery pack to maximize efficiency and reduce vehicle mass, while Dual mode is tailored for longer extra-urban trips through the use of a dual-battery configuration. The key innovations of the LVREV concept include a reconfigurable vehicle architecture capable of meeting both urban and extra-urban mobility requirements, thus providing a highly versatile transportation solution. In addition, the low-voltage powertrain improves safety and lowers system costs, facilitating manual battery replacement and compatibility with domestic charging infrastructure. By integrating these technological solutions, the LVREV expands the potential of low-voltage electric vehicles and supports the development of more flexible, efficient, and user-oriented mobility concepts. Experimental and simulation results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed solution and provide initial validation of the reconfigurable powertrain and battery architecture.
Tramacere, EugenioFavelli, StefanoGalluzzi, RenatoTonoli, Andrea
Vehicle fleet decarbonization is a key objective for the coming years, with electrification representing the primary pathway to achieving the targets set by the European Union. The share of battery electric trucks in new registrations has been gradually increasing especially in light and medium size trucks. The replacement rate of diesel long-haul trucks with zero emission trucks is still low due to challenges posed by added complexity and limitations of battery charging. Depot overnight charging is not sufficient to cover the energy needs of a truck covering large distances and careful planning of the route using public charging infrastructure is crucial for an optimized route minimizing extra costs and range anxiety. The current work aims to develop a methodology to propose the optimal charging locations for a given route of a battery electric truck based on nearby stations along the route. Our study uses an open-source optimization algorithm for the fixed route vehicle charging problem coupled with a powertrain simulation model that is used to calculate the energy consumption and the electric range of the vehicles. A variety of constraints, such as initial State of Charge, lowest allowed State of Charge threshold, maximum trip duration, distance deviation, have been implemented in different scenarios from real world locations with a goal to investigate the impact of planning constraints and charging infrastructure in the optimal planning of electric truck routing. The results of our analysis indicate that the integration of an accurate energy consumption calculation model to a route and charging optimisation algorithm can be proven beneficial for minimizing the time penalty due to charging.
Perdikopoulos, MichailDoulgeris, StylianosLivitsanos, GeorgiosKazakis, ThomasMellios, GiorgosNtziachristos, Leonidas
Many high-end electric vehicles use an automatic two-speed transmission. The ability of the drivetrain to switch between two gear ratios improves vehicle performance and increases driving range. The aim of the presented research work is to transfer these advantages to small and lightweight battery-electric vehicles, which face significant cost and weight constraints and therefore cannot rely on highly sophisticated electric motors. Direct-drive systems are widely used in this vehicle class due to their simplicity and high baseline efficiency. However, they offer limited flexibility in adapting the operating point of the electric motor under varying load conditions. A two-speed transmission can overcome this limitation by enabling load point shifting, allowing the motor to operate closer to its optimal efficiency region during both urban and extra-urban driving. This results in improved energy consumption without adding substantial system complexity. Currently, only actuated transmissions are offered on the market, with automation adding a high degree of complexity and representing a major cost driver. Therefore, the focus during the concept development phase was on designing a fully mechanical, self-shifting system to meet the cost pressures of the targeted vehicle classes. Hence, the team at ITnA developed and patented a solution that enables automatic gear changes solely based on output torque, which reflects the motor load and the current driving situation. In the present work, both the operating principle of the technology and the advantages regarding the performance and efficiency of electric vehicles are described. Owing to its simple architecture and the absence of electronics, the transmission is inherently robust and durable, making it a significant contribution to the development of sustainable and affordable e-mobility for the mass market.
Napetschnig, ChristofTromayer, JuergenStückler, David
This work investigates the integration of a Sorption Thermal Energy Storage (TES) into the Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system of electric vehicles. The proposed device reduces the energy demand for cabin heating under winter conditions, leading to a driving range increase. The TES dehumidifies the cabin air through a desiccant bed (zeolite 4A), preventing window fogging, enabling higher air recirculation rates, and consequently reducing the required heating power. An experimentally validated numerical model was used to analyze the adsorption and regeneration processes and to identify suitable operating conditions. Regeneration was found to be effective at moderate temperatures (from 120°C), with a counter-current airflow configuration providing faster and more efficient desorption compared to parallel-flow one. A simplified model integrating TES, HVAC unit and cabin was developed and used to compare different configurations. Heating energy consumption with and without TES under different ambient conditions, passenger loads, airflow rates, and regeneration states was evaluated. Heating energy savings ranged from 19% to 71%, increasing with higher external humidity. Considering the desiccant bed volume, equal to 1.65 L, electric energy savings up to 1.7 kWh L-1 for heat pump systems and 3.3 kWh L-1 for electric heaters were estimated, corresponding to a potential driving range increase of 13.4 km L-1 and 33.5 km L-1, respectively. Preliminary TES tests on a mock-up vehicle confirmed the effective dehumidification capacity of the proposed technology.
