Browse Topic: Safety regulations and standards

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Potential Regulatory Approaches For Occupant Safety In Automated / Autonomous Vehicles With Unique Seating Configurations – Part 1: Occupant Protection Proposals2026-01-0578To be published on 04/07/2026
Automated / Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) are gradually becoming mainstream. However, some AVs have unique seating configurations (stagecoach and campfire seating) which present expanded occupant safety challenges. Significant portions of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) do not yet align with AVs containing unique seating. This paper series takes the NHTSA occupant safety standard approach for conventional forward-facing seat vehicles where many compliance evaluations are in the frequently occupied front row and expands it to stagecoach and campfire AVs where the rear seating row is anticipated to be frequently occupied. The approaches proposed are from a logic-based safety-focused analysis and in many cases previously published material. The goal of this paper series is to offer regulatory proposals that enable equivalent performance for these AVs to existing forward-facing seating vehicle occupant safety standards
Thomas, Scott
Potential Regulatory Approaches For Occupant Safety In Automated / Autonomous Vehicles With Unique Seating Configurations – Part 2: Interior Safety Sensing and Messaging Proposals2026-01-0576To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper contains Part 2 of a three-part paper series proposing potential regulatory approaches for occupant safety in Automated / Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) with unique seating configurations (stagecoach and campfire seating). Part 2 focuses on interior safety sensing, associated messaging, and ride control approaches both prior to and during a ride. Assessments are also proposed after significant vehicle braking and crash events. The proposed conditions are to be assessed in a static vehicle environment with people segmented by occupant size and an infant dummy. On the vehicle seat and on the vehicle floor occupant detection conditions are proposed along with restraint usage detection conditions for vehicle seatbelt usage, Child Restraint Seat (CRS) usage, CRS seatbelt usage, and Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children (LATCH) system usage. These conditions may be detected by sensors / computer algorithms and human monitoring and thus are technology agnostic. The topics of animal
Thomas, Scott
Safety-Centered Scenario Generation for Autonomous Vehicles2026-01-0529To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper focuses on a scenario generation framework that creates diverse, parametrized, and safety-critical driving situations to validate the safety features of autonomous vehicles in simulation. By modeling factors such as road geometry, traffic participants, environmental conditions, and perception uncertainties, the framework enables repeatable and scalable testing of safety mechanisms, including emergency braking, evasive maneuvers, and vulnerable road user protection. The framework supports both regulatory and edge-case scenarios, mapped to hazards and safety goals derived from Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA), ensuring traceability to ISO 26262 functional safety requirements and performance limitations. The output from these simulations provide quantitative safety metrics such as time-to-collision, minimum distance, braking and steering performance, and residual collision severity. These metrics enable the systematic evaluation of evasive maneuvering as a safety
Chandra Shekar, Kiruthiga, Arab, Aliasghar
Statistical Assessment of Pretensioner and Load Limiter Effects on the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD Response in Frontal Impacts2026-01-0550To be published on 04/07/2026
Enhancing child occupant protection requires a clear understanding of how seatbelt restraint parameters influence crash injury metrics. Real-world vehicles mostly include pretensioner and load limiter technologies to mitigate injuries, but rear seat restraints often do not include these. The FMVSS 213 test bench closely represents current restraint systems but does not involve such active vehicle restraint features. This study explores the response of the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD to evaluate potential injury mitigation under FMVSS 213 frontal sled test conditions. A simulation-based full factorial design was implemented in LS-DYNA to vary pretensioner retraction, retractor load-limiting thresholds, and webbing payout, with injury measures including head acceleration, head excursion, chest compression, and abdominal pressure (APTS). Statistical evaluation using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer post-hoc tests quantified main and interaction effects. Pretensioners
Khattak, Mohid, Bendig, Colleen, Louden, Allison, Noll, Scott
Maintaining a Healthy Safety Culture in Autonomous Vehicle Development and Operations2026-01-0528To be published on 04/07/2026
The deployment of autonomous vehicles (AVs) requires not only technical excellence but also the cultivation of a robust organizational safety culture. While safety engineering standards and assurance processes provide essential structure, a culture that prioritizes learning, accountability, and continuous improvement is critical to ensuring public trust and operational resilience. This paper explores how UL 4600, the comprehensive safety standard for the evaluation of autonomous systems, and Safety Performance Indicators (SPIs) can be leveraged to build and sustain a Just Culture within an AV company. UL 4600 emphasizes systematic hazard identification, safety case construction, and ongoing evidence generation. When applied beyond compliance, it provides a framework for embedding safety considerations into day-to-day engineering and operational decision making. By mapping UL 4600 clauses into organizational processes and linking them with measurable SPIs—such as rates of system
Wagner, Michael, Gittleman, Michele
Probability of Honda Frontal Airbag Deployment from Analysis of NHTSA CISS EDR Database2026-01-0539To be published on 04/07/2026
As of 2000, the Bosch CDR tool has been available to download vehicle’s Event Data Recorders (EDR). The EDR is connected to a vehicle’s airbag control module and records collision events if an airbag is deployed and can also record non-deployment events. Previous research has collected EDR reports from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) National Automotive Sampling System (NASS) databases and evaluated the data to determine the probability that an airbag will deploy in a frontal collision for various vehicle manufacturers such as General Motors, Ford, and Toyota. The previous research does not include Honda vehicles. This paper analyzes 343 EDR reports from Honda vehicles between 2012 and 2022 obtained from NHTSA’s Crash Investigation Sampling System (CISS) database and 30 Forensic Engineering’s own database in an effort to develop a model to predict the probability of a frontal airbag deployment in Honda vehicles. The model predicts the probability of an airbag
