Browse Topic: Electric motors

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A Comprehensive CFD‑Driven Approach to Battery Thermal Modeling and Cooling System Optimization2026-01-0752To be published on 07/01/2026
In recent years, the thermal management batteries for automotive applications has become a key factor to further improve their performance and ensure their efficiency, durability and safety. As a matter of the fact, an overheat of these devices can result in various issues, including degradation of insulation materials, decreased efficiency, shortened lifespan, and even failure and consequent thermal runaway. In this context, this work aims to improve the comprehension of heat dissipation in batteries and to model the cooling circuit through the integration of CFD, in order to provide guidelines for the optimization of the overall system. To this scope, a novel OpenFOAM solver is introduced, capable of computing electric quantities along with losses inside the battery cells, consequently assessing heat generation across various components. The combined thermodynamic and electric analysis of the battery, which predicts the heat sources and temperature distribution under the effective
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Tariq, Muhammad Hasnain, Bonetti, Elisa
Multiphysical modeling of a direct-cooled litzwire winding for a PMSM using surrogate models2026-01-0731To be published on 07/01/2026
In permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) ohmic losses occur in the stator windings. Reducing these losses contributes to a higher efficiency and increases the vehicles range. An effective approach to reduce frequency-dependent AC conduction loss is the use of litz wires. In addition, direct cooling helps to reduce DC conduction loss and winding temperatures. Therefore, this work presents a multiphysical modeling approach of a direct-cooled litz wire winding in a PMSM. It combines loss modeling of the winding with novel thermal and hydraulic calculation methods. AC conduction loss due to skin and proximity effect and DC conduction loss are modeled temperature dependent. Scaled-down conjugate heat transfer simulations are used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between wires and coolant. Additionally, the pressure drop is derived and converted into parameters for use in a porous media model. The derived parameters are used to generate surrogate models to enable
Blaschke, Wolfgang Maximilian, Mengoni, Leonard, List, Adrian, Kulzer, André Casal
Improved Thermal Management for Operating a Battery Electric City Bus under Real Driving Conditions2026-01-0758To be published on 07/01/2026
The goal of reducing the global CO2 emissions requires actions especially for the transportation sector. To achieve the goal, electric traction motors are frequently implemented in passenger vehicles as well as in commercial vehicles like heavy-duty trucks or buses. Particularly electric city buses have the potential to reduce the local emissions in urban areas and provide local exhaust-emission-free mobility. While their number of registrations rises, research focusses on the improvement of the overall system in order to increase the energy efficiency. High importance is gained by the thermal management of the whole system. This research describes and investigates a simulative approach to improve the thermal management and therefore the energy efficiency of an electric bus system. The different thermal components of an electric city bus like drive system, battery system and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC system) are modelled. Their thermal behaviour has been
Schäfer, Henrik, Hellberg, Tobias, Meywerk, Martin
Influence of Common Mode Voltage Reduction Algorithms on High-Frequency Sideband Vibrations in PMSMs2026-01-0695To be published on 06/20/2026
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) induces Common Mode Voltage (CMV) in three-phase Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs). This CMV generates high-frequency sharp edges that can lead to significant leakage currents, which, in drive applications, may accelerate motor bearing degradation and cause winding insulation failure. To mitigate these issues, alternative modulation strategies such as Active-Zero State PWM (AZSPWM) and Near-State PWM (NSPWM) have been proposed in the literature. These techniques aim to reduce CMV and thereby decrease the degradation of electrical drives. This paper analyzes the Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) performance of AZSPWM and NSPWM compared with conventional SVPWM. The two CMV reduction schemes are tested on interior permanent magnet synchronous motors (IPMSMs) to evaluate their effectiveness in lowering CMV, as well as their impact on high-frequency sideband vibration harmonics. The results show that, although CMV is effectively reduced
Khamis, Mahmoud Aly, Tatar, Andrei Alexandru, Repecho, Victor, Doria-Cerezo, Arnau
Electric drive unit housing ribbing for low noise radiation2026-01-0687To be published on 06/20/2026
Although propulsion noise often constitutes a minority of the overall noise in electric vehicles, it remains an important quality indicator due to its high-frequency tonal character, which is undesirable even at low levels. There are many factors that influence the interior car levels of propulsion noise, i.e. gear whine and electric motor whine. The primary ones to consider are the electric drive units (EDU) internal forces, but also secondary properties such as EDU housing design and encapsulation, vehicle sound pack and mount isolation play important roles. This work focuses on EDU housing design and more particularly on the housing ribbing that enables attachment point stiffness and housing strength, but which can also cause problems in terms of noise radiation. Numerical parameter studies on geometrical properties such as length dimensions, thickness and curvature were performed on single ribs of different types. For each design iteration, the key performance indicators radiated
Lennström, David, Malm, Oskar, wurzinger, Jakob, Cederlund, Johan
A High-Performance Computing Strategy for Acoustic Encapsulation Modeling of Electric Vehicle Subsystems Using Coupled BEM–PEM–FEM Methods2026-01-0694To be published on 06/20/2026
Electric vehicle subsystems, including powertrains, electric motors, and gearboxes, pose new challenges in achieving stringent acoustic performance targets for both interior and exterior noise. These challenges are intensified by increasingly demanding customer expectations regarding interior acoustic comfort, which encompasses the reduction of intrusive noise sources and the enhancement of overall sound quality across a broad frequency spectrum. A primary concern associated with electric vehicles subsystems is the generation of high-frequency tonal noise, commonly referred to as whine noise, which can significantly impact acoustic performance and passenger comfort. High-frequency whine noise propagates through multiple transmission paths and can be effectively attenuated at the source through encapsulation strategies, which also contribute to broadband noise reduction across a wide frequency spectrum. To predict the acoustic performance of encapsulation, a coupled simulation approach
