Browse Topic: Electric motors

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Methods for Designing Rotating Components for Compliance to ISO 1940 Balance Requirements using Generic 3D CAD Software2026-01-75659/22/2026
The benefits of specifying balance requirements in terms of an ISO 1940 balance quality grade instead of traditional mass-distance based requirements are discussed along with methods to convert ISO 1940 balance quality grades into permissible imbalance limits at the bearing supports. Methods are developed to determine the expected imbalance values at bearing supports using mass property data from generic 3D CAD software packages without the need for Finite Element Analysis. Practical exercises are presented using these methods to assess a part’s compliance to ISO 1940 while still in the conceptual 3D CAD design stage. These practical exercises cover the selection of appropriate geometric tolerances to ensure part balance without the need for post fabrication balancing as well as the design of nonsymmetrical components for ISO 1940 balance compliance. Citation: J. Srodawa, “Methods for Designing Rotating Components for Compliance to ISO 1940 Balance Requirements Using Generic 3D CAD Software,” In Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), NDIA, Novi, MI, Aug. 11-13, 2026.
Srodawa, John
Deep Learning-Based Rotor Temperature Estimation for Rare-Earth-Free Motors2026-01-75069/22/2026
This paper presents a deep learning-based approach for online rotor temperature estimation in electrically excited synchronous motors (EESMs). Accurate rotor temperature estimation is critical for ensuring safe operation, improving performance, and enabling reliable thermal management of electric traction motors. Recurrent neural network (RNN) architectures, including gated recurrent unit (GRU) and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, are investigated to develop a data-driven thermal virtual sensor capable of capturing the temporal dynamics of motor operation. Experimental data collected from a 190 kW EESM prototype are used to train and evaluate the proposed models. A systematic training, testing, and 10-fold cross-validation framework is employed to assess prediction accuracy and generalization capability. The results demonstrate that the GRU-based model achieves higher prediction accuracy than the LSTM model while maintaining comparable inference latency. The proposed approach provides an efficient and lightweight solution for real-time rotor temperature estimation suitable for embedded motor control applications.
Tatari, Farzaneh, Aligoudarzi, Mohsen Mirza
Passive Thermal Management Through Vapor Chamber Integration of a PMSM E-Motor installed on UAV for Urban Mobility Applications2026-24-00109/21/2026
Thermal management is a critical design challenge for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) employed in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) propulsion systems, where high power density and compact integration lead to significant heat generation. Excessive temperatures can compromise efficiency, reliability, and component lifetime, making the development of effective and lightweight cooling solutions essential. This study investigates the integration of a vapor chamber as a passive thermal management solution for a commercially available PMSM intended for UAV applications, whose thermal performance is evaluated under external airflow conditions representative of low-speed flight and hovering. Unlike conventional active cooling systems, the proposed approach does not require moving parts, external power input, or additional control devices. Heat transfer is driven by phase-change mechanisms within a sealed enclosure: as the local thermal load increases, the working fluid evaporates in the hotter regions and condenses in the cooler ones, redistributing heat autonomously without external intervention — a self-regulating behavior particularly suited to the constraints of UAV propulsion systems. A simplified three-dimensional model of the motor housing was developed, and steady-state conjugate heat transfer simulations were performed in ANSYS Fluent to evaluate the thermal performance of the system. Three configurations were analyzed: a baseline motor without vapor chamber, a configuration with an integrated vapor chamber, and a configuration combining the vapor chamber with an external copper fin array. The vapor chamber was modeled using an equivalent porous-medium approach for the wick structure, coupled with a multiphase formulation to capture liquid–vapor interactions within the core. The results demonstrate that vapor chamber integration significantly reduces peak pole temperature, with reductions ranging from 38K to 159K (approximately 10% to 31% relative to the baseline configuration) depending on operating conditions. At higher thermal loads, the device transitions from a liquid-filled regime to an active two-phase operation, enhancing heat transfer through evaporation and condensation. The addition of an external copper fin array further improves thermal performance, achieving a maximum pole temperature reduction of 203K (approximately 33% relative to the baseline) under low-airflow, high-load conditions. A key finding of this study is the strong coupling between the external fin array and the internal phase-change behavior of the vapor chamber: by lowering the condensation-side temperature, the fins promote a more active two-phase regime, enhancing overall heat transfer performance beyond what either component achieves independently. These results highlight the potential of vapor chamber technology, particularly when combined with extended surfaces optimized for the dominant flight regime, as a lightweight, passive, and self-regulating cooling strategy for compact UAV electric propulsion systems.
Benedetti, Silvia, Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Chiappini, Daniele
Multi-Level CFD and System Simulation Approach for Optimization of Cooling Circuits in High Power Density Powertrains2026-24-00099/21/2026
This paper presents a CFD-based optimization workflow for the simulation and development of automotive cooling circuits, integrating three-dimensional steady-state analyses with one-dimensional transient modeling. The objective of the activity is to establish a robust methodology that links detailed component-level thermal characterization to system-level dynamic simulations, enabling the assessment of cooling performance under both driving and charging operating conditions. The thermal behavior of the cooling circuit components was first investigated using three-dimensional steady-state simulations performed with Ansys Fluent. For each relevant operating point, the fluid flow and heat transfer were resolved in full 3D, and temperatures were monitored at multiple locations within the components and along the circuit. The steady-state analyses provided spatially resolved temperature fields and heat transfer characteristics for a range of boundary conditions representative of real operating scenarios. From these results, temperature and performance maps were generated, describing the relationship between operating conditions, heat loads, and thermal responses of the components. These maps were then used for the calibration of one-dimensional models implemented in GT-Suite. The calibrated 1D models reproduce the thermal behavior observed in the 3D CFD simulations while allowing efficient simulation of the entire cooling system under transient conditions. This multi-level approach enables the combination of detailed local physics from CFD with the computational efficiency required for system-level dynamic analyses. Transient simulations were carried out in GT-Suite to evaluate the thermal response of the cooling circuit during both driving and charging phases. The driving phase accounts for variable thermal loads and flow conditions associated with vehicle operation, while the charging phase represents operating conditions specific to battery recharging scenarios. The calibrated 1D models were used to simulate the evolution of temperatures throughout the system over time, considering the interactions between components and the overall thermal inertia of the circuit. The results show that the designed cooling system is capable of maintaining component temperatures within the targeted limits across the analyzed operating conditions. The thermal containment is achieved for all components included in the cooling circuit under both dynamic driving and charging scenarios. The electric motor is oil-cooled and therefore is not part of the water-based cooling circuit addressed in this study. The proposed CFD-to-1D workflow provides a consistent and transferable methodology for the thermal development of cooling systems of high power density electrified powertrains. The novel contribution lies in (i) the application of the multi-level framework to a heavy-duty platform with SiC-based power modules and dedicated on-board charger developed within the Horizon Europe POWERDRIVE project, (ii) a DOE-based map generation strategy that preserves the conjugate heat transfer interactions between actively cooled components (power modules, OBC) and passively cooled neighbors (busbar, capacitors) within the reduced-order representation, and (iii) the integration of the reduced-order maps within a single transient system-level model covering both vehicle-at-rest charging and dynamic driving operating modes. This activity is carried out within the framework of the Horizon Europe project POWERDRIVE.
Chiappini, Daniele, Tribioli, Laura, Rodionov, Artem
Comparative Analysis of BEV Performance from Simulated Environment and Physical Hardware Platform2026-24-00059/21/2026
The proliferation of simulation environments has accelerated technological progress across various scientific domains by offering a cost-effective and time-efficient framework for data acquisition and analysis. In the automotive sector, high-fidelity modelling of vehicle components and driving scenarios bypasses the logistical constraints associated with hardware procurement and the intensive requirements of large-scale testing infrastructures. However, pre-calibrated or native software models often imply simplified hypotheses, missing relevant aspects of the entire powertrain-to-wheel energy chain. This study presents a comparative analysis of battery performance within a battery electric vehicle (BEV) by synchronizing virtual simulations with experimental hardware at the test bench. The methodology involves the concurrent modelling of the driving environment, the vehicle chassis, and the propulsion system, followed by the execution of identical driving cycles on a physical platform. The experimental setup comprises a fully instrumented BEV featuring an integrated electric motor and battery pack, specifically configured for high-precision signal acquisition. The virtual section starts with the development of a digital twin within a commercial simulation suite, parameterized according to the vehicle specific dynamic and energy requirements. This is followed by the integration of the electric propulsion system and a battery pack model based on the equivalent circuit model method. To ensure high fidelity, the battery model is experimentally calibrated via multi-step pulse discharge tests performed on the physical hardware. Subsequently, various driving scenarios from the simulated environment are translated into speed-time profiles and are replicated on the real vehicle using a PID-controlled actuator on the accelerator pedal. The battery pack that serves the vehicle is monitored during the cycle to collect information on the electrical performance. Finally, a comparison between the simulated and real battery behaviour is performed. This dual approach used in the present work, which compares the simulation accuracy against real-world performance, provides critical insights into the inherent advantages and technical boundaries of digital modelling in electromobility applications.