Sinclair, Brittany, Ljubic, Elise
Holistic Solution of Unified Framework for Integration of Safety Process into Automotive Software Development Process2026-01-0068To be published on 04/07/2026
The rapid advancement of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving has significantly increased the software content and complexity within modern vehicles. Consequently, ensuring both high process quality and compliance or qualification with functional safety standards becomes critically important. Automotive Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination (ASPICE 4.0) focuses on evaluating and improving software development processes, while ISO 26262-2018 standard ensures the establishment of functional safety in road vehicles. The efficient integration of the process and standard remains a key challenge due to differences in their objectives, terminologies, and assessment criteria. The misalignment between ASPICE 4.0 and ISO 26262-2018 standard often results in duplicated efforts, rework of work products, and delays in product release schedules. This paper proposes a unified framework to bridge ASPICE 4.0 process areas with ISO 26262-2018 safety
Ravi, Reshma, Easwaramoorthy, Prasad Vignesh, Promise, Dinu
Agile Safety Case Assessments for Autonomous Vehicle Fleets2026-01-0521To be published on 04/07/2026
The large-scale deployment of autonomous vehicles (AVs) demands not only robust safety cases but also systematic approaches for their assessment. A safety case is a structured argument, supported by evidence, that a system is acceptably safe within its intended domain. While many AV developers are now adopting safety cases as a prerequisite for launch readiness, effective assessment methods have not kept pace with the field’s rapid progress. This paper presents a three-stage methodology for safety case assessment—framework, solution, and implementation assessment—developed through nearly fifty evaluations across commercial and defense AV programs. Framework assessment benefits from leveraging safety case frameworks, which accelerate development and prevent argument defects. Solution assessment focuses on defining clear evidence criteria, while implementation assessment evaluates the sufficiency of complete evidence packages. Together, these stages support iterative improvement and
Wagner, Michael
A Cloud-Native Testing-as-a-Service (TaaS) Framework for Safety-Compliant Verification of Automotive Software.2026-01-0192To be published on 04/07/2026
The rapid shift toward Software-Defined Vehicles (SDVs) is driving an unprecedented rise in the complexity of automotive software. At the same time, compliance with functional safety standards such as ISO 26262 and cybersecurity standards such as ISO/SAE 21434 has become non-negotiable. These pressures expose significant gaps in the current verification and validation (V&V) practices. Today, many organizations rely on costly proprietary cloud ecosystems or heavily instrumented on-premises Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) labs. While effective in certain contexts, these methods are capital-intensive, difficult to scale, and often lead to fragmented compliance workflows. Most critically, they fall short of delivering a unified, traceable process that aligns seamlessly with Automotive SPICE requirements, particularly SWE.4 (Software Unit Verification), SWE.5 (Software Integration Testing), and SWE.6 (Software Qualification Testing). This paper proposes a cloud-native Testing-as-a-Service (TaaS
Venkatesan, Raghul, Pogulakonda, Meghna, Daware, Kartik
Securing the AI-Driven Vehicle: A Hardware-Based Security Framework for Scalable, Trustworthy Autonomy2026-01-0085To be published on 04/07/2026
Autonomous driving technology in modern vehicles marks a pivotal evolution in transportation, but it may also introduce system-level vulnerabilities that span from tampering with sensors and interfaces to compromising compute units and communication links. This paper proposes a unified, layered hardware security architecture for AI-equipped automated vehicles. Based on current automotive Ethernet and zonal architectures, it provides end-to-end trust using hardware interface security, accelerated-cryptography, and SRAM PUF-based key provisioning. All security primitives are anchored to a hardware root of trust, delivering cryptographic identity, secure boot enforcement, and trusted key storage across the entire vehicle lifecycle. Our architectural assumptions follow the direction ISO 26262, ISO/SAE 21434 and AI development mandates for next-generation SAE Level 3+ vehicles using zonal Ethernet backbones, Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN), and heterogeneous compute islands (e.g., vision
C Suriyanarayanan, Pav, Iacob, Radu
A Study on TSC(Technical Safety Concept) design and verification in EMB(Brake By Wire) Systems2026-01-0095To be published on 04/07/2026
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system, a dry-type Brake-by-Wire technology, represents a significant advancement in eco-friendly and intelligent vehicle braking systems. Unlike conventional hydraulic brakes, EMB eliminates fluid-based components by directly controlling friction braking through electrical actuators installed at each wheel. This not only reduces environmental impact but also enhances system responsiveness and integration with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). The EMB architecture comprises six controllers: a Main Center Control Unit, a Backup Center Control Unit for redundancy, and four Wheel Control Units. These controllers communicate seamlessly using multiple vehicle communication protocols, including CAN, Ethernet, and FlexRay. This distributed control structure is essential for achieving compliance with ISO 26262, the international standard for functional safety in road vehicles. As EMB systems become more complex, they introduce new safety risks that
KIM, Dokun
The New Era for Automotive Cybersecurity An Opportunity for Standardization of Automotive Cybersecurity2026-01-0086To be published on 04/07/2026
The automotive industry is moving from a reactive, self-determined approach to cybersecurity to a standardized, regulated one. This document, an update on collaborative work from the SAE TEVEES18B Committee and GlobalPlatform Automotive Task Force, outlines this transition. In the past, cybersecurity challenges in the automotive industry were seen as novel, and each company handled them individually. This era was characterized by self-determination of security mitigations and a unique justification for solutions. Companies often developed cybersecurity concepts based on past incidents and their own risk tolerance. A key tool during this time was the TARA (Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment), which organizations used to justify their security concepts or lack thereof. This led to company-specific policies and a lack of a global standard. The result was a fragmented market where every new project required a novel cybersecurity concept, hindering the development of a robust market for