Amichi, Kamel, Calloni, Massimiliano
High-Fidelity NVH Analysis Model Development Process for EV Traction Motors Based on Experimental Correlation2026-01-0685To be published on 06/20/2026
This study presents a high-fidelity NVH (Noise, Vibration, Harshness) analysis model development process for EV traction motors. The proposed process consists of two main components: Path refinement through structural stiffness tuning, and Source refinement, focused on the motor’s excitation mechanisms. Model accuracy was validated through comparison of simulation results with dyno test data, with particular focus on the 24th-order electromagnetic vibration observed in an 8-pole, 48-slot motor. Path refinement was achieved through modal correlation between experimental results and finite element (FE) analysis. Nine modal test and simulation stages were conducted, ranging from individual components to the complete motor assembly. Mode shapes were compared using the Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC), and natural frequencies were matched within a 5% error margin by adjusting FE material properties. For the 24th-order electromagnetic vibration, simulation results agreed with test data within
Kim, Donghee, Kim, Dong-Jun, Lee, SangHan, Kim, Seon Hyeong, Hwang, Seung Gyu, Valente, Giorgio, Parisouz, Shahriar, Halse, Christopher
Analytical Magnetic Circuit Modeling and Parameter Estimation of a PMSM for Spatial Harmonics and Radial Forces Characterization2026-01-0677To be published on 06/20/2026
Electromagnetic excitations originating from air-gap flux distortions and radial forces are a dominant source of noise and vibration in Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) operating at low-to-medium speeds. While finite-element analysis provides detailed insights into these effects, it is computationally intensive and often requires precise geometrical data. Conversely, conventional dq0-based models fail to represent slotting effects and nonsinusoidal fluxes, limiting their accuracy in harmonic prediction. This paper proposes an analytical model of a three-phase PMSM based on a Magnetic Equivalent Circuit (MEC) to accurately identify spatial harmonics and compute current-induced radial forces. An offline parameter estimation procedure is employed to characterize the magnetic circuit, making the model adaptable to various motor topologies and pole configurations without relying on detailed geometry. The proposed approach enables the derivation of the machine’s electrical and
Luciano, Ludovica, Doria-Cerezo, Arnau, Salamone, Nicolò
Application of Tone-to-Noise Ratio for Early Diagnosis and Control of Electric Drive Whine2026-01-0686To be published on 06/20/2026
High-frequency whine from electric drive systems has become a critical issue restricting the improvement of vehicle sound quality. Traditional evaluation methods struggle to accurately identify masked whine risks in the early research and development (R&D) phase, due to incomplete hardware of prototype vehicles and high interior background noise. This often leads to problems being delayed until the mass production stage, resulting in high rectification costs. To address this issue, this paper proposes and validates an early risk assessment method based on the Tone-to-Noise Ratio (TNR). First, the generation mechanism of Electric Drive (E-Drive) whine is systematically analyzed, identifying the electromagnetic noise of the electric motor and the gear whine of the reducer as the two dominant noise sources. To address this bottleneck, the TNR psychoacoustic metric is introduced to quantify the perceptual salience of tonal noise relative to background noise, which effectively mitigates the
Yun, Zhao, Hui, Hui, Gao, Pan, Xiao, Zhongdi, Zan, Chen, Teng, Charlie
Vibroacoustic Analysis and Optimisation of an Electric Refrigerant Scroll Compressor2026-01-0722To be published on 06/20/2026
In electrified vehicles, auxiliary units can be a dominant source of noise, one of which is the refrigerant scroll compressor. Compared to vehicles with combustion engines, e-vehicles re-quire larger refrigerant compressors, as in addition to the interior, the battery and the electric motors must be cooled. Various types of excitation in the compressor cause vibrations on the compressor surface and the emission of airborne noise. Fluid dynamic forces resulting from the cyclic compression principle act on flow-conducting components, while alternating forces caused by the imbalance of the eccentrically running compressor scroll or by torque fluctua-tions on the drive shaft are transmitted to the housing via the bearings. In order to identify the sound generation mechanisms in the compressor, the vibrations of the compressor surface were measured using a laser scanning vibrometer and the sound radiation was characterised using a sound intensity probe. This paper illustrates the
Saur, Lukas, Beer, Gabriel, Fritzsche, Marco, Becker, Stefan
Low-Voltage Electric Vehicle with a Reconfigurable Powertrain Architecture for Urban and Extra-Urban Mobility2026-37-0025To be published on 06/09/2026
The growing penetration of electric mobility in urban environments calls for vehicle solutions that balance accessibility, safety, and operational flexibility. However, high upfront costs and the widespread oversizing of battery systems remain significant barriers to large-scale adoption, particularly for short-range use cases. To address these limitations, this paper presents the Low Voltage Reconfigurable Electric Vehicle (LVREV), a modular vehicle concept designed to bridge the gap between L7e and M1 categories. The proposed architecture integrates a low-voltage electrical system (<60 V), a reconfigurable powertrain, and a modular, swappable battery, enabling mission-adaptive performance while reducing cost, weight, and energy consumption. The vehicle architecture features a dual 52 V inverter system coupled with a six-phase permanent magnet synchronous motor, optimized through model-based design and genetic algorithms. Energy storage consists of two independent swappable battery
Tramacere, Eugenio, Favelli, Stefano, Galluzzi, Renato, Tonoli, Andrea
Development of a Load Responsive Mechanical Shifting Mechanism and Its Benefits for Battery Electric Vehicles2026-37-0026To be published on 06/09/2026
Many high-end electric vehicles use an automatic two-speed transmission. The ability of the drivetrain to switch between two gear ratios improves vehicle performance and increases driving range. The aim of the presented research work is to transfer these advantages to small and lightweight battery-electric vehicles, which face significant cost and weight constraints and therefore cannot rely on highly sophisticated electric motors. Direct-drive systems are widely used in this vehicle class due to their simplicity and high baseline efficiency. However, they offer limited flexibility in adapting the operating point of the electric motor under varying load conditions. A two-speed transmission can overcome this limitation by enabling load point shifting, allowing the motor to operate closer to its optimal efficiency region during both urban and extra‑urban driving. This results in improved energy consumption without adding substantial system complexity. Currently, only actuated