Verlingieri, RebeccaCalabrese, LuigiFreni, AngeloMarocco, LucaScudeler, GabrieleDe Antonellis, Stefano
The global transport sector accounts for approximately 30 % of total final energy consumption and 15.9 % of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with road transport alone accounting for the largest share at 11.8 %. Decarbonizing this sector requires energy sources that combine scalable generation from renewable sources with compatibility with various modes of transportation and existing infrastructure. Methanol and ethanol emerge as promising alternative energy carriers that can leverage existing logistics infrastructure while reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Global methanol production reached 112 million metric tons, and global ethanol production totaled approximately 93.5 million metric tons in 2024, compared to more than 2 billion metric tons of gasoline and diesel produced annually. The review assesses production pathways and cost trajectories for both alcohols, evaluates fuel requirements across multiple transport modes, including passenger vehicles, light- and heavy-duty vehicles, maritime shipping, aviation, and rail, and provides regulatory frameworks governing fuel standards in six major markets, the European Union, the USA, Brazil, China, Japan, and India. From a technical perspective, the internal combustion engine is examined in greater detail as the energy conversion system, synthesizing current combustion research on engine performance, emissions characteristics, and cold-start behavior. Current standards predominantly accommodate ethanol blending for spark-ignition (SI) engines in passenger vehicle applications, with permitted concentration limits ranging from 3 % in Japan to nearly pure ethanol in Brazil. Methanol applications remain more limited in road applications. In the maritime sector, recent ISO 8217:2024 specifications and International Maritime Organization (IMO) interim guidelines have established frameworks for the use of methanol and ethanol as marine fuels. Aviation remains the most restrictive sector, with alcohol fuels explicitly prohibited in certified aviation fuels due to material compatibility and safety concerns. To unlock the decarbonization potential of methanol and ethanol in the transport sector, coordinated policy support and continued technological innovation will be essential. As production scales and regulatory frameworks mature, both alcohol fuels may play an increasingly central role in the transition toward sustainable mobility.
Fitz, PatrickFellner, FelixRößlhuemer, RaphaelHärtl, MartinJaensch, Malte
The EU funded innovation project High-Voltage fast-charging Efficient electric vehicle Powertrains (HiVEP) develops innovative technologies for mass-market electric vehicles (EVs) by advancing architectures operating above 800 V. These architectures integrate silicon carbide (SiC)-based power electronics, rare-earth-free electric machines with active winding reconfiguration, high C-rate batteries, and optimized thermal management systems. HiVEP aims to enable fast charging in less than ten minutes, reduce energy consumption by at least 25%, extend the driving range by 20%, and cut system costs by up to 20% in volume production. This article deals in detail with the project objectives, the methodological approach, and the expected key innovations, as well as the technical, environmental, and social impacts. The discussion situates HiVEP within the European research and innovation landscape, emphasizing its role in accelerating adoption of sustainable mobility solutions.
Schernus, ChristofNada, ShadyNeuhaus, ChristophEwald, JensSwierc, DanielKallur-Krishnamoorthy, RajeshVasiliadis, Harilaos
Decarbonization efforts achieved through electrification in nonroad mobile machinery can realize a reduction in fuel consumption of more than 20%, thanks to concepts familiar to light-duty passenger vehicles. This case study compares the results of a hybrid-electric material handler to its conventional counterpart, utilizing machine-specific drive cycles presented in part one of this paper series. The hybrid prototype features an extended-range electric vehicle (EREV) powertrain that demonstrated substantial energy efficiency improvements. Specifically, there was a reduction in equivalent fuel consumption of 75% when operating in electric-only mode, and 33% when maintaining the battery by charging with an on-board generator. Together, the efficiency improvements can be extrapolated over a low-intensity, 8-h shift characterized by significant idle time and highly dynamic engine load for a 47% reduction in net energy consumption. Key technologies that led to this improvement included engine downsizing and decoupling, regenerative braking, and an electrohydraulic pump unit with advanced controls. This study explains details of the powertrain architecture and subsystems that were implemented on a demonstration vehicle, control strategies used to meet project goals, and an analysis of energy consumption from testing on a closed course. Also included in this study is a discourse on comparison metrics that can be used for quantifying the energy consumption differences between hybrid-electric and conventional diesel powertrains in nonroad mobile machinery.