Mazzara, Bill, Rawlings, Craig
Developing Safety Case for Automated Driving following UL4600 & ISO50832026-01-0527To be published on 04/07/2026
With the increasing in probabilistic outcomes by using complex algorithms/trainings for autonomous features, the safety of the product becomes more comprehensive where the safety case is one of claims to the overall safety assurance. Nonetheless, the safety case still needs to follow rigorous processes and provide all critical safety deliverables. Newer and updated standard such as UL4600 and ISO5083 have more considerations and claims can include in the safety case. From the definition of the autonomous feature to the risk acceptance criteria to the verification and validation of these features can all have elements from those new standards. ISO 5083 provides a framework for an autonomous system which can align with both ISO26262 and 21448. The scope and the fallback maneuvers can complement the hazards identified through safety analysis. The risk acceptance covers both Functional Safety and SOTIF through validation of potential metrics. Similarly, the evidence sufficiency and risk
Mudunuri, Venkateswara Raju, Almasri, Hossam, Fan, Hsing-Hua
AI-Enhanced Functional Safety in ADAS Controllers: Predictive Fault Management under ISO 262622026-01-0036To be published on 04/07/2026
Ensuring ISO 26262 functional safety in advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) is increasingly complex as these platforms adopt artificial intelligence for perception and control. Traditional safety mechanisms are deterministic, but AI introduces non-determinism that challenges verification and validation. This paper presents a predictive fault management framework that enhances functional safety in ADAS controllers using AI-driven models. Real-time vehicle and sensor data are processed through machine learning algorithms that forecast hardware and software faults before they escalate into hazardous conditions. These predictive insights are coupled with ISO 26262 safety mechanisms to enable adaptive diagnostics, fault isolation, and recovery strategies. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) validation demonstrates up to a 25% improvement in diagnostic coverage compared to conventional monitoring, while maintaining ASIL-D compliance and real-time performance. By showing how AI can complement
Abdul Karim, Abdul Salam
Achieving Reliability, Safety & Security in SDV OS Architecture2026-28-0122To be published on 02/12/2026
Software-defined vehicles are those whose functionalities and features are primarily governed by software, thus allowing continuous updates, upgrades, and the introduction of new capabilities throughout their lifecycle. This shift from hardware-centric to software-driven architectures is a major transformation that reshapes not only product development and operational strategies but also business models in the automotive industry. An SDV operating system provides the base platform to manage vehicle software and enable those advanced functionalities. Unlike traditional embedded or general-purpose operating systems, it is designed to meet the particular demands of modern automotive architectures. Reliability, safety, and security become crucial because even minor faults may have serious consequences. Key challenges to be handled by the SDV OS include how to handle software bugs, perform real-time processing, address functional safety and SOTIF compliance, adhere to regulations, minimize
Khan, Misbah Ullah, Gupta, Vishal
Provisions of Medical Oxygen for Aircraft OccupantsAIR6190A (Current)1/28/2026
This document provides information on provisions for passengers with disabilities on board commercial aircraft. In this context the term "provision of medical oxygen" shall be understood as application of oxygen on board an aircraft not linked to (post) decompression in the sense of Airworthiness Requirements FAR/CS 25 and Operational Regulations of FAR 121/135. Information about available equipment and physiological treatment in clinical practice will be provided in this document. It covers the use of oxygen concentrators according to guidance of FAR Advisory Circular AC120-95.
A-10 Aircraft Oxygen Equipment Committee
Testing Framework and Safety Evaluation for Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Charging Systems in Electric Mobility2026-26-01761/16/2026
This paper presents a comprehensive testing framework and safety evaluation for Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) charging systems, incorporating advanced theoretical modeling and experimental validation of a modern, integrated 3-in-1 combo unit (PDU, DCDC, OBC). The proliferation of electric vehicles has necessitated the development of resilient and flexible charging solutions, with V2V technology emerging as a critical decentralized infrastructure component. This study establishes a rigorous mathematical framework for power flow analysis, develops novel safety protocols based on IEC 61508 and ISO 26262 functional safety standards, and presents comprehensive experimental validation across 47 test scenarios. The framework encompasses five primary test categories: functional performance validation, power conversion efficiency optimization, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) assessment, thermal management evaluation, and comprehensive fault-injection testing including Byzantine fault scenarios
Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B, Nikam, Sandip B.
SEooC- Based Design Framework Integrated EV Power Conversion Systems under ISO-26262 Compliance2026-26-01921/16/2026
The work completed on “System level concepts to test and design integrated EV system involving power conversion to satisfy ISO26262 functional safety requirement” is included in the paper. Integrating power conversion and traction inverter subsystems in EVs is currently popular since it increases dependability and improves efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Maintaining safety standards is at danger due to the growing safety requirements, which also raise manufacturing costs and time. The three primary components of integrated EV systems are the PDU, DC-DC converter, and onboard charger. Every part and piece of software is always changing and needs to be tested and validated in an economical way. Since the failure of any one of these components could lead to a disaster, the article outlines the economical approaches and testing techniques to verify and guarantee that the system meets the functional safety criterion.
Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B, Gadekar, Pundlik
Enhancing EV Battery Safety: Progressive Crushing and Energy Absorption Technique2026-26-01891/16/2026
A crash energy absorption technique and method improve the safety and structural integrity of electric vehicle battery packs during collisions, complying with global regulations. This analysis details an assembly featuring a battery housing for mounting battery cells, a crash member connected to the battery housing's periphery, and flexural members linked to the crash member. The flexural members are designed to absorb impact forces by deforming and storing potential energy during sudden impacts. This approach ensures energy is stored within the flexural elements and then transferred to the battery cells through progressive crushing. The design effectively delays intrusion, enhances battery safety, and minimizes cell-level damage. This solution improves occupant safety and prevents thermal runaway incidents while maintaining the battery's overall performance and reliability in EVs.
Amberkar S, Sunil, Lakshman singh, Meenakumari, Bodaindala, Anil Kumar
Analysis on Impact of SUMS(R156) Update on Functional Safety2026-26-06181/16/2026
Now a days, with the increasing integration of advanced technology in modern vehicles, manufacturers are now able to update their software seamlessly, thereby enhancing functionality and ensuring optimal performance. Therefore, Software Update Management Systems (SUMS) has been introduced to enhance vehicle security, improve performance, and ensure that the latest software enhancements and fixes can be delivered efficiently. With this increasing complexity and ensure connectivity of modern vehicles, necessitates robust systems to manage software updates. Within this context, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's Regulation No. 156 (UN R156) provides specific requirements for SUMS to ensure safety, security, and traceability. The evaluation of R156-compliant SUMS within the framework of functional safety protocols, such as ISO 26262 for automotive presents numerous technical challenges. This paper aims to analyze the impact of R156-compliant SUMS update on the system/item
Talasila, Namitha
A Comparative Analysis of Road Accident Data Collected: A Multi Country Study of Traffic Accidents in India and Western Nations2026-26-02471/16/2026
This paper presents a comparative analysis of road accident datasets from India, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom, utilizing authoritative sources such as Open Government Data (OGD), the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), GOV.UK, and the French Road Safety Observatory. The research aims to uncover cross-country trends and discrepancies in accident reporting practices and assess whether enhanced documentation can contribute to reducing accident frequency. Effectively reducing the incidence of road accidents necessitates a rigorous understanding of their underlying causal mechanisms, which can only be achieved through comprehensive, data-driven analyses of accident records and systematic parameter comparisons with the Integrated Road Accident Database (iRAD). The primary objective is to identify documentation gaps within the Indian context and propose improvements to ensure comprehensive, high-quality data availability for researchers and
Raj, Aswin, Raja, Dheepan, Abhimanyu Shinde, Antriksh
Configurable and Standardized Test Case Generation Using VBA Script2026-26-05571/16/2026
Test Cases play a vital and very important role in the Software and System testing field to verify the functionality as per requirements and meet customer expectations. The traditional approach of test case generation in the testing field is predominantly manual, time consuming, and prone to human error but less expensive. Each tester tends to have their own approach to creating test cases, experience-based test scenarios might not be covered leading to inconsistencies, and lack of standardization. This lack of uniformity can cause testing deficiencies and make it difficult to ensure comprehensive test coverage. The objective is to develop an automation framework to generate standardized, configurable, modular, reusable, and human error free test cases as per user defined inputs based on system requirement specifications. The framework proposed in this study is known as the Automated Test Case Generator tool. This framework is designed using Visual Basic Applications (VBA) Scripts, in
Pallavi, Yerragudi, Umarji, Shruti, Tavhare Sr, Sarika, Anilkumar, Sandhya
Mileage Accumulation Target Identification for Autonomous Emergency Braking System Validation for Medium & Heavy Trucks Considering Real-World Accidents in India2026-26-00361/16/2026
Robust validation of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) considering real-world conditions is a vital for ensuring safety. Mileage accumulation is a one of the validation method for ensuring ADAS system robustness. By subjecting systems to diverse real-world driving environments and edge-case scenarios, engineers can evaluate performance, reliability, and safety under realistic conditions. In accordance with ISO 21448 (SOTIF), known hazardous scenarios are explicitly tested during robustness validation in combination of virtual and physical testing at component, sub system and vehicle level, while unknown hazards may emerge through extended mileage by running vehicles on roads, allowing them to be identified and classified. However, defining a mileage target that ensures comprehensive safety remains a significant engineering challenge. This paper proposes a data-driven approach to define mileage accumulation targets for validating Autonomous Emergency Braking Systems (AEBS
Koralla, Sivaprasad, Ravjani, Amin, Tatikonda, Vijay, Gadekar, Ganesh
Achieving Full ASIL-B Level Functional Safety (FuSa) for Automotive Clusters2026-26-00081/16/2026
Integrating advanced technologies into modern vehicles has led to an increasing focus on Functional Safety (FuSa), especially for the Automotive Integrated Cluster Module (ICM) to ensure the safety of the driver and passengers. This paper highlights the need to bring certain ICM components under an Automotive Safety Integrity Level B (ASIL-B) context using Classic AUTOSAR. This paper discusses the challenges faced and the solutions implemented for achieving compliance with ISO 26262 standards along with the Classic AUTOSAR framework. We are proposing a standardized and structured methodology for the design of the components in compliance with the key safety principles, including Freedom from Interference (FFI), execution under privileged levels, and integrity verification, particularly by adopting Classic AUTOSAR frameworks. This paper also presents the Functional Safety (FuSa) goals for these components and also extend to their configuration management and updating strategies within