Sequino, Luigi, Sementa, Paolo, Altieri, Nunzio, Vaglieco, Bianca Maria, Sorrentino, Chiara
Simulation-Based Development and Evaluation of Heat-Quantity-Based Thermal Operating Strategies for Automotive Applications2026-24-00129/21/2026
Thermal management of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) powertrains requires the simultaneous conditioning of multiple components operating at fundamentally different temperature levels. For thermal management systems, which directly couple the thermal circuits of the internal combustion engine (ICE), electric motor and inverter (EMINV), and traction battery (BAT) for example via controllable three-way valves and a ring-circuit, the decision of when and which components to couple has a direct impact on overall powertrain efficiency. Existing thermal operating strategies rely on empirically defined temperature thresholds and fixed component priority rankings, without quantifying the actual efficiency benefit associated with each coupling decision. This paper presents the development and simulation-based evaluation of a heat-quantity-based thermal operating strategy for a prototype HEV at TU Darmstadt. The strategy introduces three new computational modules — a Q-Indicator quantifying the thermal surplus or deficit of each component, an η-Indicator evaluating real-time component efficiencies as a function of temperature and operating point, and a Δη module computing the combined efficiency gain of each potential coupling pair prior to actuation. Coupling is executed only when the combined efficiency delta is positive, replacing empirical prioritization with a quantitative, efficiency-driven decision mechanism. The strategy is evaluated against an uncoupled baseline (REF-0) and a temperature-threshold-based predecessor strategy (REF-1) across a representative commuter cycle at ambient temperatures of −10 °C, 0 °C, and +30 °C using a co-simulation environment comprising a 1D ring-circuit fluid model in AVL Cruise M and a backward-facing 0D drivetrain model in MATLAB/Simulink. The results demonstrate measurable improvements in battery preconditioning and system efficiency at cold and moderate ambient temperatures. The heat-quantity-based strategy achieves comparable or superior thermal outcomes to the threshold-based approach while activating ring-circuit coupling more selectively. At warm ambient conditions, the strategy correctly withholds intervention based on a negative efficiency delta evaluation, confirming robust scenario-adaptive behavior. The findings highlight the potential of efficiency-driven coupling logic as a generalized and physically grounded basis for thermal operating strategy development in electrified powertrains.
Stenger, Erik, Fiore, Luis, Weimer, Niko, Beidl, Christian
Precision Simulation and Test of Drag Torque for Carbon Ceramic Disc Brakes with In-Wheel Electric Motor2026-01-08139/14/2026
Aiming at the industry pain points of low simulation accuracy and lack of authoritative closed-loop experimental verification for the drag torque of special brake calipers for in-wheel electric motors, this study takes the hub motor-integrated carbon-ceramic inboard caliper as the research object. The inboard caliper layout has been realized on Protean’s in-wheel motor products [12], while the matching integration of the C/C-SiC brake disc with such an inboard structure for a compact hub-motor layout is original and covered by Chinese invention patent CN120207087A[15]. The inboard caliper is defined as a special brake structure installed on the inner side of the brake disc/hub motor cavity (distinguished from the traditional outboard caliper mounted on the outer side of the brake disc), which is specially adapted to the compact assembly space of in-wheel motors and realizes structural integration of braking and driving systems. This study proposes a high-precision finite element simulation method coupling the nonlinearity of piston seal material with bilateral parallel return springs. The simulation boundary conditions are calibrated by matching the bench test working conditions. To verify the simulation results, the drag torque bench test is carried out in accordance with the industry standard [13], realizing a complete closed loop of simulation modeling and experimental verification. Although a certain numerical deviation exists, the high consistency in core trends and key evolutionary nodes, together with a low error (≈5.6%) within the initial 0.9–1 rotation regime, demonstrates that the model reasonably reproduces the generation and attenuation mechanisms of drag torque during the early rotation stage.
Meng, Dejian, Liu, Yuqi, hu, Pengfei, Li, Birui, Shao, Jiyong
Study on Temperature Rise and Heat Dissipation of Micro Electric Vehicle Drive Motor Based on Multi-Physics Coupling2026-99-11319/11/2026
This paper is mainly about heat dissipation and improvement technology, aiming at solving the problem that the driving motor of 4 low-speed electric vehicles has too high a rising speed when running under complicated working conditions. Core losses and conductor losses are calculated by using the finite element method as well as known empirical formulas, and magnetic eddy loss at three operating conditions (normal condition, maximum speed, and peak torque. The computed heat loads are then used to establish the complete 3- dimensional model of thermal analysis. As shown in Figure 3, without active cooling, the hottest conductors would be at about 141°C (Class-B Insulation limit). Therefore, three different liquid cooling designs (helical channel, serpent channel, and annular flow) have been designed and analyzed. A coupled thermal- fluid simulation has been performed on the helix structure, which showed better results, so we selected it to be optimized. The optimization is performed using central composite design, genetic algorithms for response surfaces, and multi-objective evolutionary optimization (NSGA-II). The objective function is to simultaneously achieve a low maximum working temperature as well as good heat transfer properties by changing the geometry of cooling channels. The cooling of the motor as well as the suction pressure was optimized, after which a decrease by up to 31.1°C (up 8.6% on the maximum temperature) was observed. Also, pressure drop reduction as much as 23% along with substantial increases in both the heat transfer performance and reliability.
Xi, Heyuan, Bai, Enjun, Ma, Wenyu, Tang, Fuyu, Liu, Zhiyi
Design and Performance Verification of a Wheel-Track Transformable Mobile Platform Based on a Four-Bar Mechanism for Rescue Scenarios2026-99-12469/4/2026
Contemporary disaster rescue operations face challenges due to complex and hazardous terrains. Existing rescue robots with single locomotion mechanisms (wheeled, legged, tracked) and some hybrid ones have limitations in adaptability, efficiency, or structure. To meet the dual demands of complex terrains and limited space, this paper proposes a wheel-track transformable mobile platform based on a four- bar mechanism, which adopts a modular structure. A servo motor drives the active link to adjust the spatial position of the movable link (equipped with movable wheels), enabling smooth switching between wheeled and tracked modes. Key link lengths are determined via kinematic analysis, and a two-stage gear transmission system is designed. Adams simulation verification shows the platform completes wheel-track mode conversion on flat ground without component interference and can lift the center of gravity (CG) to surmount obstacles during slope climbing. The platform's feasibility is verified, providing a technical reference for designing highly adaptable rescue robots suitable for small spaces and complex terrains in post-earthquake or post-disaster scenarios.
Ma, Shangyuan
Design and Validation of a 7-DoF Robotic Arm Featuring Hybrid Pneumatic-Electric Actuation2026-99-12229/4/2026
To enable more natural motion mapping between the human arm and a robotic counterpart while reducing control complexity, this paper presents a novel seven-degree-of-freedom (7-DoF) bionic robotic arm with hybrid pneumatic–electric actuation in an antagonistic configuration inspired by the skeletal structure and muscular actuation of the human upper limb. The design combines the high power density and intrinsic compliance of pneumatic artificial muscles with the precision and stability of electric motors, improving motion adaptability and payload-to-weight performance. Kinematic feasibility and motion smoothness for human-like waving are validated via forward kinematics and redundancy-resolved inverse kinematics, together with trajectory simulations. To quantitatively evaluate dexterity and operational range, Monte Carlo sampling is used to generate reachable postures across the workspace, producing a wrist activity map that characterizes attainable orientations and maneuverability. A prototype testbed is built to verify physical performance. Joint-angle tracking experiments for the wrist and elbow, as well as whole-arm coordinated-motion tests, demonstrate accurate trajectory tracking, smooth transitions, and stable motion. These results confirm the mechanical soundness and effectiveness of the proposed hybrid antagonistic actuation scheme. This work provides a practical basis for advanced control development and offers insights into hybrid actuation design for bionic robotic systems.
Dai, Yuanquan, Guo, Zhiqin, Zi, Mingkang, He, Zhaoyang, Song, Yongwei, Xie, Yinhui, Li, Jun
Design of a Four-Wheel Turning Tobacco Harvester Suitable for Hilly Areas2026-99-03338/14/2026
To address the core requirement of “layered ripeness and non-destructive harvesting” in tobacco-growing hilly regions of China, a specialized tobacco leaf harvester was developed. Considering the challenges posed by scattered plots and complex terrain, a four-wheel steering chassis system was proposed. The platform adopts a four-wheel independent drive and steering (4WID-4WIS) configuration, powered by DC servo motors and integrated with a microcontroller-based ROS system. The resulting drive chain—comprising motors, gear reducers, and off-road tires—achieves a maximum operating speed of 0.5 m/s. A novel rotary cross-blade harvesting module was designed in conjunction with a conveyor-based transmission mechanism, enabling stratified harvesting and leaf transport. Full-condition field tests were conducted. In terms of mobility, the harvester achieved stable operation at 0.5 m/s on cement roads, 0.1–0.2 m/s in fields, and demonstrated slip-free climbing on 20° slopes. In terms of harvesting performance, the system’s adjustable modules accommodated varying plant heights; however, issues with blade grip were observed when handling irregularly slanted stalks, affecting collection efficiency. During continuous field entry and exit operations, no mechanical failures occurred, verifying the prototype’s operational stability. This study introduces an innovative combination of omnidirectional mobile chassis and stratified blade modules, offering technical support for the modernization of tobacco agriculture. Further refinement of the harvesting strategy will be pursued to enhance practicality.