Czarnecki, AlexanderGoodenough, BryantWorm, JeremyRobinette, DarrellLaTendresse, PhilWestman, JohnSubert, DavidHeath, MatthewKiefer, DylanBlack, Andrew
The development of lightweight materials for use in aerospace and automotive applications is extremely significant. Magnesium (Mg)-based alloys and composites are good candidate materials from the perspective of low density, good specific strength, and abundance. The Mg-4Zn alloy is one such alloy, which is a lightweight, biocompatible, and eco-friendly Mg-based alloy. In spite of these advantages, there is a strong need and scope to improve its wear resistance and mechanical properties. Mg-4Zn nanocomposites with Si3N4 reinforcements (a biocompatible bioceramic) are hypothesized to possess superior properties. Microstructural analysis of the vacuum stir-cast nanocomposites confirms grain refinement and a consequent increase in microhardness with an increase in Si3N4 reinforcement wt.%. The addition of Si3N4 reinforcement to improve the properties of the Mg-4Zn alloy could introduce challenges in machining. To make products from the nanocomposites, machining them with minimal subsurface defects with minimal energy consumption under sustainable conditions is necessary. The resultant machining force (Fr) is a good indicator of subsurface quality and energy consumption in machining. To investigate the effect of reinforcement wt.% and machining parameters on the resultant machining force, dry turning experiments on the vacuum stir-cast Mg-4Zn/Si3N4 nanocomposites were carried out based on the response surface methodology-based Box-Behnken design. It is observed that the regression model for Fr is influenced by the reinforcement wt.%, cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut and also their squares and their mutual interactions. Increase in microhardness, variation in porosity, thermal softening, and strain hardening contribute to the variation in Fr. Minimal Fr and hence better subsurface quality and lower energy consumption are obtained at mid values of Si3N4 reinforcement wt.% and cutting speed and low values of feed rate and depth of cut. The developed model is an excellent fit, with R2 and adjusted R2 values of 0.9907 and 0.9799, respectively.
N, AnandShaju, Tony MG, Nagamalleswara RaoD, BijulalK, Jayaprakash ReddyK, VijayanChaman, Joji J
This paper investigates the energy consumption characteristics of series hybrid aircraft with a focus on comparing conventional energy management approaches against an AI-powered optimization framework. The study comprehensively models the energy demands of a series hybrid aircraft across all major flight phases, including Idle & Ground Operations, Taxi, Takeoff, Climb, Cruise, Descent, Approach, Landing, and Rollout & Taxi. For each phase, detailed mathematical formulations are developed to capture power requirements and energy flow, incorporating real-time operational parameters to enhance the accuracy of the energy consumption estimations measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The AI-based optimization leverages advanced control strategies, specifically Model Predictive Control (MPC) and Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms, to dynamically manage the aircraft’s energy systems. MPC is employed to predict and optimize future energy usage by solving constrained optimization problems over a moving time horizon, ensuring efficient energy distribution while satisfying operational constraints. Concurrently, RL algorithms enable adaptive learning from operational data to improve decision-making in energy management, optimizing performance under varying flight conditions and uncertainties. Comparative analysis demonstrates that the AI-driven series hybrid aircraft achieves significant energy savings compared to conventional methods, quantified in both absolute kWh reductions and percentage improvements. These savings are particularly pronounced during overall phases such as Takeoff, Climb, and Cruise, etc. where optimal control of energy flows directly translates to improved efficiency and extended operational endurance. The findings underscore the potential of AI-integrated control systems in advancing sustainable aviation technologies by enabling smarter, energy-efficient hybrid propulsion. This paper provides a foundation for future development of intelligent energy management systems that can be deployed in next-generation hybrid series aircraft, contributing to reduced environmental impact and enhanced operational performance.
Kanchagar, Amogha
Passenger comfort within vehicles and aerospace cabins relies on finely tuned management of temperature, air quality, and energy use. This paper proposes an integrated HVAC framework that combines zonal climate control, intelligent airflow distribution, and real-time sensor data to maintain thermal balance across different cabin zones. Leveraging predictive thermal load modelling and machine learning, the system anticipates environmental changes—such as sudden shifts in external temperature or passenger load—and proactively adjusts heating and cooling outputs. Simultaneously, air quality is enhanced through a multistage filtration system, active air purification technologies, and dynamic CO₂ concentration monitoring. Comfort assessment integrates PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) and PPD (Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied) indices to adapting environmental conditions. Simulations and early-stage prototypes improve energy savings and improve occupant comfort and air quality. The proposed HVAC approach is a promising avenue for enhancing passenger experience and operational efficiency in both ground and air mobility platforms.