Napetschnig, Christof, Tromayer, Juergen, Stückler, David
DDPG-Based Energy-Optimal Torque Split Strategy for Dual-Motor Electric Vehicles10-10-04-00335/22/2026
This study presents a torque distribution strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles utilizing a Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient reinforcement learning algorithm designed to optimize energy consumption. By using a simplified architecture and replicable reward functions, the proposed agents rely exclusively on standard CAN bus signals, commanded longitudinal force, and the motors’ velocities, eliminating the need for specialized sensors or complex plant models. Two reinforcement agents are trained using two different reward functions: power-based and State of Charge-based. These agents are validated through high-fidelity CarSim–Simulink co-simulations across soft, medium, and severe acceleration scenarios, in which they demonstrate superior performance to traditional adaptive methods. In the most demanding scenario, a typical adaptive strategy achieves an additional 7.8% of power consumption and 85% of optimal energy recovery, while the proposed reinforcement learning strategies reach
Meléndez-Useros, Miguel, Viadero-Monasterio, Fernando, López-Boada, María Jesús, López-Boada, Beatriz
SAE Electric Vehicle and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge CouplerJ1772_201001 (Historical)5/22/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the general physical, electrical, functional and performance requirements to facilitate conductive charging of EV/PHEV vehicles in North America. This document defines a common EV/PHEV and supply equipment vehicle conductive charging method including operational requirements and the functional and dimensional requirements for the vehicle inlet and mating connector.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Electromagnetic Immunity - Off-Vehicle Source (Reverberation Chamber Method) - Part 16 - Immunity to Radiated Electromagnetic FieldsJ551/16_202209 (Historical)5/22/2026
Vehicle electrical/electronic systems may be affected when immersed in an electromagnetic field generated by sources such as radio and TV broadcast stations, radar and communication sites, mobile transmitters, cellular phones, etc. This part of SAE J551 specifies off-vehicle radiated source test methods and procedures for testing passenger cars and commercial vehicles within a Reverberation Chamber. The method is used to evaluate the immunity of vehicle mounted electronic devices in the frequency range of 80 MHz to 2 GHz, with possible extensions 20 MHz to 10 GHz, depending upon chamber size and construction. Three methods for calibrating and applying electromagnetic fields are described in the document: 1) Mode Tuned Reverberation Chamber method, 2) Mode Stir (Standard) Reverberation Chamber method and 3) Mode Stir (Hybrid) Reverberation Chamber method. Optional pulse modulation testing at HIRF (High Intensity Radiated Fields) test levels, based upon currently known environmental
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards
Guidelines for Electric Vehicle SafetyJ2344_201003 (Current)5/22/2026
This SAE Information Report identifies and defines the preferred technical guidelines relating to safety for vehicles that contain High Voltage (HV), such as Electric Vehicles (EV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCV) and Plug-In Fuel Cell Vehicles (PFCV) during normal operation and charging, as applicable. Guidelines in this document do not necessarily address maintenance, repair, or assembly safety issues.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Performance Levels and Methods of Measurement of Electromagnetic Compatibility of Vehicles, Boats (up to 15 m), and Machines (16.6 Hz to 18 GHz)J551/1_202001 (Historical)5/22/2026
This SAE Standard covers the measurement of radio frequency radiated emissions and immunity. Each part details the requirements for a specific type of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) test and the applicable frequency range of the test method. The methods are applicable to a vehicle, boat, machine or device powered by an internal combustion engine or battery powered electric motor. Operation of all engines or motors (main and auxiliary) of a vehicle, boat, machine or device is included. All equipment normally operating when the vehicle, boat, machine or device is in operation is included. Operator controlled equipment is included or excluded as specified in the individual document parts. As a special case, CISPR 12 applies to battery powered floor finishing equipment, but robot carpet sweepers are excluded. By reference, IEC CISPR 12 and CISPR 25 are adopted as the standards for the measurement of vehicle emissions. In the event that an amendment is made or a new edition is
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards
SAE Electric Vehicle and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge CouplerJ1772_201602 (Current)5/22/2026
This SAE Standard covers the general physical, electrical, functional and performance requirements to facilitate conductive charging of EV/PHEV vehicles in North America. This document defines a common EV/PHEV and supply equipment vehicle conductive charging method including operational requirements and the functional and dimensional requirements for the vehicle inlet and mating connector.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Performance Levels and Methods of Measurement of Electromagnetic Compatibility of Vehicles, Boats (up to 15 m), and Machines (16.6 Hz to 18 GHz)J551/1_201501 (Historical)5/21/2026
This SAE Standard covers the measurement of radio frequency radiated emissions and immunity. Each part details the requirements for a specific type of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) test and the applicable frequency range of the test method. The methods are applicable to a vehicle, boat, machine or device powered by an internal combustion engine or battery powered electric motor. Operation of all engines or motors (main and auxiliary) of a vehicle, boat, machine or device is included. All equipment normally operating when the vehicle, boat, machine or device is in operation is included. Operator controlled equipment is included or excluded as specified in the individual document parts. As a special case, CISPR 12 applies to battery powered floor finishing equipment, but robot carpet sweepers are excluded. By reference, IEC CISPR 12 and CISPR 25 are adopted as the standards for the measurement of vehicle emissions. In the event that an amendment is made or a new edition is
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards
SAE Electric Vehicle and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge CouplerJ1772_201202 (Historical)5/21/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the general physical, electrical, functional and performance requirements to facilitate conductive charging of EV/PHEV vehicles in North America. This document defines a common EV/PHEV and supply equipment vehicle conductive charging method including operational requirements and the functional and dimensional requirements for the vehicle inlet and mating connector.