Guo, Ting, Gu, Jin, Li, Wen, Tang, Xiaoming, Long, Chao, Yang, Dongchao
Mechanical Structure Design and Dynamics Simulation of an Exoskeleton Leg Rehabilitation Robot2026-99-09028/7/2026
In response to the challenges of training and rehabilitation for patients with leg dysfunction, this research focuses on two core requirements: “bionic adaptation” and “safety assistance”. It introduces a novel exoskeleton leg rehabilitation robot designed to support diverse rehabilitation exercises for individuals with leg disabilities during therapy. The robot system consists of a lumbar support structure, thigh mechanical components, calf mechanical components, leg fixation straps, and foot mechanical structures, and achieves multi degree of freedom motion simulation through three main joints: hip joint, knee joint, and ankle joint. Each mechanical leg has three independent degrees of freedom, which can effectively simulate the natural movements of the human lower limb, such as flexion, extension, abduction, etc., during the gait cycle, thus meeting the functional needs of patients for different movement modes during rehabilitation training. On the basis of structural design, this study further utilizes multi-body dynamics simulation software ADAMS to conduct kinematic and dynamic analysis of the exoskeleton robot. By simulating the joint torque of the exoskeleton legs under ideal working conditions, the rationality and smoothness of the mechanism design are verified. The simulation results not only reflect the performance of the robot in typical rehabilitation actions, but also provide a theoretical basis and data support for the selection and parameter matching of key execution components (such as servo motors, reducers, etc.), laying an important foundation for the physical development and control strategy optimization of the robot system.
Mu, Xiaoqi, Ma, Chao, Li, Weijie, Pu, Shuai, Liu, Jiaqi, Wang, Ruiyin, Zhang, Xiaodong
Automotive Engineering: August 202626AUTP088/6/2026
2026 Toyota RAV4 just the first to benefit from Arlene and Toyota's Woven City A dispatch from the automaker's "let's just try it" city finds hydrogen fuel cells, automated parking robots, and a robust spirit of innovation. Go ahead, lean into AI and smart testing HBK and VI-grade's Smart Prototypes Summit shows again just how fast the auto industry is moving. Fastener specification for EVs: what engineers need to know Breaking down the critical differences in fastener selection for EV platforms. The missing layer of engineering The next generation of materials and automotive breakthroughs will depend on a better understanding and engineering of microstructure. Editorial ITF Summit 2026: Engineering resilience The Navigator Planning a trek across America with dogs in EVs Mercedes AMG EV has three electric motors and the sound of a V8 Glazing creatively at Sekurit Imagine Lab Slate's modem-free pickup brings privacy back to driving 1.5 million km later: How Huber+Suhner connects the gangway GM Energy places bets on sodium batteries Road Ready Four electric SUVs, five states, 16 beagles Product Briefs Spotlight: Noise & vibration tech, machine tools Q&A The changing value of in-car data
Axial flux motors evolve hybrid design for heavy-duty trucks26TOFHP08_078/1/2026
The trucking industry is dealing with a lot of uncertainty, and higher fuel and equipment costs are making it harder for companies to plan and buy new trucks. What can OEMs and fleet operators do to mitigate these challenges? Hybrid systems may be the answer. With internal combustion and electric power, hybrid systems reduce fuel consumption, improve transient performance, enable low-speed electric operation and create more flexible power management. Vehicles and equipment that could benefit from new or retrofit hybrid systems include refuse trucks, dump trucks, long-haul trucks, port equipment, excavators, terminal tractors and commercial delivery vehicles.
Glass, Jason
Study on the Electromechanical Coupling Torsional Vibration Characteristics of Electric Drive Transmission Systems under Motor Harmonic Excitation2026-99-02297/31/2026
Considering the spatial harmonic and time harmonic excitation of the permanent magnet synchronous motor, and the dynamic meshing excitation of gear pairs, this paper constructs one electromechanical coupling torsional vibration model. The torsional vibration characteristics of the electric drive transmission system in pure electric vehicles are investigated. Key electromechanical parameters are obtained by numerical calculations, and the electromechanical coupling system model is solved using the Runge-Kutta method. Finally, the system dynamic response characteristics at rated speed of 3000 r/min are analyzed. The results indicate that the significant bidirectional coupling exists between the electromagnetic excitation of the motor and the mechanical excitation of the gear transmission system. The current spectrum contains fundamental and harmonic components, along with components of gear meshing frequencies and their modulated sideband characteristics relative to the electrical frequency. The electromagnetic torque spectrum exhibits components of gear meshing frequencies, and gear angular velocity fluctuations are influenced by motor harmonic excitation. Under multi-source excitation, this study reveals the frequency modulation mechanism of torsional vibrations in electromechanical coupling drive systems, providing a theoretical basis for vibration and noise suppression.
Luo, Yaou, Zhao, Kaihua, Fu, Shengping
Research on the Control of Magnetic Weakening Scheme for the Voltage Utilization Rate of Hybrid Transmission2026-01-50497/31/2026
This paper proposes a field-weakening control method for permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) current regulators based on the ratio of voltage-frequency ratio and voltage utilization rate when the motor speed exceeds the field-weakening speed; that is, the direct-axis offset current id is generated through the action of field-weakening feedforward and field-weakening PI regulator, and the control of field-weakening speed can directly adjust the demagnetization effect of id to achieve field-weakening control of PMSM. The field-weakening control method of PMSM current regulators with the outer loop of voltage utilization rate is adopted. It is proposed to use the phase-locked loop control method to decode the motor position signal in a closed loop and calculate the motor speed. The fluctuation of the position signal is reduced and the signal is more stable. This paper realizes constant power speed regulation based on high voltage utilization rate and field-weakening control method at high-speed operation above the base speed, which greatly improves the dynamic performance and system efficiency of the system.
Jing, Junchao, Zhang, Junzhi, Yan, Xiaoqian, Liu, Yiqiang, Sun, Fengjiao, Dai, Zhengxing
Design and Optimization of Hollow Rotating Traveling Wave Ultrasonic Motor Based on Laser Beam Expander2026-99-01547/31/2026
To meet the critical need for rapid response and miniaturization in laser beam expander drive systems, this study proposes an innovative actuation solution based on a hollow rotary traveling-wave ultrasonic motor. By thoroughly analyzing the optical adjustment mechanism of laser beam expanders and the electromechanical coupling behavior of ultrasonic motors, the motor structure was systematically optimized. Using a multiphysics coupling approach, the performance of stators fabricated from three distinct materials was compared, and parametric optimization was conducted. Experimental verification confirms that the developed ultrasonic motor precisely matches the load characteristics of beam-expanding optics while fulfilling the stringent requirements for both fast response and compact design. This research provides a reference for the miniaturization drive of high-precision optical systems, with promising applications in space optics and precision instrumentation.
Qiu, Haihui, Niu, Chuanhu, Xiao, Zhong, Xu, Zhangfan, Li, Jialiang, Pan, Song
Development and Technical Verification of A Lunar Dust Environment Simulation Mechanism2026-99-01757/31/2026
Lunar dust consists of extremely fine particles and exhibits electrostatic charging properties and electrostatic adhesion. These characteristics cause lunar dust to be highly susceptible to mobilization during lander touchdowns, rover traversals, and human activities, forming widely distributed dust clouds. Lunar dust contamination not only abrades spacecraft and equipment to impair their performance but also poses a threat to astronauts’ safety. To verify the impact of the lunar dust environment on exploration equipment components, a simulation mechanism adaptable to the thermal vacuum test environment was designed. This mechanism is integrated into the lunar environment simulation system and uses a vacuum stepper motor to drive a ratchet mechanism, enabling precise vibrational injection of simulated lunar dust. It mainly consists of a pretreatment mechanism, a particle sedimentation mechanism, a shielding mechanism, and an ultraviolet (UV) irradiation system. Considering the vacuum operating environment, alternating high and low temperature conditions, as well as the strict requirements for the mechanism’s compact size and high reliability, this paper analyzes in detail a series of problems encountered during the development of the mechanism and their corresponding solutions. Stainless steel and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) were selected as the main materials for the mechanism. Meanwhile, active temperature control measures were adopted to actively regulate the temperature of components such as the motor. Ultimately, the mechanism can withstand alternating high and low temperatures ranging from -150°C to 150°C and a vacuum environment of 5 × 10^–6 Pa. Under this environment, the mechanism can achieve vibration frequency adjustment within the range of 1-5 Hz, and realize the sedimentation of simulated lunar dust particles with a particle size of less than 200 μm over an area of 150 mm × 150 mm. After sedimentation, the simulated lunar dust particles can be charged through the photoelectric effect.
Xu, Menglong, Lv, Shizeng, Li, Guohua, Gong, Jie
Research and Development of Wheelchair Assisted Intelligent Boarding and Landing Device for Barrier-Free Bus Based on TRIZ Theory2026-99-01477/31/2026
With the intensifying global trend of population aging, enhancing public-transport accessibility for seniors and people with disabilities has become critical. Current wheelchair-assist boarding devices on low-floor buses suffer from cumbersome operation, excessive space occupation, poor adaptation to varying curb heights, and an inability to modulate power output dynamically, all of which compromise travel convenience. This study applies TRIZ theory to solve these problems. Functional analysis, causal-chain analysis, and the nine-screen method were used to identify key issues: excessive space use, insufficient dynamic power adjustment, poor curb-height adaptability, and the lack of self-service capability. TRIZ tools— including the contradiction matrix, substance-field models, and the Ideal Final Result (IFR)—generated conceptual solutions such as a foldable ramp, an adaptive tilting mechanism, an intelligent power-assist system, and an automatic extension device. The resulting integrated unit employs a planetary-gear train combined with a four-bar linkage for compact folding, a servo motor with torque-limiting springs for adaptive height adjustment, torque sensors for real-time power modulation, and a scissor-type telescoping mechanism for automatic stowage. Experimental validation through 50 trials showed that the device completes extension/folding in 7 s, achieves angle adjustment within 3.5 s, covers a pitch range of 0°–43°, and attains a 100 % extension success rate. These features significantly increase automation, adaptability, and user independence, thereby improving the quality of accessible bus services.