Mudavath, Lehitha SaiPatil, AshishSaha, Sudipta
This study presents a torque distribution strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles utilizing a Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient reinforcement learning algorithm designed to optimize energy consumption. By using a simplified architecture and replicable reward functions, the proposed agents rely exclusively on standard CAN bus signals, commanded longitudinal force, and the motors’ velocities, eliminating the need for specialized sensors or complex plant models. Two reinforcement agents are trained using two different reward functions: power-based and State of Charge-based. These agents are validated through high-fidelity CarSim–Simulink co-simulations across soft, medium, and severe acceleration scenarios, in which they demonstrate superior performance to traditional adaptive methods. In the most demanding scenario, a typical adaptive strategy achieves an additional 7.8% of power consumption and 85% of optimal energy recovery, while the proposed reinforcement learning strategies reach 0.6% more consumption and 95% energy recovery during braking compared to the theoretical optimum. These results highlight a practical, reliable solution for maximizing efficiency in dual-motor powertrains without significant computational burden on existing electronic control units.
Meléndez-Useros, MiguelViadero-Monasterio, FernandoLópez-Boada, María JesúsLópez-Boada, Beatriz
In the field of measuring carbon emissions from road traffic, the carbon emission factor method has remarkable advantages in terms of standardization, operational simplicity, and adaptability. Backed by the IPCC international standard framework, this method offers convenient access to a dynamic factor database and incorporates an adaptive adjustment mechanism for real-world scenarios, such as technological advancements and regional disparities. Against this backdrop, this study employs the carbon emission factor method to establish refined measurement models based on load capacity and fuel consumption, respectively. These models are then applied to quantify carbon emissions from trucks on specific sections of the G30 highway in Xinjiang. The load-based model calculates emissions by integrating truck axle weight and driving distance, while the fuel-based model analyzes fuel consumption data in conjunction with driving mileage. A comparison of the two models in terms of measurement differences is also carried out in the research. Furthermore, it provides a granular breakdown of energy consumption data for fully loaded trucks exceeding 31 tons, as specified by national standards. This introduces a novel approach to precise carbon emission measurement in heavy-duty transportation in northwestern China. It also provides a method for establishing an emission mitigation policy that is region-specific on a scientific basis.
Li, MaowenHan, DongchenGao, YansenBai, HaotianDai, Xiaomin
This study focuses on the engineering application and performance evaluation of shipboard carbon capture systems. A process combining amine absorption and membrane separation was constructed, and the combined process was applied to a typical 7000 TEU container ship. After sea trials, the average carbon dioxide capture efficiency achieved by the system exceeded 87%, and the power consumption was maintained within an acceptable range. The integrated system greatly improved the EEXI and CII index levels and verified its economic feasibility in the medium and high carbon price scenario. The payback period of the investment costs was reduced to five years. After port coordination tests, the operability of ship-shore carbon dioxide transfer was verified, which promoted future scalability. The engineering layout, energy recovery design, and operation data worked together to provide a practical solution for maritime decarbonization. This study provides a valuable technical reference for the implementation of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) carbon reduction strategy, and also lays a solid foundation for subsequent legislation and system standardization.
Yang, Yongjian
As the global pursuit of carbon neutrality accelerates, carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technology is emerging as a critical strategic pillar for achieving significant emission reductions and facilitating the transition to green development. This review systematically summarizes the principal technological pathways and recent advances in carbon capture, resource utilization, and storage within CCUS systems, with particular attention to innovative directions including advanced adsorption and separation materials, synergistic catalytic conversion, biological carbon sequestration, and mineralization-based storage. By examining representative engineering practices and industrialization cases both domestically and internationally, this paper summarizes the major challenges currently facing CCUS, including material costs, energy consumption, environmental risks, and large-scale deployment. The positive impacts of interdisciplinary integration, process system optimization, and policy coordination on the commercialization of CCUS are also discussed. The review indicates that overcoming bottlenecks in core materials and process technologies, improving regulatory frameworks and market mechanisms, and establishing clustered industrial ecosystems are essential for CCUS to spearhead the forthcoming low-carbon energy and green industrial revolutions. This paper envisions future development trends for CCUS technology, highlights its multidimensional strategic value for global carbon governance, energy security, and the circular economy, and offers theoretical references and cutting-edge insights for scientific research, policy formulation, and industrial decision-making in related fields.