Singh, Iqbal, Kumar, Praveen
Unique Methodology to Cluster and Reuse the “Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment” for Different Electrical/Electronic Systems of an Automobile2026-26-00041/16/2026
Modern automotive systems are becoming increasingly complex, comprising tightly integrated hardware and software components with varying safety implications. As the demand for ISO 26262 compliance grows, performing efficient and consistent Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA) across these layers presents both methodological and practical challenges. Traditional approaches often involve performing HARA for an item (where item maybe a system or a combination of systems), which can lead to update of HARA for every new feature addition in an item, which in turn may lead to analysis of same functions in multiple HARAs leading to inconsistent risk categorization, redundancy, or even conflicting safety goals. Therefore, this paper proposes a unique HARA methodology which consolidates the list of functions from various systems and performs the HARA for the grouped functions (hereby referred to as Cluster HARAs). For example, Electrical power steering, Electric pump powered hydraulic
Somasundaram, Manickam, Vijayakumar, Melvin
Towards AI-Driven Automated Driving Systems_Homologations Perspective2026-26-01331/16/2026
This paper examines the challenges and opportunities in homologating AI-driven Automated Driving Systems (ADS). As AI introduces dynamic learning and adaptability to vehicles, traditional static homologation frameworks are becoming inadequate. The study analyzes existing methodologies, such as the New Assessment/Test Methodology (NATM), and how various institutions address AI incorporation into ADS certification. Key challenges identified include managing continuous learning, addressing the "black-box" nature of AI models, and ensuring robust data management. The paper proposes a harmonized roadmap for AI in ADS homologation, integrating safety standards like ISO/TR 4804 and ISO 21448 with AI-specific considerations. It emphasizes the need for explainability, robustness, transparency, and enhanced data management in certification processes. The study concludes that a unified, global approach to AI homologation is crucial, balancing innovation with safety while addressing ethical
Lujan Tutusaus, Carlos, Hidalgo, Justin
Ensuring Functional Safety in Electric Vehicle Inverters: A Case Study on ISO 26262 Implementation2026-26-01581/16/2026
The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) has brought about significant advancements in automotive technology, with inverters playing a crucial role in converting DC power from the battery to AC power for the electric motor. Ensuring the functional safety of these inverters is paramount, as any failure can have severe implications for vehicle performance and passenger safety. This case study explores the successful implementation of ISO 26262 standards in the development and validation of EV traction inverters. This paper begins by outlining the functional requirements and safety goals specific to EV inverters, followed by a detailed analysis of the potential hazards and risks associated with their operation. Using ISO 26262 as a framework, we describe the systematic approach taken to identify, assess, and mitigate these risks. Key methodologies such as Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA), Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), and Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) are employed to
Ramachandra, Shwetha, V, Sushmitha
A Quality-Driven Approach to Engineering Sign-Off for Software and Robust Product Development2026-26-05811/16/2026
Automotive Product Development is a very complex process involving many functions across the organization along with the application of numerous technologies. Generally, most original equipment manufacturers follow a stage-gate process for any new product development. The increasing application of electrical and electronic systems, software and enhanced regulations focusing on overall safety of the eco-system further increases the complexity during development. This paper details the development and implementation of a comprehensive framework designed to enhance the quality and governance of the product development in the automotive industry. As the sector undergoes significant transformation, the need for structured development approach and robust oversight has become critical to success. The paper introduces a newly developed framework for Final Data Judgment (FDJ) and Engineering Sign-Off (ESO), representing a next-generation strategy towards defect free design, robust engineering
Digikar, Ashish, Pathak, Isha, Kothari, Bhushan
RainSense: An Autonomous Driving Environmental Perception Dataset with Rain Intensity Annotations2025-01-731112/31/2025
Rainfall, as a common trigger condition in the Safety of the Intended Functionality (SOTIF) framework, can impair autonomous driving perception systems, leading to unexpected functional failures. However, studies focusing on sensor performance degradation under natural rainfall conditions are limited, primarily due to the lack of datasets with detailed rainfall information. To address this gap, this study present RainSense, a multi-sensor autonomous driving dataset collected under natural rainfall conditions, featuring fine-grained rainfall intensity annotations. RainSense was recorded at nine representative intersection scenarios in the campus, where a single dummy target was placed at various distances as a detection target. A laser-optical disdrometer was deployed to continuously measure rainfall intensity (mm/h), while camera images, lidar point clouds, and 4D radar data were synchronously collected under different rainfall levels. In total, the dataset comprises 728 cases
Xia, Tian, Yang, Xingbo, Chen, Tianrui, Zhang, Longgao, Ye, Shaolingfen, Chen, Junyi
Modeling and Validating Foreseeable Misuse in Safety of the Intended Functionality: A Case Study of Automated Emergency Braking12-09-03-001712/31/2025
This study presents a structured evaluation framework for reasonably foreseeable misuse in automated driving systems (ADS), grounded in the ISO 21448 Safety of the Intended Functionality (SOTIF) lifecycle. Although SOTIF emphasizes risks that arise from system limitations and user behavior, the standard lacks concrete guidance for validating misuse scenarios in practice. To address this gap, we propose an end-to-end methodology that integrates four components: (1) hazard modeling via system–theoretic process analysis (STPA), (2) probabilistic risk quantification through numerical simulation, (3) verification using high-fidelity simulation, and (4) empirical validation via driver-in-the-loop system (DILS) experiments. Each component is aligned with specific SOTIF clauses to ensure lifecycle compliance. We apply this framework to a case of driver overreliance on automated emergency braking (AEB) at high speeds—a condition where system intervention is intentionally suppressed. Initial