Zhu, Zongchuang, Hu, Zhiyong, Liu, Zeshuo, Liu, Yijia, Zhang, Ziqian
Research on Integrated Design and Optimization Method of High Speed Shuttle UUV Rudder and Propeller2026-99-08647/30/2026
Along with the advancement of the maritime power strategy, the research, development, and application of deep-sea space stations are becoming increasingly important. However, since deep-sea space stations mainly rely on acoustic communication, they cannot exchange information with ground stations quickly and accurately. To improve data transmission efficiency, this paper proposes using a high-speed shuttle UUV instead of acoustic communication. In this context, an efficient propulsion system is critical as it enables the UUV to achieve high speed and maintain stability. A propeller meeting the 110.9 N thrust requirement is designed using the chart design method, and the 110BL230-630 brushless DC motor is selected based on motor–propeller matching. This motor has a rated speed of 3000 rpm, rated power of 3000 W, and torque of 9.6 Nm. The performance curve of the NACA0012 airfoil is analyzed to select an appropriate rudder surface. The rudder area (4067 mm^2) is designed in accordance with DNV rules, with the following parameters: tip chord length 40 mm, root chord length 40 mm, and half-span 70 mm. CFD analysis is conducted on the designed propeller and the UUV equipped with the integrated propulsion system. The predicted performance of the P4119 propeller (hydrodynamic parameter deviation ≤ 1%) and the SUBOFF hull (resistance relative error ≤ 3.04%) confirms the accuracy of the CFD method for calculating propeller open-water performance and UUV drag. Through comparative analysis, the optimal rudder–propeller spacing is determined to be 60 mm, as this spacing yields the highest propulsion efficiency.
Wei, Jiaguang, Feng, Xiaowei, Zhao, Fuchen, Wang, Xingke, Xu, Shanzhi, He, Wenxuan
Co-optimization of Energy Efficiency and Drivability for Dual-Motor Electric Commercial Vehicles: A Topology-Aware Hierarchical Approach02-19-04-00267/29/2026
Dual-motor architectures provide additional operating degrees of freedom for electric commercial vehicles (ECVs), but the integration of automated manual transmissions (AMTs) introduces torque discontinuities during gear-related mode transitions. Existing energy management strategies usually focus on steady-state efficiency optimization, while the mechanical feasibility of mode transitions is often considered separately or neglected. To address this issue, this study proposes a topology-aware hierarchical control framework for dual-motor ECVs. The framework combines an offline global efficiency map with an online transition-feasibility arbitration mechanism. In the offline layer, the energy-oriented operating mode and torque split are extracted over the vehicle-speed and wheel-torque domain. In the online layer, a topology-based transition matrix is used to identify mechanically singular mode transitions, and potentially torque-interrupting commands are re-routed through feasible bridge modes. The proposed method embeds powertrain topology constraints into the real-time implementation of an offline optimal map, thereby complementing conventional global optimization methods with transition-feasibility arbitration. Simulation results under the CHTC driving cycle show that the proposed strategy improves torque continuity during mode transitions while retaining most of the energy-saving benefit of the unconstrained efficiency-oriented strategy. Compared with the rule-based strategy, the proposed method reduces SOC-equivalent energy consumption by 10.7%, and recovers 65.5% of the DP-achievable energy-saving potential. Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) results further demonstrate that the proposed online arbitration logic can be executed within the controller sampling period.
Song, Dafeng, Chen, Lexin, Zeng, Xiaohua, Ni, Lixin
Fuel Savings from Predictive Charge Control Based on Short-Trip Duration in Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles14-15-03-00157/10/2026
Series hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) employ an electric motor for propulsion, while the internal combustion engine operates solely as a generator under energy-efficient speed and load conditions. Owing to this architecture, series HEVs can achieve high fuel efficiency with a relatively simple control structure. However, conventional energy management systems (EMSs) often prioritize battery state-of-charge (SOC) stabilization, which can lead to frequent engine start–stop operations and unnecessary fuel consumption, particularly in short-trip driving. This study aims to enhance energy management performance in series HEVs by optimizing engine power generation timing based on predicted short-trip duration. A computationally efficient, rule-based prediction model is developed using real-world driving data, in which short-trip duration is estimated from vehicle speed and acceleration. Due to its low computational load, the proposed model is suitable for implementation in an onboard electronic control unit (ECU). The proposed control strategy initiates engine power generation when the battery SOC is low and the predicted trip duration is long, and suppresses generation when the SOC is sufficiently high or the predicted trip is short. A detailed vehicle model incorporating an engine, generator, electric motor, inverter, and battery is developed in Modelica to evaluate the proposed strategy. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed EMS significantly reduces the frequency of engine start–stop events, leading to fuel economy improvements of 3.6% under the WLTC (excluding the extra-high phase) and 13.4% in a real-world urban–rural driving cycle, compared with a commercialized baseline vehicle. These results confirm the effectiveness and practical applicability of the proposed EMS for passenger vehicle applications.
Mizushima, Norifumi, Sato, Akira, Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Moriyoshi, Yasuo
A Multiphysics Approach to Mitigate Pulse-Width-Modulation-Induced Acoustic Noise in Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Drives for Electric Vehicles14-15-03-00147/3/2026
This article investigates high-frequency noise in permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for electric vehicles, originating from pulse width modulation (PWM). A theoretical model is developed to formulate the phase voltage under space vector PWM (SVPWM), explicitly accounting for the additional harmonic components generated by the discrete-time voltage update in digital control systems. This derived voltage waveform serves as the excitation source in an electromagnetic finite-element model, from which the PWM current harmonics and their resulting high-frequency electromagnetic forces are computed. Critical components of the electromagnetic force are then extracted through two-dimensional Fourier transform. A structural model of the motor, incorporating practical assembly constraints, is established and validated by experimental modal tests on a fully assembled motor unit. To enable rapid noise prediction over the wide speed range, vibro-acoustic transfer functions are introduced. The predicted noise shows good agreement with experimental data. Leveraging this multiphysics model, the influence of switching frequency on noise characteristics is analyzed. The study identifies that avoiding excitation of the motor’s zero-order mode is critical for noise suppression. Accordingly, an optimal frequency-hopping strategy is proposed. Experimental validation confirms the strategy’s effectiveness in reducing noise over the wide speed range.
Lin, Fu, Chen, Yihui
Improved Thermal Management for Operating a Battery Electric City Bus under Real Driving Conditions2026-01-07587/1/2026
The goal of reducing global CO2 emissions requires actions especially for the transportation sector. To achieve the goal, electric traction motors are frequently implemented in passenger vehicles, as well as in commercial vehicles like heavy-duty trucks or buses. Particularly electric city buses have the potential to reduce the local emissions in urban areas and provide local exhaust-emission-free mobility. While their number of registrations rises, research focusses on the improvement of the overall system in order to increase energy efficiency. High importance is gained by the thermal management of the whole system. This research investigates a simulative approach to improve the thermal management and therefore the energy efficiency of an electric city bus. The different thermal components of an electric city bus like drive system, battery system and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC system) are modelled. Their thermal behavior has been validated in previous research. Based on the validated model, this study proposes an improved thermal management that, state-dependent, combines the thermal circuits of the single components to reduce the overall energy demand. Cooling or heating is provided by the HVAC system. Furthermore, the simulation utilizes real driving cycles of a city bus in the Hamburg area. Measurement data from an entire year are examined by a cluster analysis that results in typical application profiles for urban bus traffic. These profiles are used as basis for further research. An operating strategy for the thermal management of an electric city bus under real driving conditions is developed using the simulation model. Results are presented, which show that the overall energy demand decreases due to an improved, application profile-dependent thermal management system.
Schäfer, Henrik, Hellberg, Tobias, Meywerk, Martin
A Comprehensive CFD-Driven Approach to Battery Thermal Modeling and Cooling System Optimization2026-01-07527/1/2026
With the continued expansion of electric mobility, liquid-cooled thermal management systems have become indispensable for ensuring the performance, durability, and safety of automotive battery packs. This work presents a novel cooling-plate design that integrates offset strip-fin turbulators to enhance convective heat transfer between lithium-ion cells and the circulating coolant. A comprehensive multi-region CFD model of the full battery pack is developed, incorporating an implicit lumped-parameter representation of cell heat generation. The numerical predictions are validated against dedicated experimental measurements available in the literature. Subsequently, a parametric study is conducted in which the number of hydraulic sub-modules and the inlet/outlet configurations are systematically varied to generate all feasible design permutations. The resulting configurations are compared to assess thermal performance and to quantify the benefits—as well as the potential penalties—introduced by the turbulators relative to the experimentally validated baseline.
