Browse Topic: Safety regulations and standards

Items (927)

Leveraging Domestic Automotive Software Development Best Practices for MOSA and GCIA/Victory Implementation

2026-01-7538

9/22/2026

ISO 26262ISO/SAE 21434ISTQB/ASPICEMOSAGCIAVICTORY

Priemer, Douglas, Sime, Karl

CI/CD for Mission-Critical Systems: A Framework for Any Level of Rigor

2026-01-7529

9/22/2026

Modern mission-critical ground vehicle systems must adapt to rapidly evolving threats, deploying changes in months or days while maintaining reliable and safe operation. Historic manual development and testing methods cannot keep pace without compromising safety assurances. Continuous Integration and Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) pipelines offer proven approaches to accelerating development, but implementing them for mission-critical systems requires careful attention to verification rigor. This paper presents a practical framework for implementing CI/CD pipelines across any level of rigor, from rapid prototyping to DO-178C and ISO 26262 certified systems. Drawing on experience from aviation, medical device, and ground vehicle development, the framework provides guidance for each pipeline stage based on the system’s desired level of rigor. This framework includes an examination of the value of Software-in-the-Loop vs Hardware-in-the-Loop testing to optimize development timelines while maintaining software quality.

Lingg, Michael, Paul, Howard, Schulte, Brian, Wilkinson, Robert

Safe State Definition and Verification for Distributed Multi-Controller EMB Architectures

2026-01-0800

9/14/2026

The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is an essential technology for safe braking in modern vehicles. However, the adoption of multi-controller architectures has introduced new challenges to conventional Safe State strategies. Traditionally, the Safe State defined in functional safety means "function shutdown," and in accordance with ISO 26262-1:2018 (Part 1: Vocabulary), aims for an "operational mode without risks exceeding reasonable levels." However, in the multi-controller architecture of EMB systems, the Fail-Operational Safe State concept is applied, where the system continues to provide limited functions even in the event of faults. It is essential to verify whether such operational modes actually satisfy the safety requirements of ISO 26262-3 and ISO 26262-4. This paper redefines the Safe State according to failure modes in EMB systems, analyzes system state transitions, and presents a coherence analysis methodology for validating the availability of resources required to provide limited functions in the Fail-Operational Safe State. Through this approach, potential design defects in multi-controller-based EMB systems can be detected early, validated across 1,149,952 fault scenarios with zero total-failure outcomes, and traceability of functional safety requirements can be established.

Kim, Kang San

A Study on TSC (Technical Safety Concept) Design and Verification in EMB (Brake by Wire) Systems

2026-01-0801

9/14/2026

The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is a dry-type Brake-by-Wire technology that eliminates hydraulic components and directly controls friction braking using electrical actuators at each wheel. The EMB architecture consists of a Main Center Control Unit, a redundant Backup Center Control Unit, and four Wheel Control Units communicating via CAN FD. Due to its direct involvement in vehicle braking, compliance with ISO 26262 functional safety requirements is critical. As system complexity increases, potential risks such as hardware failures and communication faults must be systematically addressed. The proposed TSC was developed according to ISO 26262, covering the concept phase (Part 3), system-level development (Part 4), and software implementation (Part 6). Safety goals and Functional Safety Requirements derived from HARA are used to guide system architecture design and TSC development. Key design principles include modularity, redundancy, fault detection, and fail-safe operation. Verification is conducted at both system and vehicle levels using ECU-in-the-Loop Simulation (EILS), Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation (HILS), and real-vehicle tests. Fault scenarios, including Main Center Control Unit failures and CAN communication losses, are injected using a custom LabVIEW-based fault injection tool. The study evaluates Fault Tolerant Time Interval (FTTI) settings, error handling mechanisms, and control handover strategies under fault conditions. The results show that redundancy and localized communication enable stable operation and smooth control transfer within the FTTI window without noticeable impact on braking performance or driver awareness. This study demonstrates the robustness of the proposed EMB architecture. Future work will focus on prognostics and maintenance strategies to support safe deployment in autonomous and electric vehicles. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

Kim, Dokun

Predicting Wear of NAO Brake Pad Using Scaled-Down FMVSS 135 Testing and Machine Learning

2026-01-0808

9/14/2026

Brake pad wear is a major and growing source of non-exhaust particulate emissions, projected to reach 1.3 million tons annually by 2030 and contributing up to roughly 55% by mass of non-exhaust traffic-related PM10 in urban environments, underscoring the need for improved durability and material optimization. This study investigates a three-stage eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) ensemble paired with a residual Fully Connected Neural Network (FCNN) corrector to predict brake pad wear rate and support formulation optimization. Experiments used a simplified FMVSS 135 protocol on a Universal Mechanical Tester (UMT) simulating realistic braking across eight friction regimes. Wear rate was the sole machine-learning prediction target, while coefficient of friction (CoF) was retained as an input feature rather than a target. Despite a limited but high-quality 280-cycle dataset, regime-aware stratified splitting, sample reweighting, and hyperparameter optimization enabled robust generalization. The three-stage XGBoost ensemble with residual FCNN correction achieved a global held-out test R2 of 0.976 for wear rate prediction. A Taguchi L8 design of experiments defined the brake pad compositions, reducing experimental time and material consumption compared to conventional approaches. The framework demonstrated strong agreement between measurements and predictions for the dominant low-severity regime, while per-regime analysis identified the high-severity minority regimes as the priority for additional data collection, since within-regime R2 remains negative for every regime given current sample sizes. A sequence-aware mean absolute scaled error (MASE) analysis further shows that, despite the high global R2, none of the four pipeline stages currently outperforms a naive one-cycle persistence forecast on absolute error, a distinction reported here for transparency. The scalable architecture enables straightforward integration of additional material and process parameters, supporting iterative brake formulation development in industrial settings and, by reducing empirical testing requirements, sustainable brake material development with reduced replacement frequency and associated emissions.

Katakam, Abhishek, Eslamiat, Hossein, Kancharla, Sai Krishna, Filip, Peter

AVSC Best Practice for ADS Remote Assistance Training and Human Factors

AVSC-I-07-20268/25/2026

AVSC Best Practice for ADS Remote Assistance Training and Human Factors is intended to support the development of processes regarding automated driving system-dedicated vehicle (ADS-DV) remote assistant training, qualification, assessment, and performance-related human factors. It provides information to standardize communication about remote assistance (RA) programs to stakeholders to increase public trust in the operation of ADS-DVs by providing guidance on training for remote assistants.

Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium

Challenges and advantages in implementing ADAS systems in buses: a broad overview (Desafios e vantagens na implementação de sistemas ADAS em ônibus: uma visão abrangente)

2026-36-0344

7/30/2026

The implementation of ADAS in buses represents both a significant opportunity and a complex challenge for the future of urban mobility. While ADAS technologies such as lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, blind spot detection, and autonomous emergency braking have been widely adopted in passenger cars and trucks, their integration into buses has been slower due to unique operational and safety concerns. This paper provides a broad overview of the advantages and obstacles associated with ADAS deployment in public transport vehicles, with particular emphasis on passenger safety, regulatory frameworks, and operational efficiency. Key barriers include the vulnerability of standing passengers during sudden braking events, the unpredictability of pedestrians and cyclists in dense urban environments, and the economic constraints faced by bus operators. At the same time, regulatory initiatives such as Transport for London’s Bus Safety Standard, the European Union’s General Safety Regulation, and Brazil’s MOVER program are driving the gradual adoption of these systems. The benefits of ADAS in buses extend beyond accident reduction, encompassing improved driver ergonomics, reduced fatigue, lower maintenance costs, and enhanced passenger comfort. Case studies from Europe, Brazil, and Asia highlight both the safety potential and the reluctance of drivers to fully embrace these technologies, often due to knowledge gaps and perceived inconvenience. The analysis underscores that successful implementation requires not only technological adaptation but also comprehensive driver training, infrastructure readiness, and public policy support. Ultimately, ADAS in buses should be understood as a transitional step toward autonomous mobility, offering immediate safety gains while reshaping the paradigm of urban transport.

