Browse Topic: Assembling

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Research on the Axial Assembly Stress and Fatigue Life of 60-Series Harmonic Reducers2026-99-01917/31/2026
This study presents a systematic investigation into the assembly stress and fatigue life of 60-series harmonic reducers. A sophisticated finite element simulation model is constructed to precisely simulate the real assembly process and calculate stress distribution in the flexspline under axial assembly errors. In addition, corresponding fatigue life tests are designed to explore the influence of different axial assembly errors on the number of rotation cycles and transmission efficiency of the harmonic reducer. By comparing the predictions of the fatigue life mathematical model with the test data, a reliable fatigue life prediction method is established, providing a solid theoretical basis for the whole-machine assembly process and reliability design of this series of harmonic reducers.
Du, Yuefei, Qiu, Haodong, Fan, Yong, Li, Ziyuan, Dong, Yi, Zhang, Chi, Li, Chenzheng, Li, Yuan
An Automatic Assembly System for Digital Direct-Writing Light Source Lens Units2026-99-08497/30/2026
Addressing the challenge of high-precision control requirements for assembly force and displacement during the automatic assembly of digital direct-writing light source lens units, this paper proposes an automatic assembly system design based on impedance control. The system employs torque motors as actuators and achieves dynamic, precise regulation of assembly force and displacement through impedance control with force-displacement coupling. The simulation process consists of three parts: finite element simulation of the assembly system structure, finite element simulation of the assembly process, and MATLAB simulation of impedance control. The finite element simulation of the assembly system structure verifies structural strength and determines deformation values for assembly displacement compensation. A finite element simulation of the assembly process is utilized to investigate the coupling relationship between assembly force and displacement, yielding the coupled force-displacement curves during assembly and determining the theoretical maximum assembly force. The MATLAB simulation of impedance control analyzes parameter settings, including three parameters: theoretical mass, theoretical damping, and theoretical stiffness, in order to ensure the controlled output converges to theoretical values. The main innovation lies in incorporating theoretical maximum assembly force and displacement as impedance control inputs, enabling the force-displacement curve to converge to the theoretical curve, thereby improving assembly quality and precision. The experimental results demonstrate significant improvements in system stability, response speed, and assembly force control precision, effectively enhancing the assembly accuracy and overall efficiency of automated light source production lines. This research provides a viable solution for high-precision assembly of digital direct-writing light source lens units in intelligent manufacturing environments.
Li, Fuduan, Wang, Hua, Wang, Rixin, Zhang, Xianmin
Performance Analysis and Optimization of a Variable Space Parallel Mechanism2026-99-16387/24/2026
To obtain additional space for industrial sorting and assembly line labeling operations, this study conducts an analysis of the four-bar mechanism. Based on this analysis and combination, the redundant parallel mechanism is introduced. That is, on the basis of the traditional parallel mechanism with central rotation, the objective of expanding the working space is achieved. The degree of freedom of the screw theory and the disparities between the working space of this mechanism and that of the traditional mechanism are analyzed. Finally, through application analysis, it is demonstrated that the working space of this mechanism is variable and that the mechanism can adapt to diverse workplaces.
Li, Wenqian, Zhang, Xiaojie
A Comparative Study of Pin Connection Methods in Aircraft Structural Assemblies2026-99-05697/10/2026
In the aerospace industry, pins are crucial for fastening multiple connected structural parts, ensuring a flush connection that does not protrude from the assembly’s surface. These pins are installed through various methods to meet stringent mechanical and anti-loosening requirements, essential for aircraft structural integrity. Typical pin installation techniques include clearance fit with punch point installation, small interference fit with punch point installation, large interference fit with punch point installation, and interference fit without punch point installation. This study examines the connection reliability and manufacturability of different pin assembly processes, focusing on load testing under operational conditions. Results indicate that a small interference fit (0-0.01mm) combined with punch point installation provides high connection reliability and ease of manufacture, with punch point methods notably enhancing loadbearing capability and assembly integrity. In contrast, larger interference fits (0.01–0.04mm) require complex manufacturing steps, such as liquid nitrogen cooling for cold shrinkage, and the use of a shaft press for assembly, which increases difficulty and risks damaging both pins and surrounding structural parts. This research provides insights into optimizing pin assembly techniques to improve the durability and performance of aircraft structural assemblies.