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Tariq, Muhammad Hasnain, Bonetti, Elisa
Multiphysical Modeling of a Direct-Cooled Litz Wire Winding for a PMSM Using Surrogate Models2026-01-07317/1/2026
In permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) ohmic losses occur in the stator windings. Reducing these losses contributes to a higher efficiency and increases the vehicles range. An effective approach to reduce frequency-dependent AC conduction loss is the use of litz wires. In addition, direct cooling helps to reduce DC conduction loss and winding temperatures. Therefore, this work presents a multiphysical modeling approach of a direct-cooled litz wire winding in a PMSM. It combines loss modeling of the winding with novel thermal and hydraulic calculation methods. AC conduction loss due to skin and proximity effect and DC conduction loss are modeled temperature dependent. Scaled-down conjugate heat transfer simulations are used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between wires and coolant. Additionally, the pressure drop is derived and converted into parameters for use in a porous media model. The derived parameters are used to generate surrogate models to enable computationally efficient predictions. Using the developed methods a case study is carried out. The influence of the number of turns per slot, litz wire diameter and number of parallel litz wires is investigated. In order to isolate the influence of the winding configuration, the geometry of the PMSM and the coolant volume flow remain constant. Performance indicators are energy consumption during a duty cycle, winding mass and pressure drop. Based on this study it is shown that the stator winding design is a multiphysical compromise. The method enables a targeted design of the winding configuration with respect to various objectives and facilitates the assessment of their influencing factors on the overall machine characteristics under conflicting performance requirements.
Blaschke, Wolfgang Maximilian, Mengoni, Leonard, List, Adrian, Kulzer, André Casal
Rib Design of Electric Drive Unit Housings for Reduced Noise Radiation2026-01-06876/20/2026
Although propulsion noise often constitutes a minority of the overall noise in electric vehicles, it remains an important quality indicator due to its high-frequency tonal character, which is undesirable even at low levels. There are many factors that influence the interior car levels of propulsion noise, i.e. gear whine and electric motor whine. The primary ones to consider are the electric drive units (EDU) internal forces, but also secondary properties such as EDU housing design and encapsulation, vehicle sound pack and mount isolation play important roles. This work focuses on EDU housing design and more particularly on the housing ribs that enables attachment point stiffness and housing strength, but which can also cause problems in terms of noise radiation. Numerical parameter studies on geometrical properties such as length dimensions, thickness and curvature were performed on single ribs of different types. For each design iteration, the key performance indicators radiated sound power, squared velocity and radiation efficiency were studied. The outcome of this work provides insights into which characteristics of ribs that are central for radiated noise. For instance, it was proven that a rather small curvature of the outer edge of a rib can decrease the radiated noise but also that certain rib dimensions can result in extensive noise due to the interaction of the first bending mode with the peak in radiation efficiency.
Lennström, David, Malm, Oskar, wurzinger, Jakob, Cederlund, Johan
Application of Tone-to-Noise Ratio for Early Diagnosis and Control of Electric Drive Whine2026-01-06866/20/2026
High-frequency whine from electric drive systems has become a critical issue restricting the improvement of vehicle sound quality. Traditional evaluation methods struggle to accurately identify masked whine risks in the early research and development (R&D) phase, due to incomplete hardware of prototype vehicles and high interior background noise. This often leads to problems being delayed until the mass production stage, resulting in high rectification costs. To address this issue, this paper proposes and validates an early risk assessment method based on the Tone-to-Noise Ratio (TNR). First, the generation mechanism of Electric Drive (E-Drive) whine is systematically analyzed, identifying the electromagnetic noise of the electric motor and the gear whine of the reducer as the two dominant noise sources. To address this bottleneck, the TNR psychoacoustic metric is introduced to quantify the perceptual salience of tonal noise relative to background noise, which effectively mitigates the masking effect caused by high background noise in early prototype vehicles. Combined with an engineering case of a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), the study confirms that the TNR method can accurately identify potential high-risk whine orders in the Verification Prototype (VP) phase and enable reliable forward prediction of risks in the Mass Production (MP) stage. On this basis, a multi-dimensional noise reduction strategy covering harmonic current injection, gear microgeometry optimization, and transfer path optimization is developed for the identified risk orders. Full vehicle validation shows that the noise of key whine orders is reduced by 5–10 dB(A) after optimization, while the TNR value decreases significantly, and the vehicle NVH performance reaches industry-leading levels. This research forms a complete technical path from TNR-based early identification to targeted closed-loop control, providing a theoretical basis and practical engineering example for the proactive management and efficient solution of E-Drive whine risks in various new energy vehicles.
Yun, Zhao, Hui, Hui, Gao, Pan, Xiao, Zhongdi, Zan, Chen, Teng, Charlie
Vibroacoustic Analysis and Optimisation of an Electric Refrigerant Scroll Compressor2026-01-07226/20/2026
In electrified vehicles, auxiliary components can represent a dominant source of noise, one of which is the refrigerant scroll compressor. Compared with vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines, electrified vehicles require larger refrigerant compressors, as thermal management is needed not only for the passenger compartment but also for the battery and electric drive components. Excitation mechanisms within the compressor, arising from the cyclic compression process and the eccentric motion of the scroll, induce housing vibrations and result in airborne sound radiation. To investigate the vibroacoustic noise generation mechanisms of a scroll compressor, operational vibrations were analysed using accelerometers and three-dimensional laser scanning vibrometry. In addition, the radiated sound was characterised using microphones and near-field sound intensity measurements. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between surface vibrations and airborne sound radiation, with the vibroacoustic behaviour being dominated by speed-dependent tonal components. Pronounced vibration and sound radiation levels occur when excitation orders coincide with rigid-body modes of the mounting system or structural eigenmodes of the compressor housing. Based on these findings, a constrained-layer damping treatment was applied to selected, highly sound-radiating regions of the compressor housing. Although the overall reduction in sound power was limited due to the high stiffness and predominantly rigid-body behaviour of the housing, local vibration and sound radiation reductions were achieved for structurally flexible components, resulting in a perceptible improvement in subjective sound quality. These results highlight the importance of spatially resolved vibroacoustic analysis for understanding noise generation mechanisms and for guiding targeted optimisation measures for refrigerant compressors.
Saur, Lukas, Beer, Gabriel, Fritzsche, Marco, Becker, Stefan
A High-Performance Computing Strategy for Acoustic Encapsulation Modeling of Electric Vehicle Subsystems Using Coupled BEM–PEM–FEM Methods2026-01-06946/20/2026
Electric vehicle subsystems, including powertrains, electric motors, and gearboxes, pose new challenges in achieving stringent acoustic performance targets for both interior and exterior noise. These challenges are intensified by increasingly demanding customer expectations regarding interior acoustic comfort, which encompasses the reduction of intrusive noise sources and the enhancement of overall sound quality across a broad frequency spectrum. A primary concern associated with electric vehicles subsystems is the generation of high-frequency tonal noise, commonly referred to as whine noise, which can significantly impact acoustic performance and passenger comfort. High-frequency whine noise propagates through multiple transmission paths and can be effectively attenuated at the source through encapsulation strategies, which also contribute to broadband noise reduction across a wide frequency spectrum. To predict the acoustic performance of encapsulation, a coupled simulation approach combining the Boundary Element Method (BEM), the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Poroelastic Finite Element Method (PEM) has been developed. This methodology has been already presented and validated through experimental measurements, demonstrating its acoustic effectiveness in the encapsulation of a generic electric motor housing. While BEM is well-suited for modeling exterior acoustic propagation, standard implementations encounter limitations at high frequencies due to mesh density requirements and computational cost. This work presents hybrid parallelization strategies that integrate frequency-domain decomposition with multi-threading to accelerate BEM H-matrix computations. Frequency decomposition enables parallel processing by distributing independent frequency tasks across multiple processes, while multi-threading enhances performance for fine-grained operations such as matrix assembly and H-matrix compression within each frequency. The processes and improvements enabled by these strategies are discussed and presented within an adapted high-performance computing (HPC) environment.
Amichi, Kamel, Calloni, Massimiliano
Influence of Common-Mode Voltage Reduction Techniques on High-Frequency Sideband Vibrations in IPMSM Drives for EVs2026-01-06956/20/2026
Space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) induces common-mode voltage (CMV) in three-phase voltage-source inverters, producing steep voltage edges that can lead to high leakage currents. In electric drive applications, these currents accelerate motor bearing degradation and may cause winding insulation failure. Active-zero-state PWM (AZSPWM) and near-state PWM (NSPWM) have been proposed as alternative modulation strategies to mitigate CMV and reduce drive degradation. This paper investigates the noise, vibration, and harshness performance of AZSPWM and NSPWM in comparison with conventional SVPWM. The proposed CMV reduction schemes are evaluated in terms of both CMV mitigation and their impact on high-frequency sideband vibration harmonics. Experimental results demonstrate that the CMV reduction strategies are highly effective in lowering CMV levels relative to SVPWM; however, this benefit is accompanied by an increase in vibration levels, which may adversely affect the mechanical integrity of the drive system despite the reduction in bearing leakage currents.
Khamis, Mahmoud Aly, Tatar, Andrei Alexandru, Repecho, Victor, Doria-Cerezo, Arnau
Analytical Magnetic Circuit Modeling and Parameter Estimation of a PMSM for Spatial Harmonics and Radial Forces Characterization2026-01-06776/20/2026
This paper presents an analytical model for three-phase Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) based on Magnetic Equivalent Circuits (MECs). The approach combines a reduced magnetic network, formulated in the complex domain to simplify the mathematical development, with an offline parameter estimation procedure systematically applied for different harmonic orders. This enables the model to capture the spatial dependence of permeance variations and reproduce inductance and magnetic flux nonlinearities, while maintaining generality, physical interpretability, and computational efficiency. Numerical simulations are compared with Finite Element (FE) results to validate the model’s ability to predict current and torque harmonics and the resulting radial electromagnetic forces, demonstrating its suitability for fast Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) analysis and vibroacoustic optimization.