Marcon, Ederson, Michelon, Gabriel, do Nascimento, Vagner

A Review of Physical and Digital Infrastructure Standards and Guidelines to Support Deployment of Automated Vehicles in Rural Environments

12-09-04-0030

7/23/2026

Connected and Automated Vehicles (CAVs) represent a transformative innovation poised to revolutionize roadway transportation by leveraging automated driving systems equipped with advanced sensors, high-performance computing, and communication technologies. While urban areas are the primary focus of current CAV developments, rural transportation systems risk being left behind despite the significant benefits that CAVs can bring to these regions. This article, therefore, explores the physical and digital infrastructure requirements for the safe deployment of CAVs in rural areas, drawing insights from standards, recommendations, and guidelines developed by leading standard organizations. The study highlights the specific design of physical infrastructure, including traffic signs, traffic signals, and pavement markings, and digital infrastructure, including communication, sensing, and mapping, to ensure rural communities are effectively prepared to benefit from the potential of CAVs. As its primary contribution, this article provides a comprehensive review of existing standards and guidelines relevant to rural CAV deployment. By synthesizing guidance across multiple standard-setting organizations, this review delivers a structured analytical assessment of existing standards, revealing their limitations and misalignment with rural transportation contexts while highlighting emerging good practices. The article clarifies the applicability of current guidance to rural infrastructure, identifies systemic infrastructure-related failure modes, and informs context-aware planning considerations for efficient and scalable CAV deployment in rural areas.

Zakaria, Mohammed, Getahun, Tesfamichael, Tavasoli, Mahsa, Pandey, Venktesh, Sarrafzadeh, Abdolhossein, Karimoddini, Ali

Effect of Aftermarket Suspension Modifications on ADAS Functionality of Five Light Vehicles

12-09-04-0031

7/15/2026

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are increasingly prevalent in light vehicles, both in the United States and worldwide. Moreover, ADAS are steadily being incorporated into regulatory requirements globally. Like ADAS, the automotive aftermarket is also increasing in size and significance. As both ADAS and the aftermarket industry are growing, the effect of aftermarket modifications on ADAS functionality should be examined. However, there is very little information available in the public domain about the effect of aftermarket modifications on original equipment ADAS. This work is centered on a considerable research project that was conducted to address the knowledge gap at the intersection of ADAS and the aftermarket. The project investigates five light vehicles that are important to the aftermarket, including four pickup trucks and one sport-utility vehicle. It focuses solely on the effect of popular aftermarket suspension modifications, and it does not evaluate aftermarket ADAS equipment. Typical suspension modifications were applied to the test vehicles in five modification categories, including stock, lower kits, level kits, 3–4 in. lift kits, and 6 in. lift kits. Six ADAS test procedures were performed for the test vehicles, comprised of blind spot detection, crash imminent braking, lane departure warning, pedestrian automatic emergency braking, rear cross traffic alert, and traffic jam assist. The physical tests were developed based on National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) written experimental procedures. Statistical hypothesis testing was performed for the purpose of determining if average measured dynamic responses varied in the modified vehicles compared to stock. The results show that vehicles modified with typical aftermarket modifications will likely retain their ADAS functionality, given the limitations of the small sample size of five vehicles. Vehicles with 6 in. lift kits are expected to exhibit greater variability in their dynamic responses compared to stock. Plans for future work and unanswered research questions are outlined, with the goal of advancing aftermarket ADAS integration and ensuring the safety and performance of modified vehicles.

Bastiaan, Jennifer M., Morales, Luis, Muller, Mike

SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Building a Robust Engineering Culture in Our Nation's Capital

135767/10/2026

How does a strong engineering community help shape the future of mobility? Join us as we sit down with Brent Yacobucci, Acting Director of The John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, and Chair of the SAE Washington DC Section, to discuss the intersection of engineering, technology, and public policy in driving innovation in our nation's capital. From vehicle safety regulations and AI to autonomous vehicles, Brent explains why today's engineers must understand not only emerging technologies but also the policies that influence how they're developed, deployed, and adopted. The conversation also explores how the SAE Washington DC Section brings together industry, government, academia, and students to foster collaboration, innovation, and the next generation of engineering leaders. If you're in the Washington, DC area, join us on September 28 for the SAE Washington DC Section Charity Golf Outing to support student STEM programs and connect with fellow engineering professionals. We'd love to hear from you! Share your comments, questions or ideas for future topics with Grayson on Twitter or send them to podcast@sae.org. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.

Patterson, Lori

A Framework for Precautionary Safety for Automated Driving Systems—Toward Tactical Decisions Fulfilling Quantitative Risk Acceptance Criteria

12-09-04-0028

7/8/2026

Safety of Automated Driving Systems (ADSs) is arguably one of the main remaining barriers before widespread market deployment. While there exists a plethora of methods for planning a trajectory that fulfils certain constraints, what those constraints should look like, to enable effective planning of safe trajectories, is still being discussed. In this article, we generalize the concept of Precautionary Safety (PCS) and present a framework providing constraints on the tactical and operational decisions of the ADS. Such constraints consider the ADS’ capabilities, the external conditions, knowledge of statistically relevant events and behaviors of other traffic actors, as well as the controllability of these events. The proposed framework enables assessment of the statistical fulfilment of quantitative risk acceptance criteria (QRACs), including requirements on accident, injury, and fatality rates. The framework further provides a means to dynamically adapt the constraints used for trajectory planning, i.e., to adapt the driving to the situation at hand. A case study, considering a possible collision scenario with a jaywalking pedestrian and a rear-end collision with a trailing vehicle, is provided to showcase the applicability and usefulness of the presented framework. The simulation-based case study displays the safety benefits from considering QRACs with multiple injury risk levels and further shows how the proposed PCS framework can be applied in practice.

Gyllenhammar, Magnus, de Campos, Gabriel Rodrigues, Sandblom, Fredrik, Törngren, Martin, Fredriksson, Jonas

Harmonizing Generative AI and ISO 26262 for Safe and Intelligent ADAS Systems

2026-01-0785

7/1/2026

This paper investigates the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within radar-based perception for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) under safety considerations aligned with ISO 26262 [1] for functional safety and ISO 21448 (SOTIF) [2] for performance-related safety of the intended functionality. The study evaluates a hybrid architecture in which AI-based perception modules are combined with deterministic supervisory mechanisms to maintain safety compliance. A simulation-based case study using CARLA with radar sensor modeling is presented to compare a deterministic radar perception pipeline with an AI-enhanced approach under nominal and degraded environmental conditions. Performance is evaluated using precision, recall, and F1 score metrics. Results indicate improved recall and F1 score under adverse scenarios for the AI-based perception module, accompanied by a moderate increase in false positives. The paper discusses architectural constraints required to limit non-deterministic behavior, including confidence gating, deterministic supervision, and scenario-based validation. The findings are limited to simulation and are intended to provide preliminary insights into the technical and safety implications of incorporating AI-based radar perception within ISO 26262-compliant ADAS architectures.

Jain, Yesha

Multi-Agent LLM Architecture for Systems Engineering Automation

2026-01-0777

7/1/2026

The increasing complexity of modern software-intensive systems, particularly in the automotive domain, demands new approaches to bridge the gap between high-level engineering specifications and executable, safety-compliant code. This need is amplified by the rapid transition toward software-defined vehicles, where highly dynamic, updateable software functions significantly enlarge the scope and frequency of engineering activities and require scalable, transparent, and adaptive development processes. While recent advances in Large Language Models have demonstrated strong capabilities in automating tasks such as requirements analysis, code generation, and documentation, their deployment in safety-critical engineering workflows remains challenging due to the need for transparency, traceability, and controlled decision-making. This paper presents a modular multi-agent Large Language Model (LLM) pipeline that automates key steps of the systems engineering lifecycle - from requirement structuring and compliance checking to code and test generation - using specialized LLM agents orchestrated within a unified architecture. A central contribution of this work is the integration of a Human-in-the-Loop subsystem, which introduces configurable review checkpoints at critical stages such as requirements analysis, compliance assessment, code generation, and test creation. The human-in-the-loop module enables engineers to approve, reject, or modify intermediate results, ensuring human oversight, enhancing trustworthiness, and enabling adherence to functional safety standards. The system supports heterogeneous input formats and provides end-to-end traceability through structured outputs and detailed monitoring of performance metrics including model usage, token consumption, and automation efficiency. Initial evaluations indicate that the combination of multi-agent specialization and human-in-the-loop-guided oversight can significantly reduce engineering effort while maintaining the transparency and reliability required for regulated domains. By embedding controllable human supervision into the LLM-driven pipeline, this work offers a practical and scalable architecture for integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) automation into safety-critical systems engineering processes, with particular relevance to automotive software development.