Kang, Do Wook, Kim, Woojin, Jang, Eun Hye, Chang, Mi, Yoon, Daesub, Jang, Youn-Seon
Current Challenges and Technological Opportunities for Implementing Autonomous Vehicles in Urban Public Transport2025-36-008512/18/2025
Driven by technological advances in artificial intelligence, sensors, connectivity and sustainable mobility, autonomous buses are a reality in many contexts where their application is viable and efficient. The potential of the technology is a clear theme and has been widely discussed over the last two decades, due to various factors such as reducing accidents, increasing operating cost efficiency, improving the efficiency of public transport, reducing environmental impact and offering mobility solutions for increasingly congested urban areas. Due to the implementation of the General Safety Regulation (GSR II) in the European Union, with the aim of reducing traffic accidents and paving the way for fully autonomous vehicles, autonomous vehicles are getting closer to becoming a viable reality on the streets and highways of developed countries [1]. In order to guarantee the necessary safety in autonomous systems, data reliability is fundamental. To this end, it is essential to implement
Gameiro, João, Pirocchi, Amanda, Matias, Brenda, Paterlini, Bruno, Souza, Kerylli de, Angelone, Luca, Gama, Ulisses
AVSC Information Report on Automated Driving System-Dedicated Vehicle (ADS-DV) Stopped ConditionsAVSC-I-06-202512/11/2025
AVSC Information Report on Automated Driving System-Dedicated Vehicle (ADS-DV) Stopped Conditions provides a taxonomy of stopped conditions and definitions of key terms and concepts that can support stakeholder discussions around these topics. By offering guidance on appropriate use of terminology related to ADS-DV stops, this report clarifies complex technical concepts and contributes to a more unified understanding across the industry.
Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium
Arbe chipset improves automated driving decisions25AUTP12_0312/1/2025
Perception radar company Arbe was at IAA Mobility in Munich this year to press the case that customers can and should trust automated vehicles. One reason is the global trend of stricter regulations from the NHTSA, Euro NCAP, and in China, which now require automated vehicles to safely meet demanding use cases that are not covered by current sensors, according to Arbe co-founder and CTO Noam Arkind. Arkind told SAE Media that one such category is detecting vulnerable road users (VRU) in poor weather and lighting conditions. “We know from recent tests that a lot of Chinese cars, for example, failed VRU detections in the dark,” he said. “Camera alone doesn't really have reliable pedestrian detection in a dark situation. Radar is a great sensor. It's very sensitive. It's not dependent on weather conditions or lighting conditions, but it's noisy, it's low resolution, and it's hard to use.”
Blanco, Sebastian
Functional Safety of Electric or Hybrid Off-Highway Vehicles – An Embedded Software Viewpoint2025-28-021711/6/2025
To provide growing needs of food, clothing and infrastructure for growing population of the world, off-highway vehicles such as those in construction, agriculture and commercial landscaping are moving towards electrification for enhanced precision, productivity, efficiency and sustainability. It has also paved a way to adopt autonomy of these vehicles to address challenges like skilled labor shortage for timely and efficient execution. Despite the tremendous advantages of electrification, be it through completely replacing engines in vehicles or efficiency improvements using hybrid architecture for powertrain and auxiliary power demands, safety remains a significant challenge and critical requirement for off-highway electric vehicles. This paper explains the concept and importance of functional safety in electric off-highway vehicles, and shows how different standards like ISO 26262, ISO 25119, ISO 13849 can be utilized to achieve state of the art in functional safety for different off
Mujumdar, Chaitanya Gajanan, Bachhav, Kiran, Deshpande, Chinmay
Automating Fault Detection Time Interval in Automotive Functional Safety Using HIL Simulation2025-28-027411/6/2025
Functional safety is driven by number of standards like in automotive its driven by ISO26262, in Aerospace its driven by DO-178C, and in Medical its driven by IEC 60601. Automotive electronic controllers must adhere to state-of-the-art functional safety standard provided by ISO26262. A critical functional safety requirement is the Fault Handling Time Interval (FHTI), which includes the Fault Detection Time Interval (FDTI) and Fault Reaction Time Interval (FRTI). The requirements for FHTI are derived from Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) conducted at the system level. Various fault categories are analyzed, including electrical faults (e.g., short to battery, short to ground, open circuits), systemic faults (e.g., sensor value stuck, sensor value beyond range), and communication faults (e.g., incorrect CAN message signal values). Controllers employ strategies such as debouncing and fault time maturity to detect these faults. Numerous FDTI requirements must be verified to ensure
Lengare, Sunil, Yadav, Vikaskumar, Shiraskar, Pallavi
Ensuring Functional Safety and SOTIF for Autonomous Off-Highway Vehicles: Addressing Risks in Complex Systems2025-28-031511/6/2025
The increasing complexity of autonomous off-highway vehicles, particularly in mining, demands robust safety assurance for Electronic/Electrical (E/E) systems. This paper presents an integrated framework combining Functional Safety (FuSa) and Safety of the Intended Functionality (SOTIF) to address risks in autonomous haulage systems. FuSa, based on ISO 19014[1] and IEC 61508[2], mitigates hazards from system failures, while SOTIF, adapted from ISO 21448[3] addresses functional insufficiency and misuse in complex operational environments. We propose a comprehensive verification and validation (V&V) strategy that identifies hazardous scenarios, quantifies risks, and ensures acceptable safety levels. By tailoring automotive SOTIF standards to off-highway applications, this approach enhances safety for autonomous vehicles in unstructured, high-risk settings, providing a foundation for future industry standards.