Hybrid - EV Committee
SAE Electric Vehicle and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge CouplerJ1772_201210 (Historical)5/21/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the general physical, electrical, functional and performance requirements to facilitate conductive charging of EV/PHEV vehicles in North America. This document defines a common EV/PHEV and supply equipment vehicle conductive charging method including operational requirements and the functional and dimensional requirements for the vehicle inlet and mating connector.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Intelligent Control of Automobile Spiral Bevel Gear Grinding Process Based on Force Feedback2026-99-07245/15/2026
To enhance the grinding quality of spiral bevel gears, an intelligent control model for the grinding process of automotive helical conical gears based on force feedback has been designed. This model outputs the control voltage for the machine tool's permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), ensuring that the motor speed constantly tracks the desired value. By adjusting the grinding generating speed, the grinding force is controlled, and the tooth surface roughness is reduced. Firstly, the state equation of a permanent magnet synchronous AC servo motor is established. By employing the second method of Lyapunov, an RM adaptive control algorithm is developed. It is found that the model output can efficiently track the reference model (RM) and adjust to variations in torque due to load. To further enhance the controller, a generalized regression neural network (GRNN) was developed; subsequently, training data were generated using the output voltage of the RM self-adjusting controller to
Liu, Nan, Han, Jiang, Tian, Xiaoqing, Li, Minglei, Xue, Rui
Optimizing Ride Comfort and Stability in In-Wheel Motor Drive Electric Vehicles: A Correlated Semi-Active Suspension System with Kalman Filter and Spring-Type Analysis10-10-04-00304/24/2026
This research provides a unique contribution to the field of in-wheel motor drive (IWMD) electric vehicles (EVs) by addressing the challenges associated with the use of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for traction. These motors, integrated into the unsprung masses, increase the wheels’ rotational inertia, reducing ride smoothness on uneven roads. To mitigate this issue, we present an optimal Kalman filter for a magnetorheological (MR) control suspension system that correlates road inputs between the front and rear wheels. This filter significantly improves the estimation accuracy of state variables by incorporating the motor’s vertical motion, along with potential enhancements from wheelbase preview. To determine the most suitable coil spring types for use with MR dampers, we used the WDW-600 computer-controlled electronic universal testing machine to evaluate three coil spring types: constant-pitch (model A), variable-pitch (model B), and conical (model C). To assess the
Gad, Ahmed Shehata, Jabeen, Syeda Darakhshan, El-Zomor, Haytham M., Tolba, Mohamed, Elamy, Mamdouh I.
Development of a Model-Aware Data-Driven Control Algorithm for a Drive-by-Wire System for a Level 4 Automated Vehicle2026-01-00434/7/2026
Precision control in Level 4 Automated Vehicles is essential for enhancing operational efficiency, accuracy, and safety. This work, conducted as part of ARPA-E’s NEXTCAR program, focuses on developing a robust hardware and software control solution to enable drive-by-wire functionality. A previous publication by the authors presented the hardware solutions for overtaking stock vehicle controls. This paper focuses on a model-based and data-driven control algorithm to enable drive-by-wire functionality for longitudinal and lateral motion control for a 2021 Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle. This vehicle was equipped with a set of sensors and an onboard processing unit to enable Level 4 automation. For lateral controls, an algorithm was developed to command steering torque to the electronic power steering module, ensuring the vehicle could attain the desired steering angle position at varying speeds. The system leveraged feedforward and feedback mechanisms. Feedback controller
Adsule, Kartik, Bhagdikar, Piyush, Drallmeier, Joseph, Alden, Joshua, Gankov, Stanislav
Novel Air System for 300 kW Heavy Duty Fuel Cell2026-01-04344/7/2026
Hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicles for heavy duty trucking are a promising path for reducing future vehicle emissions due to their reduced mass for storage and faster refueling compared to battery electric trucks. These benefits come at the cost of increased system complexity stemming from the fact that fuel cells generate electricity through a chemical reaction which must be tightly controlled. The air handling system delivers the proper amount of air (oxygen) to react with fuel (hydrogen) in the fuel cell to produce power. Air delivery requires significant power and is the largest parasitic loss for a 300 kW fuel cell. Today’s systems use an electric motor driving an air compressor to supply pressurized air to the fuel cell stack. By operating at elevated pressure levels, fuel cells can achieve higher power density, which is important for vehicle powertrains. In addition to parasitic power loss, hydrogen fuel cell systems often have reliability issues associated with the air
Reich, Evan, Swartzlander, Matthew, Wine, Jonathan, McCarthy, Jr., James, Miller, Eric, Akhtar, Saad, Reddy, Sharan, Lawy, TJ
Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing2026-01-00654/7/2026
Towing imposes substantial efficiency penalties on both battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, reducing range by 30-50%. This paper presents a proof-of-concept embedded control architecture for distributed trailer propulsion that actively regulates drawbar force to reduce towing loads. Unlike proprietary e-trailer systems requiring specialized hardware, the proposed implementation demonstrates feasibility using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and open-source software. The distributed architecture employs dual Raspberry Pi 4B single-board computers communicating via ROS 2 at 20 Hz. The trailer-mounted controller executes a Simulink-generated control node coordinating load cell acquisition (HX711 ADC), motor CAN bus telemetry, and throttle commands to a 5 kW BLDC traction motor powered by a 5 kWh LiFePO4 battery pack. A vehicle-mounted controller logs OBD-II/CAN validation data. The control pipeline implements cascaded EWMA/Hampel
Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie
Effective Prediction of the Mechanical Properties of Glue-Laminated Motor Stator Core with Consideration of Glue Disposition2026-01-01774/7/2026
This study presents an effective predictive methodology for determining the mechanical properties of glue-laminated motor cores, with explicit consideration of glue disposition, including bonding pattern, configuration, location, and coverage. In laminated stator cores, glue bonding and stacking processes jointly govern the mechanical integrity of the lamination stack. Practical production bonding schemes are typically nonuniform and localized, leading to spatial variations in stiffness and to locally anisotropic, orthotropic material behavior. These effects influence both the in-plane and through-thickness stiffness of the stator core. They can significantly affect the accuracy of structural simulations, such as NVH responses of high-speed traction motors and e-drive systems. Given the constituent material properties of the electrical steel laminations and the glue, this work distinguishes the governing mechanisms underlying the equivalent core properties. The in-plane stiffness is