Padubrin, Marcel, Kulzer, André Casal, Guerocak, Erol

Framing Rules of the Road Compliance for Driving Automation Systems from an Engineering Standpoint

DRRC-WP-01-20266/18/2026

Rules of the road were created to enable safe, predictable, and efficient road use by governing both individual vehicle operation and interactions among road users. Driving automation systems must be capable of complying with rules of the road to operate lawfully on public roads. Human drivers often rely on simplified guidance, such as state driver’s handbooks, together with tacit knowledge developed through experience and social norms to generalize behavior across jurisdictions. By contrast, driving automation systems must reasonably and explicitly account for the substantial volume of applicable legal requirements within its operational design domain (ODD). Accordingly, relevant legal requirements must be converted into explicit objective logic that can be utilized by driving automation systems. This paper proposes a method to address how driving behavior-related rules of the road can be consistently applied in engineering practice in a harmonized fashion across industry. Specifically, while rules of the road are expressed in natural language—often with subjective and context-dependent terms—driving automation systems require those rules to be interpreted and translated into unambiguous, testable engineering requirements. To address this, this white paper articulates key challenges and outlines systems-engineering approaches for engineering interpretation of rules of the road and their translation into objective requirements suitable for verification. Validation is also discussed as the process for ensuring that the requirements themselves remain appropriate over time.

Digital Road Rules Consortium

Investigation into Increasing Authority Involvement in the Automotive Development Process by Applying Best Practices from Aviation

2026-01-5021

6/8/2026

This study examines the involvement of authorities in the development processes of aviation and automotive industries by comparing the depth, frequency, and stages of their engagement. The background of this work is an ongoing research initiative focused on transferring methods from aviation to automotive. The method used in this study is an investigation of best practices across both industries. Based on this investigation, two proposals were developed for managing complex technologies, such as autonomous systems. Both proposals advocate for increased authority involvement, particularly during the early stages of projects. One proposal recommends making this enhanced involvement mandatory, while the other suggests it as a guideline rather than a requirement. To assess the benefits of these proposals, a human-input–based feasibility quantification method was applied. This method assesses feasibility on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 represents the lowest score, 5 is neutral, and 10 is the highest. The results indicate that the proposal recommending enhanced authority involvement achieved a score of 5.79, whereas the proposal mandating it scored 4.54. The conclusion of this study is that increasing authority involvement offers slight benefits when implemented as a recommendation rather than as a mandatory requirement.

Akkus, Yusuf, Annighöfer, Björn

Occupant Sex Equity and Vehicle Safety: Historical Activities, Research, and Countermeasure

2026-22-0002

5/28/2026

Since 2019, sex equity in traffic crashes has been a highly debated topic in vehicle safety, especially following the 2019 study by Forman et al. (1) claiming that female occupants face a 73 percent greater risk of serious injury in frontal crashes compared to male occupants. This was soon followed by a Consumer Reports Article by Keith Barry (2), which attempted to identify underlying factors contributing to the higher risk. These have been embraced by several parties since 2019. Firstly, it was alleged that vehicle design practice over the last four decades considered safety for the male population only and ignored that of the female as evidenced by the exclusive use of the mid-sized male Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) in Regulatory and Safety Ratings tests and not with an average sized female ATD. The absence of such an ATD for testing of vehicles “set the course for four decades’ worth of car safety design, with deadly consequences” (2). Secondly, although there is a recognition of the fact that Regulatory testing with a Small Female ATD, the Hybrid III-05F, was introduced in the FMVSS208 in 2003, this ATD was only a scaled version of the average male ATD of the 1970’s implying that this ATD is incapable of driving the design of restraint systems for females due to “They’re put together differently. Their material properties—their structure—is different” (2). Thirdly, according to a quote “These same trends have been observed in many, many studies in the past.” We assume that the trends refer to the apparent disparity in safety of females when compared to those of males. This document aims to outline historical activities, associated research and the development of countermeasures addressing crashworthiness concerns related to vehicle safety for females, as well as factors affecting both males and females, such as age-related impacts. This paper deals mainly with the frontal crash modes, mentions side impacts briefly as it affected designs of inflatable restraints for side impact to protect the smaller portion of the population from inflation induced injuries but the history behind the use of female ATDs by IIHS and NHTSA in full scale testing is not covered. Where ever possible, the time periods of reported activities related to female safety have been divided to pre-1997 corresponding to a change in US frontal crash regulation to address serious-to-fatal injuries to females and children, between 1997 to 2003 corresponding to the proposal by Canada for its frontal impact standard, and between 2003 and 2006 when the Advanced Restraint Regulation in the US FMVSS 208 was promulgated. This was followed by activities between 2007 and 2019, and post 2019 period.

Prasad, Priya, Dalmotas, Dainius J.

Constructing a Development Assurance Plan for Integrated Systems

AIR6218A (Current)

5/15/2026

This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) supplements ARP4754B/ED-79B by identifying the crucial elements to be considered when constructing the development assurance plans described in Section 3 (Development Assurance Planning) of ARP4754B/ED-79B for integrated systems. Section 4.6.4 of ARP4754B/ED-79B expands the aircraft/system integration and verification activities by emphasizing testing during integration to investigate for unintended behaviors. However, guidelines are needed for planning that are specifically aimed at the aircraft level and at integrating across system functions and boundaries. Until such guidelines are more comprehensively provided, this AIR presents a collection of lessons learned from past certification programs involving integrated systems, and as such it may be considered in conjunction with Sections 3 and 4 of ARP4754B/ED-79B. ARP4761A/ED-135 elaborates the safety activities by adding processes and methods such as the Aircraft or System Functional Hazard Assessment (AFHA/SFHA) and Preliminary Aircraft or System Safety Assessment (PASA/PSSA). These safety activities can contribute to the overall plans for the integration phase of development at the aircraft or system level, including the identification of areas that could lead to cascading failures or unintended behaviors. This AIR is not guidance for system integration technologies.

S-18 Aircraft and Sys Dev and Safety Assessment Committee

Letter from the Guest Editor

09-14-01-0034

5/13/2026

Letter from the Guest Editor

Tylko, Suzanne

Letter from the Editor-in-Chief

09-14-01-0001

5/13/2026

Letter from the Editor-in-Chief

Hardy, Warren N.

Frontal Crash Classification and Occupant Outcomes from 2017 to 2023 US Field Cases

09-14-01-0024

5/4/2026

This study provides an updated characterization of real-world frontal crash types—considering overlap and obliquity—based on their overall frequency and associated injury outcomes. The results of this study will support an evaluation of how well NHTSA’s frontal oblique crash test condition addresses the current population of serious frontal crashes, as compared to frontal test modes in existing crashworthiness programs. U.S. field crash data from 2017 to 2023 were analyzed to classify frontal crashes by coded damage characteristics. Oblique frontal crashes were defined as those with principal direction of force between 10°–40° and 320°–350°. Non-ejected belted first and second row occupants in model year 2000 and newer passenger vehicles absent a rollover event were included. Occupants were stratified by sex, age, and body mass index, and injury outcomes based on moderate, serious, and fatal thresholds were analyzed across crash configurations. Among the belted first row occupants considered in this study, more than 45% were exposed to oblique crashes while full overlap colinear crashes accounted for 18% of the occupants. Oblique crashes represent a disproportionately large number of AIS 3+ injured and fatal occupants. Older occupants and females showed a trend of higher injury frequency despite less exposure. Full overlap crashes still account for a representative portion of serious injuries among frontal crashes. Limitations include restriction of cases to those with complete vehicle and occupant details. Assessment of impact type was dependent on generic vehicle class-specific reference values. The findings reinforce the enduring relevance of oblique frontal crash conditions which remain a substantial contributor to serious injuries and fatalities, especially for older adults and female occupants.