Wang, Yingfei
Indoor thermal comfort is closely related to people’s health and work efficiency. Control systems typically consume a large amount of energy to maintain a comfortable thermal environment. Currently, reinforcement learning is widely applied to optimize thermal comfort control systems. However, existing research mainly adopts universal thermal comfort evaluation models that aim to satisfy the majority of people, which makes it difficult to quickly and accurately reflect the specific thermal comfort needs of individuals. As a result, the hot environment is neither comfortable nor energy-efficient in practical use. Therefore, this paper proposes an energy-saving personalized thermal comfort control method based on decision trees and reinforcement learning. First, decision tree learning is used to obtain an individual thermal comfort evaluation model from a small amount of historical data. Then, this individual comfort model is combined with energy consumption to form a reward function, which is used in reinforcement learning to derive personalized thermal comfort control strategies. The experiments show that, compared to traditional methods, this approach can improve user thermal comfort by 43.8% and achieve an energy-saving effect of 30.7%.
Li, Xianying
Aimed at the high energy consumption for battery heating of a light hybrid truck in low-temperature winter, this paper proposes an optimized battery thermal management scheme based on motor waste heat and PTC cooperation. Then it verifies its energy-saving performance based on multi-condition simulation and testing. Taking the constant-speed condition at -5°C as an example, firstly, the accuracy of the battery thermal management model is verified by comparative simulation and test. Then, based on the verified model, the battery thermal management model is simulated under typical winter conditions at 0°C and 5°C. The analysis results show that, when the battery temperature is raised from the initial state to a certain target, the energy consumption of the motor waste heat-assisted PTC heating scheme is obviously less than that of PTC heating. The energy saving rates are 33.137% at -5°C, 32.45% at 0°C, and 32.56% at 5°C, respectively. The research results have proved that the effective utilization of motor waste heat can reduce PTC energy consumption.
Meng, ShunZhang, DongZhang, YuZhang, ChunyuYao, MingyaoQiu, LiangQian, Yejian
Addressing issues in traditional hybrid light trucks—such as low overall energy utilization efficiency and performance degradation of key components under extreme operating conditions—this study presents a novel, high-efficiency, integrated vehicle thermal management system. By coupling various subsystems, the system achieves efficient and rational utilization of the vehicle’s overall energy consumption. Comparative simulation analyses were conducted under different ambient temperatures and initial state-of-charge (SOC) levels to verify the reliability of the designed integrated thermal management system. Results show the system can meet the temperature requirements of all components under both high and low-temperature conditions. Meanwhile, findings indicate that ambient temperature and power modes have a substantial impact on the temperature of each component, and there is potential for utilizing motor waste heat. These outcomes provide a reference for the subsequent optimization of control strategies for thermal management systems in hybrid light trucks.
Meng, ShunZhang, ChunyuZhang, YuZhang, DongYao, MingyaoQiu, LiangWu, YadongQian, Yejian
As an emerging innovative mode of public transportation, electric modular buses (EMBs) offer a novel solution to the problems of existing public transportation systems, due to the coupling-decoupling processes. In this paper, we study the energy consumption characteristics of EMBs by joining vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) charging and reduction in aerodynamic drag due to coupling. For the pursuit of energy economy, ride comfort, and operational efficiency, we constructed an optimization scheme based on the simulated annealing (SA) algorithm to facilitate the coupling-decoupling process. The simulation results show that EMBs can meet 82.5 % of service requests compared with 61.8 % for the benchmark group, and V2V presents a significant contribution to energy efficiency, especially at low battery state of charge (SOC). Additionally, sensitivity analysis is conducted to study the impact of initial SOC, operation interval, and route type. The results provide insights for optimizing EMBs’ operations and emphasize the potential role of EMBs in supporting low-carbon and sustainable urban mobility systems.
Liao, PengGuo, JiaheNing, DonghongLi, SijiaWang, Tao
Battery energy awareness is an important aspect of tasking Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) safely and efficiently. By considering energy expenditure during mission planning, flight plans are assigned to the UAS only if there is sufficient energy onboard to complete the mission. In this work, several methods are developed for predicting the energy consumed during a flight, and their accuracy is assessed. Three simulation-based models derived from momentum-theory, blade-element theory, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are considered in addition to two data-driven models derived from flight test data (linear regression and Kriging), and four multi-fidelity models (Optimized Kirchstein, Hover-corrected, Additive Bridge, and Predictor-Corrector). Each model is used to predict the energy consumption of a representative mission and their predictions are compared to the measured energy consumption. From this analysis, it is found that a linear regression model trained on flight test data is able to deliver predictions within 3% of the measured value and outperforms other simulation-based and multi-fidelity models despite a simple architecture. The high level of accuracy and low computational requirements make this linear regression model desirable for energy-aware mission planning and energy-leash computations.