Nie, Zifeng
Electrified Propulsion System Balancing for Light Duty Full Size Truck and Sport Utility Vehicles: A 2026 North American Market Perspective2026-01-04124/7/2026
Achieving the stringent EPA CAFE 2032 standards for light-duty full-size trucks and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs) in North American poses significant challenges. While Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offer a clear path to zero tailpipe emissions, their widespread adoption in this segment faces hurdles including range anxiety, payload/towing capabilities, and traditional truck/SUV use cases. This paper investigates a balanced approach, focusing on optimizing propulsion system design with appropriate hardware content, can effectively meet future fuel economy and emissions standards. This investigation examines advanced BEVs and hybrid electric vehicle architectures, including full hybrids (HEVs), and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) tailored for full-size trucks and SUVs. Considerations include the optimal sizing of internal combustion engines, electric motors, and battery packs to deliver robust performance while maximizing energy efficiency. This paper analyzes the integration of technologies
Babcock, Dillon, Robinette, Darrell
Optimizing Custom Hybrid Solutions for Low-Volume Specialist Equipment2026-01-04794/7/2026
Off-road vehicles are typically powered by diesel engines, sized to cover the highest peak loads in their dutycycles. Such applications can be designed with downsized engines, using hybridization to supplement engine power with electrical power for short periods. However, many applications are low-volume and specialized, making it impractical to deploy heavy engineering resources to optimize each one. For this reason, manufacturers tend to produce maid-of-all-work vehicles to cover every situation. This paper demonstrates the benefits of custom hybridization for specialist applications, and addresses the lack of accessible software tools for evaluating such opportunities. Analysis is applied with a fast, low-cost, Concept-based software tool named “ePOP Concept”, suited to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) who seek to provide custom low-volume vehicles. It allows many different powertrain architectures to be evaluated rapidly at the product planning stage, and can be quickly set
De Salis, Rupert, Fons, Daniel
Propulsion System Design Considerations for HEV Versus EV Applications2026-01-06414/7/2026
The design and development of EVs and HEVs has become a growing issue recently due to concerns about pollution and dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels. Accordingly, General Motors (GM) has an evolving vehicle electrification plan over the past several decades and into the future to deliver low-cost and efficient EVs and HEVs. Propulsion system requirements for the applications of EV and HEVs are quite different and therefore, the design principles and directions are also distinct between these cases. From micro-hybrid and full plug-in hybrid applications to full EV applications, design requirements, strategies and outcomes can widely vary. Continuous and peak duty are substantially different depending on the application of the vehicle. Motor operational duty is significantly higher for EV compared to the electric motor of a hybrid electric vehicle. Motor torque, power and efficiency requirements are also higher for EV motors, which greatly influences the choice of motor type and
Momen, Faizul, Jensen, William, Das, Shuvajit, Chowdhury, Mazharul, Alam, Khorshed, Anwar, Mohammad, Reinhart, Timothy
New Inverter Switching Control Method to Enhance Sound Quality for Electric Vehicles2026-01-04374/7/2026
Conventional inverter control uses a fixed switching frequency, which leads to high-pitched switching noise in electric vehicles (EVs) that does not vary with vehicle speed. Although EVs are much quieter than traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, some EV owners complain about the lack of dynamic driving sound feedback. A new patented technology has been developed to enhance EV sound quality by dynamically controlling the inverter switching frequencies. This technology generates dynamic propulsion sound with new "switching order" features at multiple harmonics, with the pitch proportional to vehicle speed. A constant pulse ratio between the switching frequency and the electric motor RPM is implemented to control the switching order. This reduces switching losses during low-speed operation and provides boosted acoustic feedback to the driver during acceleration, which enhances driving experience during sports driving. Furthermore, a special "EV shifting" sound that
He, Song, Gagas, Brent, Welchko, Brian, Ball, Kerrie, Gong, Cheng
Methods of Highly Repeatable Lubricant Testing for Electrified Vehicles: Universal Motor Control and Statistical Test-Variation Analysis2026-01-04214/7/2026
This paper describes a systematic approach to evaluate lubricants for hybrid and electric vehicles (xEVs) that can detect impacts on efficiency as low as 0.1 percentage points. Two testing methods were developed to evaluate lubricants’ efficiency effects: (1) on a complete vehicle (using the manufacturer’s hardware and motor control) and (2) on a standalone drive unit (using custom power electronics and control). A Monte Carlo simulation was used to analyze the resulting data to determine the detection limits of the vehicle test method. To evaluate the effectiveness of the test stands and the data-analysis method, a Tesla Model 3 electric drive unit and a Chevrolet Bolt battery electric vehicle (BEV) were characterized for system efficiency. For the Bolt mounted on a hub driven chassis dynamometer, this method is capable of detecting a change in the drive unit’s electromechanical efficiency between baseline and candidate fluids of <0.4 percentage point (pp) with 95% confidence at most
Luo, Yilun, Gross, Michael, Kostan, Travis
Real-Time Observations of the Effect of Fuel Dilution in an Engine Transient Friction Rig. Along with Real-Time Observations of Fuel Entering and Leaving Internal Combustion Engine Oil, over Both Standard Engine, ICE and Plug-In Hybrid, PHEV Dynamic Drive Cycles2026-01-03514/7/2026
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) with an increasing level of electrification, are becoming a major part of the global energy transition. To achieve lower engine tailpipe exhaust emissions and improve total fuel consumption, typically the HEV control system expertly and frequently switches between the internal combustion engine and electric motor drive, with multiple stops and restarts of the internal combustion engine (ICE). As a consequential result of this switching, are typically slower or even incomplete engine warm-up times, depending on the engine speed, load pattern and run time of the vehicle drive cycle. Along with the speed and load transient control, the engine stop and start processes are also challenging to control, with respect to cold start fuel and combustion by-products entering the oil. Consequently, contamination enters the engine oil but may not completely leave. These effects are highly transient over the drive cycle. Contaminants and in particular, fuel dilution