Rudd, Rodney W.

Characterization of Fatal Cyclist Collisions Involving Nine Vehicle Types Traveling at Low and High Speeds in Japan

09-14-01-0005

5/4/2026

To reduce traffic fatalities through vehicle safety measures, particular attention must be given to cyclist-related fatalities. Clarifying the characteristics of hazardous events leading to cyclist fatalities, not only by vehicle speed range but also by vehicle type, is essential and should be based on analyses of real-world accident data. Accordingly, this study aimed to characterize fatal cyclist accidents involving vehicles traveling at low and high speeds in Japan. We used macro accident data from the Japanese Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis covering the period from 2013 to 2022. Based on nine vehicle types, we investigated the effects of road type, vehicle behavior, and accident type on cyclist fatalities. Additionally, we identified the five most frequent accident scenarios separately for each low- and high-speed category. At signalized intersections, the proportions of cyclist fatalities involving vehicles traveling at low speeds were higher than those involving vehicles traveling at high speeds across all vehicle types. In contrast, on straight roads, the proportions at low speeds were lower than those at high speeds for all vehicle types. In the low-speed range, cyclist fatalities within the top five scenarios accounted for 65% of all fatalities, with the most frequent scenario occurring at signalized intersections during left-turn maneuvers, where heavy-duty trucks accounted for 86% of the fatalities. In the high-speed range, cyclist fatalities within the top five scenarios accounted for 71% of all fatalities. The most frequent high-speed scenario involved crossing collisions at unsignalized intersections when vehicles traveled straight, with light passenger cars and sedans accounting for 29% and 24% of the fatalities, respectively. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of targeted traffic safety regulations and vehicle technologies aimed at reducing vehicle–cyclist collisions across different speed ranges.

Matsui, Yasuhiro, Oikawa, Shoko

Forvia Hella ready to light the night with ADB, but NHTSA test stands in the way

26AUTD05_01

5/1/2026

A demonstration ride shows the glare-free, game-changing power of adaptive driving beams, already available in Europe. An approval test from NHTSA is proving difficult for OEMs to pass. I'm riding in the second row of a Lincoln Navigator fitted with Forvia Hella's adaptive driving beam (ADB) headlight system. The low- and high-beams are on, blasting everything in front of us for between 350 and 500 feet (122 and 152 m) with a bright, daylight-temperature LED light. Even traffic and street signs at the edges of the road, which normally aren't as well illuminated, are bathed in brightness. A car pulls out in front of us, and the system instantly adjusts, creating a tunnel of unlit space on and just next to the vehicle ahead. So even though we still have high beams on the rest of the road, that driver isn't facing the harsh glare that is the No. 1 complaint about today's high-intensity headlight systems.

Clonts, Chris

Standard for Safety Glazing Materials for Glazing Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Equipment Operating on Land Highways - Safety Standard

SAEJ3097/ANSIZ26.1_202604 (Current)

4/17/2026

Specifications, test methods, and usage provisions for safety glazing materials used for glazing of motor vehicles and motor vehicle equipment operating on land highways.

Glazing Materials Standards Committee

AI-Enhanced Functional Safety in ADAS Controllers: Predictive Fault Management under ISO 26262

2026-01-0036

4/7/2026

Ensuring ISO 26262 functional safety in advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) is increasingly complex as these platforms integrate artificial intelligence (AI) for perception, decision-making, and vehicle control. Traditional safety mechanisms are largely deterministic, but AI introduces non-determinism, creating challenges for verification, validation, and certification. Real-time vehicle telemetry, sensor outputs, and environmental inputs are processed through machine learning algorithms that forecast hardware and software faults before they escalate into hazardous conditions. These predictions are systematically integrated with ISO 26262 safety measures, enabling adaptive diagnostics, fault isolation, and rapid recovery strategies. The AI model introduces hazards such as data bias, model drift, opaque decision-making, and unsafe automation. A dedicated AI Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment addresses data quality, validation, monitoring, explainability, and fail-safe mechanisms alongside system-level safety controls. The proposed approach demonstrates measurable improvements, including up to 25 % higher diagnostic coverage and fault-recovery times under 30 ms, while maintaining ASIL-D compliance and adhering to FTTI, SPFM, and DC requirements. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulations validate system performance and robustness under diverse operational scenarios. Future work focuses on uncertainty quantification and explainable AI integration, enhancing traceability and safety certification readiness for intelligent ADAS controllers. By demonstrating how AI can complement functional safety principles instead of conflicting with them, this study provides OEMs and Tier-1 suppliers with a roadmap for deploying certifiable, intelligent, and resilient ADAS platforms. This framework ensures safer, more reliable AI-enhanced vehicle systems while bridging the gap between emerging AI technologies and rigorous functional safety standards. This paper presents a predictive fault management framework that enhances functional safety in ADAS controllers by combining AI-driven predictive models with ISO 26262 safety mechanisms. This work uniquely bridges deterministic ISO 26262 workflows with predictive AI fault forecasting. In this framework, the AI model is used solely as a diagnostic enhancement and is not credited as an ISO 26262 safety mechanism; all safety decisions and fault reactions remain under deterministic safety-shell control.

Abdul Karim, Abdul Salam

A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle

2026-01-0616

4/7/2026

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s ESC performed quite well for the FMVSS 126 testing criteria and not as well with the FMVSS 136 testing criteria. The details of these results should both be considered if and when a new FMVSS ESC mandate is to be produced. To aide in the creation of such a mandate, additional experimental and simulation data will be necessary from other Class 5 vehicles. Simulated driving maneuvers with an accurate vehicle model will prove valuable in this pursuit. The results of such simulations will be discussed and the value that they bring will help to expedite the formation of the proposed FMVSS that covers these vehicles.

Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary

The Necessity of a Holistic Safety Evaluation Framework for AI-Based Automation Features

2026-01-0522

4/7/2026

The intersection of Safety of Intended Functionality (SOTIF) and Functional Safety (FuSa) analysis of driving automation features has traditionally excluded Quality Management (QM) components from rigorous safety impact evaluations. While QM components are not typically classified as safety-relevant, recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) integration reveal that such components can contribute to SOTIF-related hazardous risks. Compliance with emerging AI safety standards, such as ISO/PAS 8800, necessitates re-evaluating safety considerations for these components. This paper examines the necessity of conducting holistic safety analysis and risk assessment on AI components, emphasizing their potential to introduce hazards with the capacity to violate risk acceptance criteria when deployed in safety-critical driving systems, particularly in perception algorithms. Using case studies, we demonstrate how deficiencies in AI-driven perception systems can emerge even in QM-classified components, leading to unintended functional behaviors with critical safety implications. By bridging theoretical analysis with practical examples, this paper argues for the adoption of comprehensive FuSa, SOTIF, and AI standards-driven methodologies to identify and mitigate risks in AI components. The findings demonstrate the importance of revising existing safety frameworks to address the evolving challenges posed by AI, ensuring comprehensive safety assurance across all component classifications spanning multiple safety standards.