Healy, RichardNikolov, Daniel
The organizers of the most prominent Formula Student competitions have recently initiated a preliminary feasibility study on the application of hydrogen-based propulsion technologies in future single-seater race vehicles. These include electric powertrains with electrochemically converted hydrogen in fuel cell–powered vehicles, competing within the electric championship league. Based on the initial set of regulations, this study presents a model-based comparison between battery-powered (BEVs) and fuel cell–powered electric vehicles (FCVs) for Formula Student. The analysis is conducted using energy, power, and efficiency metrics from four candidate models of propulsion systems, implemented in an open and publicly available MATLAB script: two BEVs with varying battery capacities, and two FCVs employing different hybridization strategies. The aim of this study is to pinpoint and quantify the advantages and disadvantages of each technology for the Formula Student use case, and to identify the optimal solution combining the different requirements of maximum acceleration and endurance race.
Martoccia, LorenzoBreda, SebastianoFontanesi, Stefanod’Adamo, Alessandro
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes uniform procedures for testing BEVs that are capable of being operated on public and private roads. The procedure applies only to vehicles using batteries as their sole source of power. It is the intent of this document to provide standard tests that will allow for the determination of energy consumption and range for light-duty vehicles (LDVs) based on the federal test procedure (FTP) using the urban dynamometer driving cycle (UDDS) and the highway fuel economy driving schedule (HFEDS) and provide a flexible testing methodology that is capable of accommodating additional test cycles as needed. Additionally, this SAE Recommended Practice provides five-cycle testing guidelines for vehicles performing supplementary testing on the US06, SC03, and cold FTP procedures. Realistic alternatives should be allowed for new technology. Evaluations are based on the total vehicle system’s performance and not on subsystems apart from the vehicle.
Light Duty Vehicle Performance and Economy Measure Committee
By the early 2020s, more than 4.5 billion people have been living in urban areas worldwide, compared to just 1 billion in 1960. Rising growth in urban populations present challenges to infrastructure and transportation systems. Higher traffic levels and reliance on conventional vehicles have contributed to heightened greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, rising global temperatures, and irreversible environmental degradation. In response, emerging transportation solutions—including intelligent ridesharing, autonomous vehicles, zero-tailpipe-emission transport, and urban air mobility—offer opportunities for safer and more sustainable transportation ecosystems. However, their widespread adoption depends not only on technological performance and efficiency, but also on integration with current infrastructure, safety, resilience to unexpected disruptions, and economic viability. A dynamic agent-based System-of-Systems (SoS) transportation model is developed to simulate vehicle traffic and human movement for assessing mobility solutions against different demand scenarios and possible disruptions within a well-defined metropolitan area. The analysis adopts the concept of an airport city—a cluster of residential, commercial, and industrial spaces surrounding major airports—as a representative urban context. Using the Atlanta Aerotropolis as a case study, this work introduces an interactive, parametric decision-support methodology for evaluating the impact and benefits of future mobility options, as part of transportation master planning. Given the multi-objective and multi-stakeholder nature of transportation planning (e.g. local government, urban planners, engineers, and technology providers), the proposed approach leverages simulation-enabled digital twins of mobility solution alternatives to analyze traffic performance across multiple criteria, including energy consumption, emissions, affordability, accessibility, and connectivity within the broader urban infrastructure. The study reveals cost-benefit trade-offs among mobility solutions in the context of disruptive scenarios, such as the 2026 FIFA World Cup hosted by Atlanta, GA. The results highlight the importance of deploying a mix of mobility options over the city’s transportation network to maximize sustainability while maintaining resilient operations.