Butcher, Richard, Bradley, Nathan, Thedering, Dennis
Physical Test Validated Multi-Level Power Electronics for Next-Generation Electrified Vehicles Charging & Efficiency Improvement2026-01-04354/7/2026
Improving the energy efficiency of electrified vehicles remains a central objective in modern electric powertrains. Multi-level converters (MLCs) are widely recognised for lowering conversion losses relative to two-level inverters and improving total harmonic distortion (THD) in the sinusoidal supply to motors with a consequent reduction in motor losses. Despite this, sustained production-oriented validation at the integrated system level remains limited. This work introduces a multi-level converter architecture of the Battery Integrated Modular Multi-Level Converter (BIMMC) topology using Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB) architecture. It offers improvements in all key metrics of performance, cost, package size, mass and robustness compared to the current state-of-the-art two-level inverter system with distributed functions for charging available in the market today. The overall solution is highly functionally integrated. It supports four major functions required in electric vehicles without
Bao, Ran, Kalaiselvan, Prashanth, Rener, Kristof, Hallam, Philip, Shi PhD, Kai, Yue, William, Ma, He, Grimshaw, Andrew, Patel, Simon
Lightweight Bubble Sheet Panel To Reduce Inverter Noise and Vibration for Electric Vehicles2026-01-04424/7/2026
Inverters are typically integrated into electric drive units for electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce packaging size and cost. However, coupled vibrations from the electric motor and gears are transmitted to the inverter, which can become a dominant noise source due to its large radiative panel. Metal panels are required for electromagnetic interference (EMI) compliance, yet these covers usually lack sufficient stiffness or damping for noise control. Adding ribs and applying damping treatments result in excessive mass, cost, and packaging challenges. A new bubble sheet panel design has been developed to enhance the structural strength and damping performance of the inverter cover while significantly reducing its mass. A thin sheet of aluminum is welded onto the cover in an optimized pattern that enhances stiffness and damping performance while accommodating packaging requirements. The welding pattern can include logos or artistic designs to improve the panel’s appearance. The metal sheets
He, Song, Bobel, Andrew, Naismith, Gregory, Yi, Wenwen, Patruni, Pavan Kumar
Advancing Sustainable Electric Vehicles: A Simulation-Driven Study on Rare Earth-Free Motors and Battery Technologies2026-01-02424/7/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) introduces critical vulnerabilities associated with dependence on rare earth elements used in traction motors and battery systems, impacting supply chain stability, environmental sustainability, and cost scalability. This investigation focuses on simulation-optimized rare earth-free EV propulsion components, including induction-based and wound rotor electric motors employing ferrite and iron-nitride magnetic materials, in combination with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery chemistry recognized for enhanced safety and extended cycle life. An integrated multi-physics simulation framework coupled with targeted experimental validation is employed to evaluate efficiency, thermal behavior, and durability of the proposed motor–battery systems. The optimized configurations demonstrate automotive-grade performance, with motor efficiencies ranging from 90–96% and LFP batteries retaining over 84% of nominal capacity after 5,000 charge–discharge
Saraswat, Shubham, Vishe, Prashant
Development of Honda S+ Shift Utilizing e:HEV System2026-01-04184/7/2026
Honda is promoting mobility electrification to realize a carbon-neutral society by 2050. Hybrid vehicles will remain advantageous over electric vehicles in terms of manufacturing cost and driving range until renewable energy usage increases, charging infrastructure is sufficiently developed, and battery costs are reduced. In response to this situation, Honda has developed a new control system, “Honda S+ Shift”, which further enhances the “emotional value of driving pleasure” inherent to the e:HEV system and creates new value for hybrid vehicles. Honda S+ Shift synchronizes the engine and vehicle speed and selects a virtual gear position according to the driver's operation such as acceleration, cornering, and deceleration. Subsequently, the system achieves the required system output in cooperation with a dedicated energy management system. It also works with each vehicle system, such as drive force control, sound control, and meter cluster, to stimulate all five senses of the driver
Murata, Naoya, Narimoto, Ryosuke, Saito, Masatoshi, Ishida, Daichi, Gunji, Hiroki, Mitogawa, Terumasa, Ukai, Yohei, Kurachi, Shinobu, Nagakura, Akari, Shiki, Kazuki, Maeda, Sadaharu
Development and Comparison of Benchmarking Methods for Electric Vehicle Drive Units2026-01-01984/7/2026
At the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory, a development project was implemented to compare various test methods for benchmarking the operation of vehicle electric drive units (EDUs). In earlier research, several test methods were identified, of which two were used to test a Chevrolet Bolt EDU: (a) in-vehicle testing of the complete EDU on a chassis hub dynamometer and (b) stand-alone testing of the EDU’s electric motor and inverter in a dedicated test cell after removal from the vehicle. The resulting data sets were compared with each other and with similar data previously published by GM. In this paper, additional EDU test methods are explored. First, the stand-alone testing of the EDU and its subcomponents is expanded to include testing both with and without the EDU gearing. This testing allows the electric motor, inverter, and gearbox to be characterized separately and the EDU to be characterized as a complete unit. Second, in
Moskalik, Andrew, Schauer, Ethan, Barba, Daniel
Assessing Energy Use, Cost, and Emissions of Small Regional Rail Vehicles: Methodology and Case Study on a German Track2026-01-04194/7/2026
This work evaluates a standardized 30-ton, 16 m railbus platform optimized for unelectrified regional service, focusing on propulsion system design and trade-offs between range, cost, and emissions. A MATLAB/Simulink drive-cycle model was developed to simulate energy consumption and component performance under realistic operating conditions. The Erfurt–Rennsteig route in Germany (130 km round trip, gradients up to 6 %) was selected as a representative case study. The model incorporates detailed sub-models for traction motors, lithium-ion batteries (LFP and LTO), fuel storage, fuel cells, and ICE gensets across multiple fuel options (diesel, gasoline, methane, ethanol, methanol, HVO, FAME, and hydrogen). Battery lifetime is estimated using a combined cycle- and calendar-aging model using the rainflow algorithm to extract charge cycles, while cost models include capital, fuel, maintenance, track fees, and staffing. Results show that battery-electric configurations achieve 1 kWh/km energy