Abbaspour, Ali Reza, Mahadevan, Shabin, Zwirglmaier, Kilian, Stafford, Jeff

Agile Safety Case Assessments for Autonomous Vehicle Fleets

2026-01-0521

4/7/2026

Rapidly upcoming deployment of autonomous vehicles (AVs), including robotaxis and trucks, has intensified the need for rigorous safety assessment of complex AI-driven systems. While considerable effort has been invested in constructing safety cases for AVs, systematic approaches for evaluating these safety cases remain underdeveloped. This paper presents a three-stage methodology for assessing AV safety cases. A process for assessing argumentation is presented that involves traceability to pre-reviewed and peer-reviewed safety cases such as the Open Autonomy Safety Case (OASC). Next, we present a structured process for evaluating the quality of evidence supporting these arguments. We applied this methodology to evaluate safety cases from multiple AV developers, enabling iterative refinement throughout the development lifecycle. Our agile approach supports efficient assessments by establishing clear traceability to industry standards and enabling early identification of potential gaps. This work provides regulators, operators, and developers with a practical framework for systematically evaluating AV safety cases and identifies lessons learned and areas for continued improvement.

Wagner, Michael

Developing Safety Case for Automated Driving following UL 4600 & ISO 5083

2026-01-0527

4/7/2026

Automated Driving Systems (ADS) rely on AI algorithms, machine learning, and sensor fusion to perform autonomous driving tasks. Safety challenges arise due to the probabilistic behavior of AI/ML algorithms and the need to ensure safety within defined Operational Design Domains (ODDs). Traditional standards such as ISO 26262[3] (Functional Safety) and ISO 21448[4] (SOTIF) address hardware and software failures or functional deficiencies but are insufficient for higher-level autonomous systems (SAE Levels 3–5). To close this gap, additional standards such as UL 4600[1] and ISO 5083[2] provide complementary frameworks for ADS safety assurance. UL 4600[1] establishes a claim-based safety case encompassing the vehicle, infrastructure, and processes, emphasizing structured arguments supported by evidence and reasoning. It offers guidance on autonomy functions, V & V, tool qualification, dependability, and safety culture. ISO 5083[2] focuses on design, verification, and validation of ADS, extending safety lifecycles with system-level principles, risk criteria, and validation metrics. It defines the ADS safety case as proof of acceptable safety for specific features and environments, stressing safety-by-design, layered verification, and post-deployment monitoring, including cybersecurity. Together, UL 4600[1] and ISO 5083[2] enable a unified approach to safety assurance, aligning with Functional Safety and SOTIF principles. Their integration helps manufacturers evaluate ADS systematically, demonstrate risk acceptance, and maintain safety throughout the lifecycle.

Mudunuri, Venkateswara Raju, Almasri, Hossam, Fan, Hsing-Hua

Potential Regulatory Approaches for Occupant Safety in Automated Vehicles with Unique Seating Configurations – Part 1: Occupant Protection Proposals

2026-01-0578

4/7/2026

Some Automated / Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) have unique seating configurations (stagecoach and campfire seating) which present expanded occupant safety challenges. Significant portions of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) do not yet align with AVs containing unique seating. This paper series takes the NHTSA occupant safety standard approach for conventional forward-facing seat vehicles where many compliance evaluations are in the frequently occupied front row and expands it to stagecoach and campfire AVs where the rear seating row is anticipated to be frequently occupied. The approaches proposed are from a logic-based safety-focused analysis and in many cases previously published material. The goal of this paper series is to offer regulatory proposals that enable equivalent performance for these AVs to existing forward-facing seating vehicle occupant safety standards and meet Executive Order 13045 on child safety. Part 1 (this paper) focuses on occupant protection for the front and rear seating rows in stagecoach and campfire seating AVs for: front impacts (FMVSS-208), windshield mounting (FMVSS-212), windshield glazing (FMVSS-219), rear impacts (FMVSS-301/305), head restraints (FMVSS-202a), head impacts (FMVSS-201), side impacts (FMVSS-214), roof crush (FMVSS-216a), ejection mitigation (FMVSS-226), and door pinch (a potential FMVSS-118 addition). Some of the proposals address occupant performance for vehicles without traditional leg and restraint reaction surfaces. In addition, an interior safety sensing approach that assesses if occupants are properly restrained before a ride can begin is proposed as an alternative / a replacement for unbelted in-position occupant performance compliance evaluations. This document also provides regulatory condition thoughts for AVs without a usable driver seat location. Part 2 (SAE paper 2026-01-0576) discusses interior safety sensing and associated messaging. These approaches can be used in industry-wide regulatory next step contemplation and deliberation for unique interior seating arrangement AVs, including public discussions, safety research, approach proposal development, and rulemaking efforts.

Thomas, Scott

Maintaining a Healthy Safety Culture in Autonomous Vehicle Development and Operations

2026-01-0528

4/7/2026

Safety isn’t just the absence of accidents - it’s the presence of trust, empowerment, and accountability at every level. The result is a high-trust culture where process becomes practice and safety is a shared achievement. When people closest to the work feel supported to act on what they see, safety becomes the standard. Thus, the deployment of autonomous driving systems (ADSs) requires not only technical rigor but also a resilient organizational safety culture that supports continuous learning, accountability, and transparent communication. This paper examines how safety culture can be operationalized in ADS development and operations by integrating guidance from standards such as UL 4600 and best practices from SAE AVSC. UL 4600’s requirements for systematic hazard analysis, safety case maintenance, and safety performance indicators (SPIs) are used as a foundation for quantifying organizational behavior within a Just Culture framework. This work draws on Human and Organizational Performance (HOP) research, including foundational contributions from Hollnagel, Reason, Dekker, Conklin, and Rasmussen, linking cultural dynamics to workforce involvement and effective safety controls. We propose a taxonomy of seven safety-culture SPIs that trace directly to UL 4600 § 16.2.5 and demonstrate how they can be deployed within an incident-handling process. Each SPI is defined mathematically and mapped to process steps, enabling both leading- and lagging-indicator assessment of safety culture maturity. This proposed framework, which requires formal research validation, transforms SPIs from compliance metrics into qualitative diagnostic tools for trust, empowerment, and system learning. The approach aligns organizational processes with Just Culture principles, distinguishing human error, at-risk behavior, and reckless conduct, while supporting continuous improvement and evidence-based conformance with UL 4600 and related ADS safety standards.

Wagner, Michael, Gittleman, Michele

Safety-Centered Scenario Generation for Autonomous Vehicles

2026-01-0529

4/7/2026

This paper presents a scenario generation framework that creates diverse, parametrized, and safety-critical driving situations to validate the safety features of autonomous vehicles in simulation [1]. By modeling factors such as road geometry, traffic participants, environmental conditions, and perception uncertainties, the framework enables repeatable and scalable testing of safety mechanisms, including emergency braking, evasive maneuvers, and vulnerable road user protection. The framework supports both regulatory and edge case scenarios, mapped to hazards and safety goals derived from Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA), ensuring traceability to ISO 26262 functional safety requirements and performance limitations. The output from these simulations provides quantitative safety metrics such as time-to-collision, minimum distance, braking and steering performance, and residual collision severity. These metrics enable the systematic evaluation of evasive maneuvering as a safety feature, while highlighting system limitations and edgecase vulnerabilities. Integration of scenario-based simulation with safety engineering principles offers accelerated validation cycles, improved test coverage at reduced cost, and stronger evidence for regulatory and stakeholder confidence.

Chandra Shekar, Kiruthiga, Arab, Aliasghar

Potential Regulatory Approaches for Occupant Safety in Automated Vehicles with Unique Seating Configurations – Part 2: Interior Safety Sensing and Messaging Proposals

2026-01-0576

4/7/2026

This paper contains Part 2 of a two-part paper series proposing potential regulatory approaches for occupant safety in Automated / Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) with unique seating configurations (stagecoach and campfire seating). Part 2 focuses on interior safety sensing, associated messaging, and ride control approaches both prior to and during a ride. Assessments are also proposed after significant vehicle braking and crash events. The proposed conditions are to be assessed in a static vehicle environment with humans segmented by occupant size and an infant dummy. On the vehicle seat and on the vehicle floor occupant detection conditions are proposed along with restraint usage detection conditions for vehicle seat belt usage, Child Restraint Seat (CRS) usage, CRS seat belt usage, and Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children (LATCH) system usage. These conditions may be detected by sensors / computer algorithms and human monitoring and thus are technology agnostic. The topics of animal detection and cargo detection are also discussed. Part 1 of this paper series (SAE paper 2026-01-0578) proposed using interior safety sensing as an alternative / a replacement for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 (FMVSS-208) Occupant Crash Protection unbelted in-position occupant compliance conditions. This paper proposes conditions involving occupant and seat belt restraint usage detection. This evaluation approach strives to prevent unbelted occupants and is an improvement over restraint countermeasures for unbelted occupants. This paper also discusses and proposes visual and audible safety messaging for prior to the ride occupant education and for occupant and restraint usage detection outcomes. Vehicle level ride control actions are suggested such as preventing a ride when improperly restrained occupants are detected. These approaches can be used in industry-wide regulatory next step contemplation for unique interior seating arrangement AVs. When adopted, these approaches would likely reside in an expanded version of FMVSS-208.