Kumar, Amrendra, Bagalwadi, Saurabh
AVSC Best Practice for Assessment of Automated Driving System-Dedicated Vehicles (ADS-DVs) Safety Case Claims Supported by Evidence (CSE)AVSC-D-04-202510/14/2025
AVSC Best Practice for Assessment of Automated Driving System-Dedicated Vehicles (ADS-DVs) Safety Case Claims Supported by Evidence (CSE) supports organizations in conducting structured, transparent, and repeatable safety case assessments. It promotes a systems-based approach to reviewing whether the safety arguments presented are credible, well supported, and consistent with industry expectations and regulatory contexts. The document outlines principles, assessment criteria, and illustrative examples to aid practitioners in identifying gaps, evaluating uncertainties, and improving the overall trustworthiness of ADS-DV safety cases.
Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium
The Sotif Meta-Algorithm: Quantiative Analyses of the Safety of AI2025-01-04379/16/2025
This paper presents updates to a “meta-algorithm” for achieving safer AI driven systems by integrating systems theoretic process analysis, quantitative fault tree analysis, structured generation of safety metrics, and statistical hypothesis testing of metrics between simulation and reality. This paper presents updates to the meta-algorithm after its application in use cases involving commercial autonomous vehicle deployment.
Wagner, Michael, Carlson, Noah, Dwyer, Chris
Leveraging ISO 26262-2018 to Support MIL-STD-882E Compliance2025-01-04629/16/2025
The principles of Modular Open Systems Approach (MOSA) encourage the use of other accepted and consensus-based standards for system development. ISO 26262 falls under this category. This paper will detail how this safety standard can be applied in a military environment. Since its release, the MIL-STD-882 System Safety standard has been required in the development of various systems and platforms within the DoD (Department of Defense) and all branches of the armed forces. It provides a general method for identification, classification, and mitigation of hazards through various analyses. The standard, however, provides little definition on specific risk-rated mitigation strategies or risk-level-driven analysis in achieving the safety objectives of the design. This is in part due to the less prescriptive nature of the standard. Though there is no direct alignment between the risk levels of these two standards, this paper will detail how the ISO 26262 safety measures and safety analyses
LaRue, David A., Ruiz, Luis Edwin Rivera
Introduction to Technical Standards135248/7/2025
This video series brought to you by SAE International will show you what a standard is, how to interpret what you're reading, and how to differentiate technical standards from other information types.
Patterson, Lori
A 3D Visibility Label for Mobility Coatings: Enhancing Traffic Safety Through Color and Sensor Perception12-09-02-00097/22/2025
The mobility industry is rapidly advancing towards more autonomous modes of transportation with the adoption of sophisticated self-driving technologies. However, a critical challenge, being the lack of standardized norms for defining, measuring, and ensuring vehicle visibility across various dynamic traffic environments, remains. This lack of awareness of visibility is hindering the development of new regulations for vehicle visibility and the controlled transition to a fully-integrated autonomous future. While current efforts focus on improving sensing technologies like computer vision, LiDAR systems, and sensor fusion development, two key issues remain unresolved: 1 The absence of a representative and realistic three-dimensional color visibility model for measuring and comparing the visibility of complex shapes with large but varying color coated three-dimensional surface areas. 2 The need for enhanced visibility solutions that improve visibility and vehicle detectability for all
Mijnen, Paul W., Moerenburg, Joost H.
Cab Roof Strength Evaluation - Quasi-Static Loading Heavy TrucksJ2422_202507 (Current)7/22/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice describes the test procedures for conducting quasi-static cab roof strength tests for heavy-truck applications. Its purpose is to establish recommended test procedures that will standardize the procedure for heavy trucks. Descriptions of the test setup, test instrumentation, photographic/video coverage, and test fixtures are included.