Ahrling, Christoffer, Tuner, Martin, Gainey, Brian, Torkiharchegani, Amir, Scharmach, Marcel, Hertel, Benedikt, Alaküla, Mats
NVH Characterization of New Pulse Width Modulation Strategies2026-01-02244/7/2026
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is needed to supply AC motors from DC voltages, but it creates high-frequency sideband harmonics that contribute negatively to sound quality. Several strategies were developed in the last decades to reduce the total harmonic distortion and switching losses, including discontinuous PWM. A new formulation of discontinuous PWM waveforms is proposed. It eases the implementation of PWM in simulation models and on experimental platforms, but it also enables the creation of new strategies. This study aims at assessing the NVH performance of six new strategies proposed by the authors. The goal is not to enhance the electrical performance but to seek new sound attributes, to change the sound quality of the machine. All strategies were tested on a test bench to characterize their current, vibration, and noise level on the full modulation index range. The measurements performed with the new strategies present some contrast. Semi-discontinuous strategies, which present
Wanty, Salomé, Delpoux, Romain, Glesser, Martin, Totaro, Nicolas, Parizet, Etienne, Degrendele, Karine
A Comprehensive Modelling Tool for Heavy-Duty Hybrid Fuel Cell/Battery Powertrains2026-01-04304/7/2026
The global transition towards sustainable transportation is driving the development of efficient, low-emission propulsion systems. Battery-electric solutions are effective in urban contexts, but face limitations in heavy-duty and long-haul applications due to the size and weight of the required energy storage. Hybrid battery/fuel cell powertrains offer a promising alternative for such use cases, reducing vehicle mass and charging times while maintaining high energy efficiency. This study presents an original zero-dimensional MATLAB/Simulink model, named HyPoST (Hydrogen Powertrain Simulation Tool), for a parallel hybrid fuel cell/battery system, here applied to heavy-duty vehicles. The model encompasses the main vehicle sub-systems, including the fuel cell stack with auxiliaries, battery pack, electric drive, transmission and the vehicle longitudinal dynamics, coordinated through a rule-based energy management strategy. Two representative heavy-duty vehicle configurations were analysed
Montecchi, Gianluca, Martoccia, Lorenzo, D'Adamo, Alessandro
EV Propulsion Drive Converter SiC Power Device Over-Temperature Protection under Low Motor Speed Operation2026-01-04364/7/2026
Monitoring power device temperature in an electric vehicle propulsion drive converter is extremely important to achieve full power delivery within the maximum power capability envelope. Usually, on-die temperature sensors are installed on Si-IGBT power devices in electric vehicle propulsion drive converters to enable monitoring device temperature and achieve over-temperature protection. Currently, SiC MOSFET is a promising power device in power converters of electric drives because of its lower loss, higher switching speed, higher voltage capability, and higher junction temperature limit in comparison with the widely used Si-IGBT. However, SiC MOSFET is a more expensive device, installation of an on-die temperature sensor on SiC MOSFET will significantly increase its cost and complexity. So presently, there is no junction temperature sensor installed in SiC MOSFET due to which there is great difficulty protecting SiC MOSFET from over temperature. When a junction temperature estimation
Thongam, Jogendra Singh, Ge, Baoming, Bradford, Steven, Kulkarni, Milind
Impact of Manufacturing Variability on Motor Material Properties and Its NVH Behavior2026-01-04394/7/2026
This study investigates the influence of glue coverage and stacking factors on the effective macroscopic mechanical properties of dot-glue adhesively laminated stator cores and the impact of these manufacturing-related attributes on the motor and the electric drive system's structural performance, particularly in terms of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). A homogenization framework based on the unit-cell method was developed to model glue-laminated stacks as orthotropic materials suitable for finite-element analysis (FEA) of partially bonded cores. Also, a closed-form analytical solution is proposed to predict the macro-mechanical properties of a core composed of isotropic constituents with the consideration of glue coverage. The approach enables systematic quantification of variations in glue coverage and stacking factor to predict the effective in-plane and out-of-plane elastic and shear moduli of the stator core. For modeling simplicity, glue is assumed to be uniformly
Nie, Zifeng
Comparative Analysis of Flux Linkage Characterization Methods for Automotive Permanent Magnet Traction Motors: A Critical Review and Performance Evaluation Framework2026-01-04414/7/2026
Accurate flux linkage characterization is essential for the design, control, performance and efficiency optimization of permanent magnet (PM) traction motors in automotive applications. Precise knowledge of flux linkage across varying load, speed, and temperature conditions directly impacts torque production, field-weakening capability, overall drive system efficiency and torque security. This paper presents a critical review and classification of flux-linkage characterization methods, encompassing offline laboratory mapping, standstill signal injection, self-commissioning inverter-only routines, and online real-time estimation. Each method exhibits distinct trade-offs in terms of accuracy, robustness to inverter nonlinearities, temperature adaptability, cost, and scalability for production and in-vehicle use. With the increasing complexity of automotive traction systems, understanding these trade-offs is crucial for optimal motor design and control. To enable systematic comparison, a
Khan, Ahmad Arshan, Haddad, Reemon, Kim, Jay, Hermann, Justin, Mohamadian, Mustafa
Control Strategy Optimization to Improve Energy Efficiency of Electric Wheel Loader Wheel Drive System02-19-02-00113/27/2026
Driven by the dual-carbon goals of “peak carbon emissions” and “carbon neutrality,” improving energy efficiency in electric construction machinery has become a key focus. This study proposes an energy-saving torque control strategy for the traction motor of electric wheel loaders, aiming to reduce drive system energy consumption. The innovation lies in coupling parameter optimization of the pedal–torque mapping and regenerative braking to enhance overall efficiency. An electric model was built using Cruise and validated against real-world V-cycle test data, showing good agreement with an average relative error of 4.08%. Based on the model, two optimized control strategies were developed and evaluated through simulations and field tests. The results showed energy savings of 7.08% and 16.18% in simulation, and 6.83% and 15.51% in tests, respectively, demonstrating the effectiveness and practical value of the proposed method.