Thomas, Scott

Securing the AI-Driven Vehicle: A Hardware-Based Security Framework for Scalable, Trustworthy Autonomy

2026-01-0085

4/7/2026

The emergence of AI-driven autonomy in modern vehicles marks a pivotal evolution in transportation, but it also introduces deep system-level vulnerabilities that span from sensor interface tampering to compute unit compromise and untrusted communication links. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) operate as distributed intelligent systems, relying on real-time data exchange between zonal gateways, AI compute platforms, and safety-critical electronic control units (ECUs). These interactions must be protected from hardware-based attacks that could compromise functional safety, system integrity, or operational availability. The deployment of AI-driven AVs introduces unprecedented levels of complexity. Sensors, AI compute clusters, and actuators communicate over multiple interfaces including Ethernet, PCIe, and MIPI, exposing vehicles to potential cybersecurity attacks. This paper proposes a unified, layered hardware security architecture tailored for AI-powered automated vehicles. Grounded in current automotive Ethernet and zonal architectures, it provides end-to-end trust using hardware interface security, accelerated- cryptography, and SRAM PUF-based key provisioning. All security primitives are anchored to hardware root of trust, delivering cryptographic identity, secure boot enforcement, and trusted key storage across the entire vehicle lifecycle.

C Suriyanarayanan, Pav, Iacob, Radu

Holistic Solution of Unified Framework for Integration of Safety Process into Automotive Software Development Process

2026-01-0068

4/7/2026

The rapid advancement of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), automated driving and electrification has significantly increased the software content and complexity within modern vehicles. Consequently, ensuring both high process quality and compliance or qualification with functional safety standards becomes critically important. Automotive Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination (ASPICE 4.0) focus on Process quality and Capability Maturity, while ISO 26262:2018 emphasizes engineering guidelines for functional safety and risk mitigation. The efficient integration of the process and standard remains a key challenge due to differences in their objectives, terminologies, and assessment criteria. The misalignment between ASPICE 4.0 and ISO 26262:2018 standard often results in duplicated efforts, rework of work products, and delays in product release schedules. This paper proposes a unified framework to bridge ASPICE 4.0 process areas with ISO 26262:2018 safety standard recommendations and activities. The framework introduces a refined V-model that integrates safety lifecycle activities directly into ASPICE 4.0 process workflows, enabling a harmonized and systematic approach to software development and safety compliance. While maintaining a focus on system engineering (SYS) and software engineering (SWE) process areas, this paper also discusses how the hardware engineering (HWE) process and support process (SUP) areas in ASPICE 4.0 can be mapped to the ISO 26262:2018 standard. In addition, the proposed framework addresses the concept phase of the safety lifecycle, encompassing item definition, HARA, safety goals and functional safety concept (FSC). This technique facilitates higher process efficiency, reduces redundant activities, and enhances product quality while maintaining compliance with both standards. The harmonized approach presented in this paper provides a holistic solution to current industry challenges by enabling incorporation of safety practices within automotive software development process. This ensures that vehicle systems meet quality and safety expectations, supporting timely product delivery in an increasingly competitive and regulated automotive market.

Ravi, Reshma, Easwaramoorthy, Prasad Vignesh, Promise, Dinu

New Era of Automotive Cybersecurity

2026-01-0086

4/7/2026

The automotive industry is evolving from a reactive, independently self-determined approach to cybersecurity, complicated by a complex supply chain. Over time, this has resulted in a fragmented industry comprised of any number of proprietary solutions verses a standardized, regulated paradigm to facilitate a platform-oriented approach. This document, an update on collaborative work from the SAE Vehicle Electrical Hardware Security Task Force (TEVEES18B) and GlobalPlatform Automotive Task Force, outlines this transition strategy. An extensible number of additional examples of use cases of Global Platform Technologies are explored in this document.

Mazzara, Bill, Rawlings, Craig

Predictive AEB Activation for Secondary Collision Risk Reduction

2026-01-0518

4/7/2026

Although the evaluation criteria of New Car Assessment Programs (NCAP) continue to evolve, they still predominantly focus on one-to-one collision scenarios. However, accident analyses based on traffic databases from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the United States and the Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis (ITARDA) in Japan indicate that in real-world traffic environments, particularly at intersections with multi-lane arterial roads, complex situations involving multiple vehicles are likely to arise. Further examination of these crash configurations suggests that AEB activation, depending on the resulting stopping position, may entail a potential secondary collision risk under certain intersection conditions. To mitigate secondary collision risks, this study introduces a Secondary Collision Mitigation Logic (SCM Logic), which estimates Time-To-Intercept (TTI) for multiple crossing vehicles to predict when each vehicle will reach the potential collision area. In addition to TTI, the system evaluates whether the ego vehicle’s predicted post-braking position is likely to overlap with the trajectory of a secondary target. This combined assessment enables the system to proactively identify scenarios where a potential risk of secondary side collisions may occur after AEB activation, allowing for earlier intervention than conventional TTC-based methods. The proposed SCM Logic was evaluated in closed-loop virtual simulations with CarMaker. In addition, open-loop vehicle tests with dummy targets were conducted to validate trigger timing, and the avoidance outcomes were assessed through estimated stopping-distance analyses based on measured and assumed parameters. Across representative scenarios, the results indicate a reduction tendency in predicted secondary collision occurrences relative to a baseline AEB. These findings suggest that incorporating multi-vehicle intersection scenarios into future NCAP evaluations would enable a more accurate and realistic assessment of AEB effectiveness in real-world traffic environments. The proposed approach contributes to the advancement of vehicle safety technologies and supports the development of more comprehensive and practical safety standards across the automotive industry.

Kobayashi, Fumiya, Fukuda, Kentaro, Tani, Hiroaki

Statistical Assessment of Pretensioner and Load Limiter Effects on the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD Response in Frontal Impacts

2026-01-0550

4/7/2026

Enhancing child occupant protection requires a clear understanding of how seatbelt restraint parameters influence crash injury metrics. Real-world vehicles mostly include pretensioner and load limiter technologies to mitigate injuries, but rear seat restraints often do not include these. The FMVSS No. 213 test bench closely represents current restraint systems but does not involve such active vehicle restraint features. This study explores the response of the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD to evaluate potential injury mitigation under FMVSS No. 213 frontal sled test conditions. A simulation-based full factorial design was implemented in LS-DYNA to vary pretensioner retraction, retractor load-limiting thresholds, and webbing payout, with injury measures including head acceleration, head excursion, chest compression, and abdominal pressure twin sensors (APTS). Statistical evaluation using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer post-hoc tests quantified main and interaction effects. Pretensioners consistently reduced head excursion and acceleration, while load limiters lowered chest compression but increased excursion, illustrating a performance trade-off. Webbing payout behavior showed strong coupling to load-limiting thresholds, revealing notable parameter interdependencies. These results demonstrate that integrating pretensioners and load limiters into child restraint systems could yield meaningful safety benefits but must be optimized holistically to balance competing injury metrics. The study provides both empirical insight and a statistical framework for evaluating advanced restraint configurations in pediatric occupant simulations.