Rana, VishvaBalchanos, MichaelMavris, DimitriValenzuela Del Rio, Jose
Predictive Battery Preconditioning Strategy Considering Charging Time, Battery Degradation and Energy Consumption2026-01-01264/7/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, yet their widespread adoption remains limited due to long charging times and concerns about battery degradation. To address these challenges, this paper presents a predictive battery preconditioning strategy to optimally prepare the battery before fast charging, with the goal of minimizing either charging time, battery degradation, or energy consumption. The proposed approach employs route-based velocity prediction together with a longitudinal vehicle dynamics model to predict the battery load, ambient temperature, and arrival time at the charging station. Based on this predictive information, the optimal battery temperature trajectory is determined using nonlinear programming with precomputed maps derived from a high-fidelity vehicle model and an electrochemical battery model including physics-based degradation mechanisms. The optimized temperature trajectory is then realized through a nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) for the thermal management system. The control-oriented models used for optimization and control, as well as the high-fidelity vehicle model, are parameterized and validated using measurement data. Simulation results demonstrate that the predictive preconditioning strategy enables a reduction in charging time of up to 8.9% or a reduction in battery degradation of up to 6.2% compared to no preconditioning, while outperforming a rule-based preconditioning strategy. Furthermore, the results show that energy consumption cannot be reduced through active preconditioning. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of predictive battery preconditioning to improve charging performance and battery longevity in electric vehicles.
Acker, LukasHofmann, PeterKonrad, Johannes
The increasing demand for electrified transportation is leading to accelerated development of highly efficient hybrid and battery electric vehicles. A major concern for customers adapting to battery electric vehicles (BEV) is range anxiety due to low charging speeds, charging infrastructure not matching expectations and unreliable range estimations shown to the customers by their vehicles. Estimating the range more accurately has been difficult due to the sensitivity of vehicle’s energy consumption to real-world environmental and driving conditions. This paper aims to find out the effect of true wind in the road load experienced by BEVs in the real-world driving scenarios and how using a highly accurate wind speed measurement improves the energy consumption estimation better. On-road tests were conducted on public roads and in controlled test-track environments to collect reliable wind speed measurements using a dynamic multi-hole pressure probe. Additional coastdown tests were also conducted to find appropriate road load coefficients which provided a slightly better alternative to EPA coefficients to be used in our estimation models. A high-fidelity energy model was developed to estimate energy consumption with greater accuracy than simplified energy models, which are commonly used in the remaining range calculations shown in the information displays in vehicles. Finally, this paper also explores the need for a machine learning correction model which predicts the gap between the high-fidelity energy model estimations and actual energy consumption, thus compensating for dynamic losses which are hard to estimate using physical models. This hybrid approach of a physics-based model complemented by a data-driven residual correction model provides a unique way to increase the accuracy of traditional modeling techniques and also helps to understand the gaps in those techniques better. Results are used as a baseline benchmark for developing fast executing, lower-fidelity models that can be used in production level applications.
Raghupathy, Vishnu PrasaadKim, ShinhoonEvans, NicNiimi, KeisukeMochihara, Takahiro
Energy efficiency and range optimization remain critical challenges to the widespread adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). As a result, there is a growing demand for intelligent driver assistance systems that can extend the operating range and reduce range anxiety. This paper presents an adaptive eco-feedback and driver rating system based on proximal policy optimization (PPO) reinforcement learning, designed to support drivers with the target to reduce energy consumption and maximize driving range. The system processes real-time driving data, such as velocity, acceleration and powertrain status. Map data of high quality is used to anticipate traffic events, including but not limited to speed limits, curves, gradients, preceding vehicles and traffic lights. This contextual awareness allows the system to continuously assess driving behavior and provide personalized, context-aware visual feedback alongside a dynamic driving behavior rating. A PPO agent learns optimal feedback strategies through continuous interaction and evaluates the impact of specific guidance actions, such as but not limited to “release accelerator pedal”, “brake” and “recuperate”, on immediate energy efficiency and long-term driver adaptation patterns. Feedback intensity and modality are dynamically tailored to individual driver profiles based on observed reaction patterns and feedback adherence. This approach encourages drivers to prioritize energy efficiency while aiming to minimize cognitive distraction and discomfort. The algorithm is implemented and validated within a driving simulation environment that replicates diverse and realistic conditions. Virtual driving tests conducted in various scenarios, such as congested urban areas, suburban routes, mountain roads and highways demonstrate that the proposed PPO-based eco-driving assistance system can reduce energy losses by about 28% compared to conventional driving behavior.