Ming, Qiaohong, Wang, Yangyang, Wang, Feng
Aumovio's remote temp sensor far more accurate for e-mobility26AUTP03_123/1/2026
At the U.S. headquarters for Aumovio SE (formerly Continental Auto Group), the company showed its new remote temperature sensor for EV motors as part of its post-CES tech day presentations. The tech, which provides a more accurate reading of the rotor temperature of an EV motor, could lead to more sustainable motor designs by reducing the amount of rare earth materials used to increase the heat resistance of magnets. It can also improve potential motor performance. The e-motor rotor temperature sensor (e-RTS) is placed directly near the rotor, improving its tolerance range from 15 degrees C (59 F) to 3 degrees C (37 F). It communicates wirelessly to a wired transceiver elsewhere on the motor module (it can be moved around for better packaging).
Clonts, Chris
On the Modal Characteristics of Motor Stators under Different Interlaminate Fastening Conditions14-15-01-00052/14/2026
The increasing demand for quiet and efficient electric vehicles has highlighted the importance of understanding vibration and noise characteristics of motor stators. Previous studies have extensively modeled electromagnetic excitation and laminated structures, but there has been little experimental evidence clarifying how different interlaminate fastening methods affect vibration modes under comparable conditions. This knowledge gap limits the ability to optimize fastening strategies for noise and vibration control in practical motor design. In this study, laminated stator cores were fabricated with different fastening conditions—bolting, clinching, and welding—and subjected to vibration testing and experimental modal analysis. Natural frequencies, damping ratios, and mode shapes were identified for torsional, circumferential, and breathing modes. The results revealed that the in-plane torsional natural frequencies increase with bolt axial force, while clinching provides additional
Matsubara, Masami, Saito, Akira, Shimada, Shogo, Oishi, Taizan, Furuya, Kohei, Kawamura, Shozo, Tajiri, Daiki
Computational Study on Dynamic Handling Performance of a Retro Fitted Electric Two-Wheeler Using 125cc Powered ICE Reference2026-28-00472/12/2026
With the development in motor technology and battery technologies, the scope for a low-cost EV has been increasing in India. There remains an after-mark potential for conversion of an ICE powered two-wheeler to an EV power train. Such a move reduces the carbon footprint from the vehicle drastically and is still being explored. This study investigates the effect of replacing the ICE with an electric motor in a 125cc motorcycle, with a particular focus on vehicle handling performance using Slalom test. The two wheelers were modelled using calculated mass properties and estimated / calculated moments of inertia using CAD for both ICE and electric powertrains. The electric propulsion system took into consideration the role of a battery pack in the mass and MI calculation. The framework with degrees of freedom is well established in BIKESIMTM simulation environment. A slalom test with automatic gear shift and throttle to maintain speed of the vehicle was set-up to estimate the handling
Sankarasubramanian, Hariharan, M, Shaghasra, V, Ramprathap
Miner’s Safety Bot: An ESP32-Based Autonomous Mobile Mine Safety Monitoring System2026-28-01162/12/2026
Mining operations are important to industrial growth, but they expose the mining workers to risk including hazardous gases, elevated ambient temperatures, and dynamic structural instabilities within underground environments. Safety systems in the past, typically based on fixed sensor networks or manual patrols, fall short in accurate hazard detection amidst shifting mine conditions. The proposed project Miner's Safety Bot advanced this paradigm by leveraging an ESP 32 microcontroller as a mobile platform that integrates gas sensing, thermal monitoring, visual inspection and autonomous obstacle avoidance. The system incorporates MQ7 semiconductor gas sensor to monitor real time carbon monoxide (CO), offering detection range from 5 to 2000 ppm with accuracy of 5 ppm. Temperature and humidity are monitored through DHT11 digital sensor, calibrated to ensure reliability across the harsh microclimates in mines. Navigation and autonomous movement are enabled by Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04
D, Suchitra, D, Anitha, Muthukumaran, Balasubramaniam, Mohanraj, Siddharth, Subash Chandra Bose, Rohan
Development of Smart Climate Control with Multiple Level Auto Calibrations2026-28-00082/12/2026
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly transforming the automotive landscape, offering a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles. As EV adoption grows, optimizing energy consumption becomes critical to enhancing vehicle efficiency and extending driving range. One of the most significant auxiliary loads in EVs is the climate control system, commonly referred to as HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning). HVAC systems can consume a substantial portion of the battery's energy—especially under extreme weather conditions—leading to a noticeable reduction in vehicle range. This energy demand poses a challenge for EV manufacturers and users alike, as range anxiety remains a key barrier to widespread EV acceptance. Consequently, developing intelligent climate control strategies is essential to minimize HVAC power consumption without compromising passenger comfort. These strategies may include predictive thermal management, cabin pre-conditioning
Mulamalla, Sarveshwar Reddy, SV, Master Eniyan, M, Nisshok, Anugu, Anil, E A, Muhammed, Guturu, Sravankumar
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