Khattak, Mohid Muneeb, Bendig, Colleen, Louden, Allison, Noll, Scott

Accuracy Requirements for the Road Friction Coefficient Estimation of a Friction-Adaptive Automatic Emergency Braking System as a Software Solution for Integrated Chassis Control Systems

10-10-02-0016

3/10/2026

As part of this work, the accuracy requirements for the road friction coefficient estimation of a friction-adaptive automatic emergency braking (AEB) system are determined using a complex, nonlinear vehicle model. The AEB system varies its trigger distance depending on an estimated value of the road friction coefficient. The accuracy requirements are determined at a driving speed of 40 km/h depending on the severity classification of ISO 26262 in the statistically relevant Euro NCAP test scenario with a stationary target vehicle. MATLAB/Simulink is used as simulation software. The permissible estimation error (difference between estimated value and road friction coefficient) is determined by the severity classification S1 (light and moderate injuries). The results show that the positive permissible estimation error (road friction coefficient is overestimated) must not exceed about 30% of the road friction coefficient to comply with the severity classification S1 of ISO 26262.

Ahrenhold, Tim, Wielitzka, Mark, Binnewies, Tomas, Henze, Roman

Startup Neumo says it can detect impaired drivers by scanning brain waves

26AUTP03_09

3/1/2026

A Detroit-based startup says its device can analyze brain activity to help figure out whether a driver is impaired. The impaired driver-detection business has been heating up since even before NHTSA announced in 2024 that it was working what would eventually be a mandate that vehicles be able to detect impaired drivers and mitigate the danger they represent to the motoring public.

Clonts, Chris

Use of Models and Tools for Aircraft Systems Development - A Strategy for Development Assurance Aspects with Examples

AIR6276 (Current)

3/1/2026

The increased use of models in the development of complex aircraft and systems provides great opportunities and benefits, but also introduces some additional risks. The purpose of this document is to clarify ways to identify, prioritize, and mitigate risks associated with the use of models and tools in aircraft and system development. This document introduces considerations for the usage of models and tools in aircraft and system development activities that are defined in ARP4754/ED-79 (at latest revision). Throughout this document, a model refers to an abstract representation of a given set of aspects of a system/function/item, and a tool refers to an application or commercial product that is used for aircraft or system development activities such as developing, managing, and executing models, managing requirements validation and implementation verification activities and associated data, and automation of complex development tasks. The characteristics of models and tools and how they are applied differently for system-level development compared to item-level development are discussed. A discussion of several types of potential errors that can arise during the application of models and tools to system development is included as well. This is followed by proposed activities for managing the risks associated with the application of models and tools to system development. These suggestions start by identifying the contribution of models and tools to the decision-making process, and then understanding the impact of potential model and tool errors, leading to a discussion of potential process mitigations and methods for increasing the confidence in the application of models and tools to system development. NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, in the context of this document, the term “risk” is used to mean risks associated with potential errors that can be introduced in model and tool development and usage. System development activities that may employ models and tools include but are not limited to: Developing the system functions, architecture, and design Validating system functions and their requirements under normal and unusual conditions (extreme cases, tolerance stack-ups, failure insertion, etc.), which can help define additional requirements for features to constrain adverse operation Developing test procedures to be used in verifying the implemented system when it becomes available Analyzing the performance of a system against requirements over a range of inputs and conditions or combinations thereof to supplement the system verification Confirming the intended behavior of a system design using a validated model This document applies to models that are used for requirements analysis, design analysis, or to better understand and define requirements. Models that are used as the requirements are not discussed in this document, as in this case the ARP4754/ED-79 (at latest revision) Requirements Capture section and other associated sections provide the pertinent objectives and guidelines. This document does not describe the software or hardware development process or the direct verification of such items. It is assumed that these software or hardware processes, which may involve use of models, are handled by their respective guidance (e.g., DO-178C/ED-12C or DO-254/ED-80). This use of models is not described in this document, despite that it might involve system development processes in combination with software or hardware development processes. There is already a large and growing list of models and tools being applied in the development of complex systems, including computer aided design (CAD) tools for installation analysis, models and tools supporting system safety analysis, architectural models supporting various analyses, and tools used to simulate and analyze system performance or behavior. Two examples are presented to illustrate where models and tools are used to facilitate a set of typical system design decisions. The examples also identify model and tool errors, describe possible mitigation methods used to increase confidence in the use of models and tools in system development, and minimize the effect of errors that may be introduced by using the models and tools. The two examples are: An aircraft-level control law design targeted for software implementation on a digital computer, where a model is used for analysis of the control gains (referred to as the Roll Control System and described in Appendix A) An avionics network architecture where the tool analyzes the interfaces between the elements and identifies issues in the architecture (referred to as the Network Analysis Tool and described in Appendix B) The examples herein are not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of all considerations, but rather to demonstrate a set of principles and techniques that are generally applicable to the use of models and tools in system design. The Roll Control System and the Network Analysis Tool examples show how confidence in the models and tools can be established.

S-18 Aircraft and Sys Dev and Safety Assessment Committee

RISC-V: Bringing Greater Reliability, Safety, and Security to Military and Aerospace Systems

26AERD03_02

3/1/2026

Military and aerospace applications have become increasingly complex real-time systems. Multi-core SoCs improve performance but create new challenges in maintaining and verifying deterministic behavior. Connected systems require exceptional security to protect code from external cyberattacks. Evolving functional safety and reliability standards that keep raising the bar mean developers need to begin comprehensive testing sooner if they are going to meet tighter design schedules. Finally, certifying these complex systems has become even more difficult. To help OEMs meet these challenges, the RISC-V architecture has been designed with unique capabilities that support reliability and security in the development of safety-critical applications. With its open instruction set architecture, modularity, and extensibility, RISC-V accelerates the design of functionally safe systems while reducing the complexity, cost, and risk associated with certification to standards like DO-178C and ISO 26262.

Cumulative Prospect Theory Coupled with Multi-Attribute Decision-Making for Path Selection in Hazardous Materials Road Transportation

09-14-02-0002

2/20/2026

Path selection for the transport of hazardous materials (Hazmats) is a multi-facet decision problem that needs to account for multiple factors such as accident risk as well as transportation cost. Most existing literature has modeled the risk of Hazmats transportation as the product of accident loss, and its probability-based expected utility theory, however, could be problematic since such a risk definition does not necessarily reflect the real perceived risk by the decision-maker. This article proposes a novel approach to the path selection of Hazmats transportation based on the cumulative prospect theory (CPT). Specific steps in the decision of path selection are first laid out in the framework of CPT. Value (Loss) functions of accident in Hazmats transportation are then derived, together with the decision weighting function reflecting accident probabilities. For illustration, a case study is conducted using transportation data from a Hazmats transportation firm in Shanghai. Comparisons of path selections among the newly proposed approach, the existing methods based on expected utility theory, and the actual outcome from the decision-makers clearly indicate the superior performance of the proposed method. The results will enhance the safety level of road transportation of Hazmats.

Wang, Xulei, Sun, Chunwei

Achieving Reliability, Safety & Security in SDV OS Architecture

2026-28-0122

2/12/2026

Software-defined vehicles are those whose functionalities and features are primarily governed by software, thus allowing continuous updates, upgrades, and the introduction of new capabilities throughout their lifecycle. This shift from hardware-centric to software-driven architectures is a major transformation that reshapes not only product development and operational strategies but also business models in the automotive industry. An SDV operating system provides the base platform to manage vehicle software and enable those advanced functionalities. Unlike traditional embedded or general-purpose operating systems, it is designed to meet the particular demands of modern automotive architectures. Reliability, safety, and security become crucial because even minor faults may have serious consequences. Key challenges to be handled by the SDV OS include how to handle software bugs, perform real-time processing, address functional safety and SOTIF compliance, adhere to regulations, minimize attack surface exposure, and protect against remote access and data breaches. This is achieved via sound architectural principles, including a CSM for fine-grained access control, a lean and minimal kernel to reduce vulnerabilities, secure and efficient inter-process communication, and user-level drivers to provide better fault isolation. The key novelty of this approach rests on the fact that it uses open-source kernels, libraries, and tools that guarantee flexibility, clarity, and community-driven innovation. It provides a flexible runtime environment and OS-level isolation using virtualization, safe hardware sharing, and adherence to safety standards to set up the SDV OS as a resounding, secure, and future-ready base for next-generation automotive systems.