Luciano, Ludovica, Doria-Cerezo, Arnau, Salamone, Nicolò
High-Fidelity NVH Analysis Model Development Process for EV Traction Motors Based on Experimental Correlation2026-01-06856/20/2026
This study presents a high-fidelity NVH (Noise, Vibration, Harshness) analysis model development process for EV traction motors. The proposed process consists of two main components: Path advancement through structural stiffness tuning, and Source advancement, focused on the motor’s excitation mechanisms. Model accuracy was validated through comparison of simulation results with dyno experiment data, with particular focus on the 24th-order electromagnetic vibration observed in an 8-pole, 48-slot motor. Path advancement was achieved through modal correlation between experimental results and finite element (FE) analysis. Nine modal experiment and simulation stages were conducted, ranging from individual components to the complete motor assembly. Mode shapes were compared using the Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC), and natural frequencies were matched within a 5% error margin by adjusting FE material properties. For the 24th-order electromagnetic vibration, simulation results agreed with experiment data within a 7% error margin for natural frequency. However, notable discrepancies remained in vibration amplitude. To resolve these discrepancies, Source advancement was performed. The initial excitation source was derived from idealized electromagnetic analysis, considering radial and tangential force as well as torque ripple. However, rotor eccentricity caused by mechanical assembly tolerances is commonly observed in actual motors. Therefore, the advanced source accounted for rotor–stator eccentricity in the electromagnetic analysis. As a result, the NVH simulation incorporating the advanced source matched the vibration amplitude within a 1% error margin compared to experimental results. The proposed NVH model development process enables more accurate vibration prediction in the early design phase of electric drive motors and is expected to significantly improve NVH performance in future electric drive systems.
Kim, Donghee, Kim, Dong-Jun, Lee, SangHan, Kim, Seon Hyeong, Hwang, Seung Gyu, Valente, Giorgio, Parisouz, Shahriar, Halse, Christopher
Low-Voltage Electric Vehicle with a Reconfigurable Powertrain Architecture for Urban and Extra-Urban Mobility2026-37-00256/9/2026
This paper presents a novel concept for battery electric vehicles (BEVs), referred to as the low-voltage reconfigurable electric vehicle (LVREV). The LVREV is designed to bridge the gap between L- and M-class vehicles by adopting a <60 V multi-phase powertrain combined with a swappable battery system, maintaining the overall vehicle mass below one ton. This configuration enables adaptable driving range, optimized energy consumption in urban environments, and enhanced safety. The LVREV features two distinct operating modes. Frugal mode is intended for urban use and employs a smaller battery pack to maximize efficiency and reduce vehicle mass, while Dual mode is tailored for longer extra-urban trips through the use of a dual-battery configuration. The key innovations of the LVREV concept include a reconfigurable vehicle architecture capable of meeting both urban and extra-urban mobility requirements, thus providing a highly versatile transportation solution. In addition, the low-voltage powertrain improves safety and lowers system costs, facilitating manual battery replacement and compatibility with domestic charging infrastructure. By integrating these technological solutions, the LVREV expands the potential of low-voltage electric vehicles and supports the development of more flexible, efficient, and user-oriented mobility concepts. Experimental and simulation results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed solution and provide initial validation of the reconfigurable powertrain and battery architecture.
Tramacere, Eugenio, Favelli, Stefano, Galluzzi, Renato, Tonoli, Andrea
Development of a Load Responsive Mechanical Shifting Mechanism and its Benefits for Battery Electric Vehicles2026-37-00266/9/2026
Many high-end electric vehicles use an automatic two-speed transmission. The ability of the drivetrain to switch between two gear ratios improves vehicle performance and increases driving range. The aim of the presented research work is to transfer these advantages to small and lightweight battery-electric vehicles, which face significant cost and weight constraints and therefore cannot rely on highly sophisticated electric motors. Direct-drive systems are widely used in this vehicle class due to their simplicity and high baseline efficiency. However, they offer limited flexibility in adapting the operating point of the electric motor under varying load conditions. A two-speed transmission can overcome this limitation by enabling load point shifting, allowing the motor to operate closer to its optimal efficiency region during both urban and extra-urban driving. This results in improved energy consumption without adding substantial system complexity. Currently, only actuated transmissions are offered on the market, with automation adding a high degree of complexity and representing a major cost driver. Therefore, the focus during the concept development phase was on designing a fully mechanical, self-shifting system to meet the cost pressures of the targeted vehicle classes. Hence, the team at ITnA developed and patented a solution that enables automatic gear changes solely based on output torque, which reflects the motor load and the current driving situation. In the present work, both the operating principle of the technology and the advantages regarding the performance and efficiency of electric vehicles are described. Owing to its simple architecture and the absence of electronics, the transmission is inherently robust and durable, making it a significant contribution to the development of sustainable and affordable e-mobility for the mass market.
Napetschnig, Christof, Tromayer, Juergen, Stückler, David
DDPG-Based Energy-Optimal Torque Split Strategy for Dual-Motor Electric Vehicles10-10-04-00335/22/2026
This study presents a torque distribution strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles utilizing a Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient reinforcement learning algorithm designed to optimize energy consumption. By using a simplified architecture and replicable reward functions, the proposed agents rely exclusively on standard CAN bus signals, commanded longitudinal force, and the motors’ velocities, eliminating the need for specialized sensors or complex plant models. Two reinforcement agents are trained using two different reward functions: power-based and State of Charge-based. These agents are validated through high-fidelity CarSim–Simulink co-simulations across soft, medium, and severe acceleration scenarios, in which they demonstrate superior performance to traditional adaptive methods. In the most demanding scenario, a typical adaptive strategy achieves an additional 7.8% of power consumption and 85% of optimal energy recovery, while the proposed reinforcement learning strategies reach 0.6% more consumption and 95% energy recovery during braking compared to the theoretical optimum. These results highlight a practical, reliable solution for maximizing efficiency in dual-motor powertrains without significant computational burden on existing electronic control units.
Meléndez-Useros, Miguel, Viadero-Monasterio, Fernando, López-Boada, María Jesús, López-Boada, Beatriz
Intelligent Control of Automobile Spiral Bevel Gear Grinding Process Based on Force Feedback2026-99-07245/15/2026
To enhance the grinding quality of spiral bevel gears, an intelligent control model for the grinding process of automotive helical conical gears based on force feedback has been designed. This model outputs the control voltage for the machine tool's permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), ensuring that the motor speed constantly tracks the desired value. By adjusting the grinding generating speed, the grinding force is controlled, and the tooth surface roughness is reduced. Firstly, the state equation of a permanent magnet synchronous AC servo motor is established. By employing the second method of Lyapunov, an RM adaptive control algorithm is developed. It is found that the model output can efficiently track the reference model (RM) and adjust to variations in torque due to load. To further enhance the controller, a generalized regression neural network (GRNN) was developed; subsequently, training data were generated using the output voltage of the RM self-adjusting controller to achieve velocity regulation of the machine tool's servo motor. Finally, the results indicate that the GRNN controller is superior. It uses RM self-adjusting control data as samples for regression analysis, outputs control signals, and controls the angular velocities of each axis of the machine tool to control the grinding force within a reasonable threshold range, reducing the complexity of the controller and achieving lightweight. At the same time, the feasibility of the controller has been experimentally verified. This improves the roughness of the tooth surface during the grinding of spiral bevel gears and enhances the quality of vehicle operation.
Liu, Nan, Han, Jiang, Tian, Xiaoqing, Li, Minglei, Xue, Rui
NASA Dragonfly Mission &ndash; Rotor Blade Design and OptimizationF-0082-2026-01265/5/2026
The objective of NASA's 4th New Frontiers Mission, Dragonfly, is to explore the surface chemistry and habitability of Saturn's largest moon, Titan. With its thick nitrogen atmosphere, liquid methane cycle, and rich, organic surface materials, Titan holds clues to prebiotic chemistry to answer fundamental scientific questions about the building blocks of life. The combination of high fluid density (4.4x) and low gravity (1/7th) compared to Earth makes exploration of this cryogenic ocean world in the outer solar system feasible by means of a relocatable lander - this is Dragonfly, a multi-rotor vehicle designed for the unique atmospheric conditions and environment at Titan. Dragonfly enables flight in a quad-rotor configuration with two counter-rotating, canted rotors mounted on each of four sting arms. All eight rotors are three-bladed, stiff metal rotors that are controlled by variable-speed electric motors. The objective of this paper is to tell the story of Dragonfly's rotor blade design and optimization, starting with the conceptual design based on flight requirements for Titan, preliminary design iterations of the rotor blades, and detailed design and optimization of the final configuration. Details are given with respect to design constraints driven by the cryogenic Titan environment, resulting from scientific instruments located on Dragonfly, and the overall mission flight profile. Design tools ranged from momentum theory to free-wake methods, hybrid computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and blade-resolved CFD analyses compared to wind tunnel measurements of rotor and lander combinations.