Stocker, ChristophHirz, MarioMartin, MichaelKreis, AlexanderStadler, Severin
As the demand for electrical power has surged over recent years due to the increasing popularity of data centers for Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Electric Vehicles (EVs), it is becoming evident that the aging electrical grid infrastructure is struggling to keep up. Some of the problems this aging infrastructure has resulted in include frequent blackouts due to weather related events, reduced efficiency resulting in higher maintenance costs and outdated communication systems causing poor monitoring and response times. Modernization of the grid in conjunction with integration of the transportation sector with the grid is essential to ensure the reliability and resiliency of the grid. Electric vehicles have dramatically increased in popularity, with most vehicle manufacturers offering at least one electric option in their lineups. Looking at recent developments in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, a new possibility becomes evident; instead of straining the power grid, the electric vehicle can synergize with it. This becomes possible when EVs can facilitate charging during off-peak (low demand) hours and supplying power back to the grid during on-peak (high demand) hours. There are quite a few challenges associated with this approach, lack of standardized charging infrastructure and higher install costs, regulatory and policy hurdles, gaps in technological know-how particularly in relation to impact of power supplied by EVs on grid and effect of V2G on EV battery degradation in the long run, to name a few. This paper reviews the current power demand and supply along with existing and projected power consumption metrics. We also discuss the V2G strategy to effectively manage load requirements, incentives that can be provided to facilitate the execution, and the challenges associated with its widespread implementation. Finally, we discuss case studies of vehicles that incorporate V2G capability and their implications.
Dahlmann, Alexander DrakeLele, Sneha
The global transition towards sustainable transportation is driving the development of efficient, low-emission propulsion systems. Battery-electric solutions are effective in urban contexts, but face limitations in heavy-duty and long-haul applications due to the size and weight of the required energy storage. Hybrid battery/fuel cell powertrains offer a promising alternative for such use cases, reducing vehicle mass and charging times while maintaining high energy efficiency. This study presents an original zero-dimensional MATLAB/Simulink model, named HyPoST (Hydrogen Powertrain Simulation Tool), for a parallel hybrid fuel cell/battery system, here applied to heavy-duty vehicles. The model encompasses the main vehicle sub-systems, including the fuel cell stack with auxiliaries, battery pack, electric drive, transmission and the vehicle longitudinal dynamics, coordinated through a rule-based energy management strategy. Two representative heavy-duty vehicle configurations were analysed: a Group 5 long-haul truck, and a Group 2 urban delivery vehicle. A model-to-model validation strategy was performed using VECTO as a reference, the reference European Union’s tool for estimating energy consumption in heavy-duty vehicles. A graphical user interface (GUI) enables users to modify vehicle parameters and run customized simulations, and the model is made available to the scientific community in open and editable version upon request to the authors. The results demonstrate that HyPoST accurately reproduces heavy-duty vehicle behaviour for both truck models, as revealed by the analysis of gear selection, electric motor, and battery telemetries, providing a scalable and accessible tool for engineers, researchers and students.
Montecchi, GianlucaMartoccia, LorenzoD'Adamo, Alessandro
Wind-tunnel tests were conducted using a 30%-scale DrivAer model, in estateback and notchback rear-geometry configurations, to investigate aerodynamic performance changes associated with snow and ice buildup on passenger vehicles. Around 20 snow/ice accumulation patterns were tested, at a Reynolds number of 2.8 × 106 based on model wheelbase, for each of the notchback and estateback variants. 5 additional patterns were tested on the estateback with roof-rack support bars. Snow accumulation was modelled with foam, while ice accumulation was simulated with aluminum tape hand-formed to the desired shape. A simulated full-scale snow thickness of 58 mm on the hood, roof and trunk increased the wind-averaged drag coefficient by 16% for both model variants. With 90 mm of snow, the drag of the estateback variant increased by 19%. Drag changes increased with, but were not proportional to, snow thickness. Chamfered front and rear edges, representing windblown shapes, reduced the drag penalty compared to square-edged snow models. The largest drag increases, of 18% and 20%, respectively, for the notchback and estateback configurations, were due to simulated patchy snow and ice on multiple surfaces. Localized ice/snow patches sometimes caused stronger increases in drag than a similar or larger volume of precipitation elsewhere. Critical surfaces include the A and aft-most (C/D) pillars, the lower-front corners, the leading-edge of the hood and the leading- and trailing-edges of the roof. Simulated snow and ice at more upstream positions often caused higher increases in drag than accumulations further downstream. Drag and base pressure were more likely to be correlated for changes closer to the rear of the model. Some snow/ice patterns were found to increase side force and rolling moment in crosswinds, or to increase lift and change the pitching moment, potentially affecting vehicle stability and traction. The results are intended to support additional studies that will examine the impacts of snow/ice accumulation on fuel/energy use and safety.
de Souza, FenellaMcAuliffe, Brian
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