Khan, Misbah Ullah, Gupta, Vishal

Provisions of Medical Oxygen for Aircraft Occupants

AIR6190A (Current)

1/21/2026

This document provides information on provisions for passengers with disabilities on board commercial aircraft. In this context the term "provision of medical oxygen" shall be understood as application of oxygen on board an aircraft not linked to (post) decompression in the sense of Airworthiness Requirements FAR/CS 25 and Operational Regulations of FAR 121/135. Information about available equipment and physiological treatment in clinical practice will be provided in this document. It covers the use of oxygen concentrators according to guidance of FAR Advisory Circular AC120-95.

A-10 Aircraft Oxygen Equipment Committee

Analysis on Impact of SUMS(R156) Update on Functional Safety

2026-26-0618

1/16/2026

Now a days, with the increasing integration of advanced technology in modern vehicles, manufacturers are now able to update their software seamlessly, thereby enhancing functionality and ensuring optimal performance. Therefore, Software Update Management Systems (SUMS) has been introduced to enhance vehicle security, improve performance, and ensure that the latest software enhancements and fixes can be delivered efficiently. With this increasing complexity and ensure connectivity of modern vehicles, necessitates robust systems to manage software updates. Within this context, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's Regulation No. 156 (UN R156) provides specific requirements for SUMS to ensure safety, security, and traceability. The evaluation of R156-compliant SUMS within the framework of functional safety protocols, such as ISO 26262 for automotive presents numerous technical challenges. This paper aims to analyze the impact of R156-compliant SUMS update on the system/item, in accordance with the functional safety standard ISO 26262. This paper addresses how the safety life cycle is influenced by various software flashing methods and potential effects of R156-compliant SUMS updates on work products related to the functional safety standard ISO 26262 using an assessment checklist. Consequently, this paper will provide a guidance for conducting Impact analysis under the ISO 26262 framework when an R156 SUMS update is initiated.

Talasila, Namitha

Enhancing EV Battery Safety: Progressive Crushing and Energy Absorption Technique

2026-26-0189

1/16/2026

A crash energy absorption technique and method improve the safety and structural integrity of electric vehicle battery packs during collisions, complying with global regulations. This analysis details an assembly featuring a battery housing for mounting battery cells, a crash member connected to the battery housing's periphery, and flexural members linked to the crash member. The flexural members are designed to absorb impact forces by deforming and storing potential energy during sudden impacts. This approach ensures energy is stored within the flexural elements and then transferred to the battery cells through progressive crushing. The design effectively delays intrusion, enhances battery safety, and minimizes cell-level damage. This solution improves occupant safety and prevents thermal runaway incidents while maintaining the battery's overall performance and reliability in EVs.

Amberkar S, Sunil, Lakshman singh, Meenakumari, Bodaindala, Anil Kumar

Ensuring Functional Safety in Electric Vehicle Inverters: A Case Study on ISO 26262 Implementation

2026-26-0158

1/16/2026

The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) has brought about significant advancements in automotive technology, with inverters playing a crucial role in converting DC power from the battery to AC power for the electric motor. Ensuring the functional safety of these inverters is paramount, as any failure can have severe implications for vehicle performance and passenger safety. This case study explores the successful implementation of ISO 26262 standards in the development and validation of EV traction inverters. This paper begins by outlining the functional requirements and safety goals specific to EV inverters, followed by a detailed analysis of the potential hazards and risks associated with their operation. Using ISO 26262 as a framework, we describe the systematic approach taken to identify, assess, and mitigate these risks. Key methodologies such as Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA), Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), and Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) are employed to ensure comprehensive safety coverage. This case study showcases the integration of key safety mechanisms—such as redundancy, fault tolerance, and real-time monitoring—to significantly enhance the reliability and robustness of the inverter system. It also explores the challenges encountered during implementation, including the complexity of managing safety critical high-voltage systems and the need to stay aligned with evolving safety standards.

Ramachandra, Shwetha, V, Sushmitha

Towards AI-Driven Automated Driving Systems_Homologations Perspective

2026-26-0133

1/16/2026

This paper examines the challenges and opportunities in homologating AI-driven Automated Driving Systems (ADS). As AI introduces dynamic learning and adaptability to vehicles, traditional static homologation frameworks are becoming inadequate. The study analyzes existing methodologies, such as the New Assessment/Test Methodology (NATM), and how various institutions address AI incorporation into ADS certification. Key challenges identified include managing continuous learning, addressing the "black-box" nature of AI models, and ensuring robust data management. The paper proposes a harmonized roadmap for AI in ADS homologation, integrating safety standards like ISO/TR 4804 and ISO 21448 with AI-specific considerations. It emphasizes the need for explainability, robustness, transparency, and enhanced data management in certification processes. The study concludes that a unified, global approach to AI homologation is crucial, balancing innovation with safety while addressing ethical considerations and public trust. Future research directions include developing real-time monitoring techniques and certification processes for adaptive systems.

Lujan Tutusaus, Carlos, Hidalgo, Justin

Unique Methodology to Cluster and Reuse the “Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment” for Different Electrical/Electronic Systems of an Automobile

2026-26-0004

1/16/2026

Modern automotive systems are becoming increasingly complex, comprising tightly integrated hardware and software components with varying safety implications. As the demand for ISO 26262 compliance grows, performing efficient and consistent Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA) across these layers presents both methodological and practical challenges. Traditional approaches often involve performing HARA for an item (where item maybe a system or a combination of systems), which can lead to update of HARA for every new feature addition in an item, which in turn may lead to analysis of same functions in multiple HARAs leading to inconsistent risk categorization, redundancy, or even conflicting safety goals. Therefore, this paper proposes a unique HARA methodology which consolidates the list of functions from various systems and performs the HARA for the grouped functions (hereby referred to as Cluster HARAs). For example, Electrical power steering, Electric pump powered hydraulic steering, Electric motor assisted – hydraulic steering, have identical functions but are being analysed separately for many years which causes redundancy and results in increased effort. Once a cluster HARA is created, in case of development of a new feature/function or update of an existing feature/function, we check only for similar functions in the existing cluster HARAs and take up the corresponding safety goals. In this way, all the systems / components which has the same function, refer to the cluster HARA and no redundant HARAs are created, resulting in decreased effort from implementation point of view. In short, the proposed methodology will greatly reduce the number of HARAs that are handled across all systems. The benefits of using this methodology also involve identifying unique safety goals for each function, irrespective of how the function is implemented. When the new E/E features are developed which uses the existing vehicle functions, it simplifies the workflow by reusing the existing cluster HARAs.

Somasundaram, Manickam, Vijayakumar, Melvin

Achieving Full ASIL-B Level Functional Safety (FuSa) for Automotive Clusters

2026-26-0008

1/16/2026

Integrating advanced technologies into modern vehicles has led to an increasing focus on Functional Safety (FuSa), especially for the Automotive Integrated Cluster Module (ICM) to ensure the safety of the driver and passengers. This paper highlights the need to bring certain ICM components under an Automotive Safety Integrity Level B (ASIL-B) context using Classic AUTOSAR. This paper discusses the challenges faced and the solutions implemented for achieving compliance with ISO 26262 standards along with the Classic AUTOSAR framework. We are proposing a standardized and structured methodology for the design of the components in compliance with the key safety principles, including Freedom from Interference (FFI), execution under privileged levels, and integrity verification, particularly by adopting Classic AUTOSAR frameworks. This paper also presents the Functional Safety (FuSa) goals for these components and also extend to their configuration management and updating strategies within the ICM integrating Classic AUTOSAR with Graphics libraries or tools (such as Qt or OpenGL) and deploying them over a Secure Operating System (OS) enables not only compliance with functional safety requirements but also provides a standardized foundation for communication, error handling, cybersecurity, and other essential Classic AUTOSAR services.

Singh, Iqbal, Kumar, Praveen

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