Hua, Shengyan
Quantifying the Impact of Software Updates through First Time Quality in Automotive Production2026-01-07867/1/2026
Vehicle software updates are released more frequently and in increasingly shorter cycles, which places growing pressure on vehicle quality and final assembly line stability. In production environments, software related issues do not remain limited to the digital domain, since errors introduced by software updates can interrupt flashing and commissioning processes, slow down assembly, and increase rework, thereby directly affecting production throughput. Electronic control units are particularly sensitive to software updates because they are flashed and commissioned during vehicle production under strict timing constraints, and changes to flashing sequences, memory structures, configuration parameters, or function definitions can negatively influence commissioning behavior. This paper presents a novel approach where an established quality measure – First Time Quality (FTQ) – is used to quantify the impact of software updates in the final assembly. By comparing FTQ values from production weeks with software updates to reference weeks without software changes, the analysis identifies total FTQ deviations of 7 to 11 percentage points relative to a reference level of approximately 98.6 percent for major software releases. A two-stage root-cause classification combining automated error categorization with expert validation attributes approximately 3 to 4 percentage points of this deviation to software-update-related commissioning errors. Wilson score confidence intervals and Newcombe intervals confirm that these deviations are statistically robust at production-scale sample sizes. FTQ recovery to reference levels typically occurs within one to three weeks after a major release. Using real production data from a vehicle plant, the analysis demonstrates that even comparatively small reductions in FTQ indicate a relevant degradation of production quality and can propagate into downstream quality behavior. These findings show that FTQ is a suitable and production relevant indicator for determining the impact magnitude of software updates in automotive manufacturing and for supporting data-driven decisions in the software release process.
El Asad, Aiman, Köhler, Katja, Hahn, Michael, Reuss, Hans-Christian
Occupant Sex Equity and Vehicle Safety: Historical Activities, Research, and Countermeasure2026-22-00025/28/2026
Since 2019, sex equity in traffic crashes has been a highly debated topic in vehicle safety, especially following the 2019 study by Forman et al. (1) claiming that female occupants face a 73 percent greater risk of serious injury in frontal crashes compared to male occupants. This was soon followed by a Consumer Reports Article by Keith Barry (2), which attempted to identify underlying factors contributing to the higher risk. These have been embraced by several parties since 2019. Firstly, it was alleged that vehicle design practice over the last four decades considered safety for the male population only and ignored that of the female as evidenced by the exclusive use of the mid-sized male Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) in Regulatory and Safety Ratings tests and not with an average sized female ATD. The absence of such an ATD for testing of vehicles “set the course for four decades’ worth of car safety design, with deadly consequences” (2). Secondly, although there is a recognition of the fact that Regulatory testing with a Small Female ATD, the Hybrid III-05F, was introduced in the FMVSS208 in 2003, this ATD was only a scaled version of the average male ATD of the 1970’s implying that this ATD is incapable of driving the design of restraint systems for females due to “They’re put together differently. Their material properties—their structure—is different” (2). Thirdly, according to a quote “These same trends have been observed in many, many studies in the past.” We assume that the trends refer to the apparent disparity in safety of females when compared to those of males. This document aims to outline historical activities, associated research and the development of countermeasures addressing crashworthiness concerns related to vehicle safety for females, as well as factors affecting both males and females, such as age-related impacts. This paper deals mainly with the frontal crash modes, mentions side impacts briefly as it affected designs of inflatable restraints for side impact to protect the smaller portion of the population from inflation induced injuries but the history behind the use of female ATDs by IIHS and NHTSA in full scale testing is not covered. Where ever possible, the time periods of reported activities related to female safety have been divided to pre-1997 corresponding to a change in US frontal crash regulation to address serious-to-fatal injuries to females and children, between 1997 to 2003 corresponding to the proposal by Canada for its frontal impact standard, and between 2003 and 2006 when the Advanced Restraint Regulation in the US FMVSS 208 was promulgated. This was followed by activities between 2007 and 2019, and post 2019 period.
Prasad, Priya, Dalmotas, Dainius J.