Truck Crashworthiness Committee
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - What Happens After a Crash? The Push for Safer AVs135237/11/2025
What happens after an AV crashes? That split-second response can make all the difference--and that's exactly what the Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium (AVSC) is focused on. Backed by decades of engineering and mobility expertise, the AVSC brings together top minds in AV development to align on critical safety issues. Their latest work tackles one of the most urgent: how these vehicles should react and communicate after a crash. As AVs expand from test fleets to real-world deployments, the industry needs clear guidance now more than ever. Listen in as we sit down with Jonathan Barentine, Principal Engineer at the AVSC, to discuss the organization's just-released best practices for automated driving systems in the moments following a collision. You'll learn how the AVSC is working with first responders, manufacturers, and policymakers to develop scenario-based protocols that prioritize effective communication, safety management, and a culture of accountability. We'd love to hear from
Patterson, Lori
Fuel Versus Oxygen: Evaluations and ConsiderationsAIR5648B (Current)7/9/2025
Current regulations (e.g., Title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, or 14 CFR) define design requirements for oxygen system provisions for protection of crewmembers and passengers following emergency events such as in-flight decompression. This aerospace information report (AIR) addresses the operational oxygen system requirements for a decompression incident that may occur at any point during a long-range flight, with an emphasis for a decompression at the equal time point (ETP). This AIR identifies fuel and oxygen management contingencies and presents possible solutions for the efficient, safe, and optimum fuel/oxygen flight continuation. Oxygen management is a critical concern for all aircraft, ranging from single-engine types operating above 10000 feet to complex, high-performance aircraft equipped with supplemental oxygen systems. Proper planning ensures compliance with regulations and supports pilot and passenger safety at higher altitudes. This document
A-10 Aircraft Oxygen Equipment Committee
Structural Modification for Personally Licensed Vehicles to Meet the Transportation Needs of Persons with DisabilitiesJ1725_202506 (Current)6/30/2025
This SAE Information Report applies to structural integrity, performance, drivability, and serviceability of personally licensed vehicles not exceeding 10000 pounds GVWR such as sedans, crossovers, SUVs, MPVs, light trucks, and van-type vehicles that are powered by gas and alternative fuel such as electric, plug-in hybrid, or hybrid technologies. It provides engineering direction to vehicle modifiers in a manner that does not limit innovation, and it specifies procedures for preparing vehicles to enhance safety during vehicle modifications. It further provides guidance and recommendations for the minimum acceptable design requirements and performance criteria on general and specific structural modifications, thereby allowing consumers and third-party payers the ability to obtain and purchase equipment that meets or exceeds the performance and safety of the OEM production vehicle.
Adaptive Devices Standards Committee
Minimum Sound Testing of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles2025-01-50446/27/2025
The acoustic performance of seven vehicles was evaluated according to Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 141 (CMVSS 141), which governs minimum required sound levels for hybrid and electric vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 4536 kg (10,000 lb) or less. To better understand the sound profiles of medium-duty electric vehicles (MDEVs) and heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs), the sound emissions of two light-duty electric vehicles (LDEVs), one MDEV, three HDEVs, including an electric transit bus, and one heavy-duty internal combustion engine (HD ICE) vehicle were compared. The sound emissions of the MDEV and HDEVs were quieter than the HD ICE vehicle and comparable to that of the LDEVs equipped with auxiliary speakers. The MDEV with its auxiliary speaker turned off and all three HDEVs without auxiliary speakers met CMVSS 141 requirements in reverse gear and at speeds of 20 km/h and 30 km/h. The MDEV, though not subject to CMVSS 141, failed to meet the minimum sound
Sharma, Vinay, Larocque-Legros, Marc-André, Weston, Cole, Schulte, Andrew, Christenson, Martha, Rooney, Anne
Observers for Laser Safety in the Navigable AirspaceARP5535B (Current)6/17/2025
This document applies to safety observers or spotters involved with the use of outdoor laser systems. It may be used in conjunction with AS4970.
G-10T Laser Safety Hazards Committee
Proposed Reformulation of Brain Injury Criteria (BrIC) Using Head Rotation-Induced Brain Injury Thresholds Simulated and Derived Directly from A Subhuman Primate Finite Element Model2025-22-00035/13/2025
Recent studies have found that Brain Injury Criteria (BrIC) grossly overpredicts instances of real-world, severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, as it stands, BrIC is the leading candidate for a rotational head kinematics-based brain injury criteria for use in automotive regulation and general safety standards. This study attempts to understand why BrIC overpredicts the likelihood of brain injury by presenting a comprehensive analysis of live primate head impact experiments conducted by Stalnaker et al. (1977) and the University of Pennsylvania before applying these injurious conditions to a finite element (FE) monkey model. Data collection included a thorough analysis and digitization of the head impact dynamics and resulting pathology reports from Stalnaker et al. (1977) as well as a representative reconstruction of the Penn II baboon diffuse axonal injury (DAI) model. Computational modeling techniques were employed on a FE Rhesus monkey model, first introduced by Arora et al
Demma, Dominic R., Tao, Ying, Zhang, Liying, Prasad, Priya
Development of a Generic Nearside Impact Test Fixture for Evaluating In-Vehicle Crashworthiness of Wheelchairs2025-22-00025/13/2025
Current voluntary standards for wheelchair crashworthiness only test under frontal and rear impact conditions. To help provide an equitable level of safety for occupants seated in wheelchairs under side impact, we developed a sled test procedure simulating nearside impact loading using a fixed staggered loading wall. Publicly available side impact crash data from vehicles that could be modified for wheelchair use were analyzed to specify a relevant crash pulse. Finite element modeling was used to approximate the side impact loading of a wheelchair during an FMVSS No. 214 due to vehicle intrusion. Validation sled tests were conducted using commercial manual and power wheelchairs and a surrogate wheelchair base fixture. Test procedures include methods to position the wheelchair to provide consistent loading for wheelchairs of different dimensions. The fixture and procedures can be used to evaluate the integrity of wheelchairs under side impact loading conditions.
Boyle, Kyle, Hu, Jingwen, Manary, Miriam, Orton, Nichole R., Klinich, Kathleen D.
Letter from the Guest Editors12-08-02-00115/6/2025
Letter from the Guest Editors
Liang, Ci, Törngren, Martin
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