Schmitz, Sven, Cornelius, Jason, Lorber, Peter, Modarres, Ramin, Bowles, Patrick, Ruiz, Felipe, Allred, Gracelyne, Gruber, Kate
Shape Optimization of a Single-Stator Dual-Rotor Axial Flux Motor for eVTOL AircraftF-0082-2026-02935/5/2026
Emerging technologies in the field of electrified propulsion systems offer a promising solution to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels and improve efficiency. However, the design of high-power density electric machines introduces new challenges, including limited passive cooling potential and the issue of the weight of electric motors. To address these challenges, this paper considers analysis and design methods for high torque-to-weight ratio axial flux motors. A magnetic equivalent circuit model coupled with a lumped parameter thermal network is developed for design space exploration and optimization. This inexpensive analytical model predicts the performance of a single-stator dual-rotor axial flux motor based on geometry, loading condition, and slot and pole pair combination. To enable comparisons against real-world data, the optimization study was demonstrated using the hover mission requirements from the Research Aircraft for eVTOL Enabling techNologies (RAVEN) vehicle to minimize the mass of the motor. In tandem with the analytical model, a higher-fidelity finite element model was also developed, and good agreement between predicted power and efficiency was demonstrated across a range of axial flux motor designs. The lightest weight design that satisfied the hover mission requirements was the 12 pole pair 27 slot (12PP 27S) configuration with a fixed weight of 9.28 kg. The analytic model undersized the output power of the electric motor by approximately 9% across a range of slot and pole pair combinations.
Arulampalam, Seiyon, German, Brian, Kennedy, Graeme, Smith, Cameron, Gutknecht, Jonathan
Optimizing Ride Comfort and Stability in In-Wheel Motor Drive Electric Vehicles: A Correlated Semi-Active Suspension System with Kalman Filter and Spring-Type Analysis10-10-04-00304/24/2026
This research provides a unique contribution to the field of in-wheel motor drive (IWMD) electric vehicles (EVs) by addressing the challenges associated with the use of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for traction. These motors, integrated into the unsprung masses, increase the wheels’ rotational inertia, reducing ride smoothness on uneven roads. To mitigate this issue, we present an optimal Kalman filter for a magnetorheological (MR) control suspension system that correlates road inputs between the front and rear wheels. This filter significantly improves the estimation accuracy of state variables by incorporating the motor’s vertical motion, along with potential enhancements from wheelbase preview. To determine the most suitable coil spring types for use with MR dampers, we used the WDW-600 computer-controlled electronic universal testing machine to evaluate three coil spring types: constant-pitch (model A), variable-pitch (model B), and conical (model C). To assess the impact of controlled vibration on dynamic performance, we compared the dynamic characteristics of IWMD EVs equipped with passive, uncorrelated, and correlated suspension systems, all of which have controlled inverters integrated into their design. The results indicate that motor vertical acceleration and dynamic tire load are the primary factors influencing the dynamic behavior of EVs. Additionally, the vehicle’s vibration performance metrics are negatively impacted by the in-wheel motor driving system in both passive and uncorrelated suspension systems. However, the MR-controlled suspension system with a conical spring significantly enhances ride comfort and dynamic stability by addressing complex stiffness and evaluating the effects of different coil spring types on the structural response of EVs. This analysis is based on a correlated-suspension-system scenario.
Gad, Ahmed Shehata, Jabeen, Syeda Darakhshan, El-Zomor, Haytham M., Tolba, Mohamed, Elamy, Mamdouh I.
Development and Comparison of Benchmarking Methods for Electric Vehicle Drive Units2026-01-01984/7/2026
At the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory, a development project was implemented to compare various test methods for benchmarking the operation of vehicle electric drive units (EDUs). In earlier research, several test methods were identified, of which two were used to test a Chevrolet Bolt EDU: (a) in-vehicle testing of the complete EDU on a chassis hub dynamometer and (b) stand-alone testing of the EDU’s electric motor and inverter in a dedicated test cell after removal from the vehicle. The resulting data sets were compared with each other and with similar data previously published by GM. In this paper, additional EDU test methods are explored. First, the stand-alone testing of the EDU and its subcomponents is expanded to include testing both with and without the EDU gearing. This testing allows the electric motor, inverter, and gearbox to be characterized separately and the EDU to be characterized as a complete unit. Second, in-vehicle testing of the complete EDU is performed on a roll dynamometer. EDU efficiency and losses are determined using data obtained from wheel hub torque sensors; these results are compared to estimated values based on the force and speed data collected by the roll dynamometer. Finally, the relative difficulty of implementation and the robustness of the resulting data for each of the benchmarking methods developed is analyzed and compared to methods developed and described in earlier research. Metrics used for comparison include the cost and level of effort of the implementation, complexity of the setup, repeatability of the test conditions, safety considerations, ability to separate EDU components, completeness of the data set produced, and the variability, quality and accuracy of the resulting data.
Moskalik, Andrew, Schauer, Ethan, Barba, Daniel
EV Propulsion Drive Converter SiC Power Device Over-Temperature Protection under Low Motor Speed Operation2026-01-04364/7/2026
Monitoring power device temperature in an electric vehicle propulsion drive converter is extremely important to achieve full power delivery within the maximum power capability envelope. Usually, on-die temperature sensors are installed on Si-IGBT power devices in electric vehicle propulsion drive converters to enable monitoring device temperature and achieve over-temperature protection. Currently, SiC MOSFET is a promising power device in power converters of electric drives because of its lower loss, higher switching speed, higher voltage capability, and higher junction temperature limit in comparison with the widely used Si-IGBT. However, SiC MOSFET is a more expensive device, installation of an on-die temperature sensor on SiC MOSFET will significantly increase its cost and complexity. So presently, there is no junction temperature sensor installed in SiC MOSFET due to which there is great difficulty protecting SiC MOSFET from over temperature. When a junction temperature estimation method is used to monitor SiC MOSFET temperature, the power loss computation of SiC MOSFET is a key factor. However, the existing loss calculation method assumes electric motors operate at high speed and power loss is computed/estimated with rms current. When the motor operates at low speed, the existing method is not practical because of a long fundamental period of phase current. The instantaneous power losses and hence the junction temperatures of the six power converter switches are not the same under such operating conditions. Hence, the junction temperature obtained with the loss computed from the rms current value does not reflect the actual device junction temperature, which may result in a failure of power device over-temperature (OT). This paper proposes a converter power device OT protection method under low motor speed to solve the above issues. The proposed method allows system cost and complexity reduction. It computes/estimates instantaneous loss and junction temperature for each individual power device of the power converter, which enables the OT detection at the motor low speed and/or imbalance phase operation. The paper presents the technical principle of the proposed instantaneous power loss and junction temperature estimation method, and OT protection for SiC MOSFET. Its model details, simulation, and experimental test results verify the new method.
Thongam, Jogendra Singh, Ge, Baoming, Bradford, Steven, Kulkarni, Milind
Electrified Propulsion System Balancing for Light Duty Full Size Truck and Sport Utility Vehicles: A 2026 North American Market Perspective2026-01-04124/7/2026
Achieving the stringent EPA CAFE 2032 standards for light-duty full-size trucks and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs) in North American poses significant challenges. While Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offer a clear path to zero tailpipe emissions, their widespread adoption in this segment faces hurdles including range anxiety, payload/towing capabilities, and traditional truck/SUV use cases. This paper investigates a balanced approach, focusing on optimizing propulsion system design with appropriate hardware content, can effectively meet future fuel economy and emissions standards. This investigation examines advanced BEVs and hybrid electric vehicle architectures, including full hybrids (HEVs), and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) tailored for full-size trucks and SUVs. Considerations include the optimal sizing of internal combustion engines, electric motors, and battery packs to deliver robust performance while maximizing energy efficiency. This paper analyzes the integration of technologies such as electrified transmissions, electric motor configurations, and battery size. Trade-offs between electric motor capabilities, battery pack sizing and emissions reduction across different hybridization levels are investigated. The AMESim Hybrid Optimization Tool (HOT) is used to evaluate multiple propulsion system configurations and drive cycles for energy efficiency. Vehicle selection was performed by evaluating the payload/towing capabilities, propulsion system architecture, and vehicle model year. Drive cycles were selected from truck standards and real-world driving scenarios. The objective is to demonstrate a balanced approach for electrification pathways that satisfy consumer preferences for capability and range, ensuring CAFE 2032 compliance through a diversified powertrain portfolio.
Babcock, Dillon, Robinette, Darrell
A Novel Power-Split Hybrid Electric Architecture for Off-Road Tracked Vehicles: Design and Performance Evaluation2026-01-02584/7/2026
Tracked off-road vehicles operate at low speeds with high tractive effort and frequent skid-steer maneuvers, conditions that push torque and power demand to extremes and exacerbate powertrain efficiency losses. Electrification can improve energy conversion and mobility for such duty cycles. This paper introduces a novel power-split hybrid electric architecture for a tracked vehicle and benchmarks it against three designs: a conventional mechanical driveline, a series hybrid, and a P2 parallel hybrid. To enable fair, architecture-agnostic comparisons, a supervisory controller based on Stochastic Dynamic Programming (SDP) schedules engine operation and power flow across all layouts under representative off-road scenarios, including skid-steer events, with varying terrain and power-demand profiles. Results show higher energy conversion efficiency (lower fuel use) for the proposed power-split architecture, followed by the parallel, then series, and lastly conventional configuration across missions. Beyond efficiency, the proposed architecture offers packaging and robustness advantages: compared with the P2 parallel it eliminates transmission and steering hydraulics, yielding a more compact driveline and compared with the series hybrid it enables smaller traction motors and a smaller battery pack for the same missions. Finally, by allowing the machines to operate below base speed for longer, it extends burst-mode operation without sustained field weakening, thereby reducing demagnetization risk. Study analyzes the reason behind these trends and discusses packaging considerations.
Ghate, Atharva, Sundar, Anirudh, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan, Castanier, Matthew P.
Methods of Highly Repeatable Lubricant Testing for Electrified Vehicles: Universal Motor Control and Statistical Test-Variation Analysis2026-01-04214/7/2026
This paper describes a systematic approach to evaluate lubricants for hybrid and electric vehicles (xEVs) that can detect impacts on efficiency as low as 0.1 percentage points. Two testing methods were developed to evaluate lubricants’ efficiency effects: (1) on a complete vehicle (using the manufacturer’s hardware and motor control) and (2) on a standalone drive unit (using custom power electronics and control). A Monte Carlo simulation was used to analyze the resulting data to determine the detection limits of the vehicle test method. To evaluate the effectiveness of the test stands and the data-analysis method, a Tesla Model 3 electric drive unit and a Chevrolet Bolt battery electric vehicle (BEV) were characterized for system efficiency. For the Bolt mounted on a hub driven chassis dynamometer, this method is capable of detecting a change in the drive unit’s electromechanical efficiency between baseline and candidate fluids of <0.4 percentage point (pp) with 95% confidence at most of the operating points analyzed. This method can be applied to high-precision testing applications, such as lubricants or additives, cooling systems, gear trains, dynamic seals, bearings, or electric motor designs.
Luo, Yilun, Gross, Michael, Kostan, Travis
Propulsion System Design Considerations for HEV Versus EV Applications2026-01-06414/7/2026
The design and development of EVs and HEVs has become a growing issue recently due to concerns about pollution and dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels. Accordingly, General Motors (GM) has an evolving vehicle electrification plan over the past several decades and into the future to deliver low-cost and efficient EVs and HEVs. Propulsion system requirements for the applications of EV and HEVs are quite different and therefore, the design principles and directions are also distinct between these cases. From micro-hybrid and full plug-in hybrid applications to full EV applications, design requirements, strategies and outcomes can widely vary. Continuous and peak duty are substantially different depending on the application of the vehicle. Motor operational duty is significantly higher for EV compared to the electric motor of a hybrid electric vehicle. Motor torque, power and efficiency requirements are also higher for EV motors, which greatly influences the choice of motor type and its thermal and electromagnetic design. Issues like NVH and thermal can be less significant in designing motors for HEV because of engine masking and lower duty cycle of operation. Motor design requirements, optimization process and results for two different motors intended to be used in EV versus HEV applications are discussed in this paper. Moreover, traction inverter requirements differ significantly across electric vehicles and various hybrid architectures. Each configuration presents distinct challenges—ranging from packaging and thermal management to vibration and electrical constraints. Despite these differences, the design and requirements are harmonized to reduce complexity and ensure seamless performance. This paper outlines the design strategies employed to achieve these objectives.
Momen, Faizul, Jensen, William, Das, Shuvajit, Chowdhury, Mazharul, Alam, Khorshed, Anwar, Mohammad, Reinhart, Timothy
Modular 3-D Lumped-Parameter Thermal Network for Thermal Estimation of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors in Electromechanical Braking Systems2026-01-01364/7/2026
As electric intelligent vehicles advance, drive-by-wire systems are increasingly adopted, and the thermal reliability of electromechanical brake (EMB) motors—the key actuators—remains safety-critical. Under stalled-rotor operation, unequal DC currents are typically applied to the three phases, producing nonuniform winding heating. Conventional thermal models can miss the associated tangential heat-transfer effects, increasing the risk of phase-wise end-winding hot spot. This paper analyzes EMB motor thermal behavior under stalled-rotor conditions using a modular 3-D lumped-parameter thermal network (LPTN). First, a standardized tooth module with external interfaces is developed. Its internal parameters are informed by experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and identified via particle swarm optimization (PSO), allowing the module to be encapsulated for reuse. Next, based on the machine topology, a minimal motor is derived and multiple tooth modules are interconnected through common nodes to form a modular 3-D LPTN that resolves radial, axial, and tangential heat-flow paths. Finally, a stepwise, weighted PSO is applied—module level followed by system level—to calibrate the full network. The tooth-module abstraction also enables rapid network assembly, and the boundary-cooling and loss-allocation modules can be updated to accommodate different cooling architectures and heating patterns while retaining the same internal formulation. Bench tests with inhomogeneous three-phase heating, validated against three-phase end-winding thermocouple measurements, show that the proposed model predicts temperatures more accurately than existing LPTNs. These results indicate that explicitly accounting for tangential heat exchange can improve temperature prediction for EMB motors under stalled-rotor duty and provides a reusable template for other concentrated-winding machines subject to nonuniform thermal loading.
Duan, Yanlong, Xiong, Lu, Wang, Xinjian, Zhuo, Guirong, Zeng, Jie
Advancing Sustainable Electric Vehicles: A Simulation-Driven Study on Rare Earth-Free Motors and Battery Technologies2026-01-02424/7/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) introduces critical vulnerabilities associated with dependence on rare earth elements used in traction motors and battery systems, impacting supply chain stability, environmental sustainability, and cost scalability. This investigation focuses on simulation-optimized rare earth-free EV propulsion components, including induction-based and wound rotor electric motors employing ferrite and iron-nitride magnetic materials, in combination with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery chemistry recognized for enhanced safety and extended cycle life. An integrated multi-physics simulation framework coupled with targeted experimental validation is employed to evaluate efficiency, thermal behavior, and durability of the proposed motor–battery systems. The optimized configurations demonstrate automotive-grade performance, with motor efficiencies ranging from 90–96% and LFP batteries retaining over 84% of nominal capacity after 5,000 charge–discharge cycles. Simulation predictions exhibit strong correlation with experimental measurements within ±5%, confirming model fidelity. The findings indicate that rare earth-free propulsion systems and LFP batteries can meet EV performance and safety requirements while significantly reducing reliance on critical materials, supporting sustainable EV development.
Saraswat, Shubham, Vishe, Prashant
Effective Prediction of the Mechanical Properties of Glue-Laminated Motor Stator Core with Consideration of Glue Disposition2026-01-01774/7/2026
This study presents an effective predictive methodology for determining the mechanical properties of glue-laminated motor cores, with explicit consideration of glue disposition, including bonding pattern, configuration, location, and coverage. In laminated stator cores, glue bonding and stacking processes jointly govern the mechanical integrity of the lamination stack. Practical production bonding schemes are typically nonuniform and localized, leading to spatial variations in stiffness and to locally anisotropic, orthotropic material behavior. These effects influence both the in-plane and through-thickness stiffness of the stator core. They can significantly affect the accuracy of structural simulations, such as NVH responses of high-speed traction motors and e-drive systems. Given the constituent material properties of the electrical steel laminations and the glue, this work distinguishes the governing mechanisms underlying the equivalent core properties. The in-plane stiffness is primarily controlled by the stacking factor, which statistically characterizes the glue contribution in the axial direction. In contrast, out-of-plane properties (e.g., elastic modulus and shear modulus in the stack direction) are determined jointly by the glue’s axial thickness contribution and its in-plane spatial distribution. To capture these coupled effects, an enhanced homogenization framework is developed using a representative volume element (RVE) formulation implemented through finite element analysis (FEA). The laminated structure is represented as an equivalent orthotropic material, enabling directional stiffness variation induced by nonuniform bonding and lamination material. Parametric simulations establish quantitative relationships between macroscopic core properties and glue configuration, bonding pattern, and stacking factors. A closed-form analytical solution is also derived for simplified cases to support verification. The predicted effective properties show good agreement with experimentally correlated values from production cores, and with analytical solutions under simplified bonding assumptions as well. The proposed methodology enables practical inclusion of glue-disposition effects in early-stage predictive models, thereby improving the fidelity of laminated motor-core NVH assessments and generic structural analysis.
Nie, Zifeng
Development of a Model-Aware Data-Driven Control Algorithm for a Drive-by-Wire System for a Level 4 Automated Vehicle2026-01-00434/7/2026
Precision control in Level 4 Automated Vehicles is essential for enhancing operational efficiency, accuracy, and safety. This work, conducted as part of ARPA-E’s NEXTCAR program, focuses on developing a robust hardware and software control solution to enable drive-by-wire functionality. A previous publication by the authors presented the hardware solutions for overtaking stock vehicle controls. This paper focuses on a model-based and data-driven control algorithm to enable drive-by-wire functionality for longitudinal and lateral motion control for a 2021 Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle. This vehicle was equipped with a set of sensors and an onboard processing unit to enable Level 4 automation. For lateral controls, an algorithm was developed to command steering torque to the electronic power steering module, ensuring the vehicle could attain the desired steering angle position at varying speeds. The system leveraged feedforward and feedback mechanisms. Feedback controller gains were identified through frequency response analysis of the steering torque assist electric motor and were further refined during track testing. To optimize the controller’s response time, a feedforward function was developed using a physics-aware model of the vehicle's steering system. The independent feature selection for the model was guided by using the physics of the system. For longitudinal control, the control inputs included the positions of the brake and accelerator pedals sent to the stock ECU, with the desired speed as the setpoint. The setup used a combination of feedforward and feedback control to achieve the target acceleration or deceleration. These algorithms underwent extensive dynamometer and track testing to perform various maneuvers in conjunction with the automated driving system.
Adsule, Kartik, Bhagdikar, Piyush, Drallmeier, Joseph, Alden, Joshua, Gankov, Stanislav
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