Cabbage Cleaning Device Based on Fischertechnik Model2026-99-07345/15/2026
This article focuses on the problem of high labor cost, low processing efficiency and poor automation of the existing equipment in the postharvest processing of Chinese cabbage. It will design and produce an automated Chinese cabbage processing method called Smart Fresh Pack. Root removal, leaf removal, washing, loading, weighing, packaging and labeling functions were integrated, and smart dexterous intelligence was applied to core concepts and this can be used in the bulk production scenario of supermarkets in the city and countryside Compared with traditional assembly line equipment, obvious advantages in terms of structure, function and processing capacity: Key innovations include: Low-pressure air jet cleaning replaces water washing, which prevents a second contamination and weighing error due to surface moisture; pneumatic gripper and multi-DOF robotic arms combine to package and dynamically weigh simultaneously, streamlining these tasks; machine vision relies on an SSD-MobileNetV2 visual model with Sobel edge detection to locate and identify wilted leaves; and pairing with a multi-threaded control structure for millisecond level closed-loop response. I used Fischertechnik models to build and simulate, checking whether the motion logic of this design is reasonable, whether the stresses are safe, and whether the airflow cleaning is effective. This machine finishes the complete processing of one cabbage just within one minute, its modular and its maintainance and scalability aspects are also there, it gives small and medium size agricultural entities a low cost but also very effective clean vegetable processing route, this is truly good for making progress with the auto, standard and green developments within agric prd processing.
Chen, Yuhui, Zhang, Yixuan, Ruan, Jia, Zhu, Huayun, He, Lianzheng, Zhao, Ping
Application of an Automated HUMS Data Chain for Rapid Engine Installation Diagnostics in New Generation Aircraft Production EnvironmentF-0082-2026-02335/5/2026
This paper presents the implementation of a fully automated Health and Usage Monitoring System (HUMS) data chain designed to accelerate installed engine performance diagnostics during the pre-delivery phase of new-generation helicopters. Ensuring that engine performance remains consistent with original engine manufacturer (OEM) baseline data is a critical step in the final assembly process, yet traditionally time-consuming. The developed system automates data offloading and integrates three distinct streams: OEM engine performance characteristics, in-flight Engine Power Checks (EPC), and high-frequency continuous recordings. The core innovation lies in a multi-source data fusion methodology combined with a physics-based model to differentiate between genuine installation discrepancies and sensor anomalies through temperature deviation analysis. Results from the production environment demonstrate that this automated approach significantly reduces troubleshooting lead times and ensures on-time aircraft delivery. By shifting advanced monitoring from in-service operations to manufacturing, this system establishes a new digital benchmark for quality control in helicopter production.
Esterle, Florent, Lecauchois, Claire, Maisonneuve, Pierre-Loïc, Calvet, Thomas
High-Speed Flashing in the Age of the Software-Defined Vehicle2026-01-01124/7/2026
In recent years, the use of software-defined platforms has become increasingly prevalent. As a result, flashing ECUs has become an important factor in ensuring efficiency, quality, and compliance in vehicle production. Conventional approaches, such as final end-of-line flashing, are increasingly unsuitable for the growing amounts of data, complex dependencies, mixed physics and protocols, and traceability requirements. This SAE paper presents the current trends and challenges in ECU flashing. It highlights the impact of the exponential growth in software payloads and the necessary migration to offline and parallel workflows. This can only be achieved through closer integration with automated and robot-assisted production, considering the requirements of cybersecurity and verifiability. It also addresses the shift toward end-to-end flashing ecosystems, where updates are performed consistently from a single source covering the assembly line, warehouses, yards, workshops, and over-the-air updates. By comparing old and new approaches to high-speed flashing and presenting a new flashing strategy for OEMs derived from this, the paper provides a framework for understanding the future of ECU flashing on its way to software-defined mobility.
Böhlen, Boris, Budak, Oguz, Wells, Michael
Experimental Validation of a Multi-Row Tapered Roller Bearing Analytical Model for Relating Preload to Frequency Response Characteristics2026-01-00084/7/2026
Roller bearings are used in many rotating power transmission systems in the automotive industry. During the assembly process of the power transmission system, some types of roller bearings (e.g., tapered roller bearings) require a compressive preload force. Those bearings' rolling resistance and lifespan strongly depend on the preload set during the installation process. Therefore, accurate setting of the preload can improve bearing efficiency, increase bearing lifespan and reduce maintenance costs over the life of the vehicle. A new method for bearing preload measurement has shown potential for both high accuracy and fast cycle time using the frequency response characteristics of the power transmission system. An open problem is experimental validation of the multi-row tapered roller bearing analytical model. After validation, the analytical model can be used to predict the assembled system damped natural frequency for a desired bearing preload. This work presents the experimental validation of the analytical model including the experimental test stand, test method, test results and comparison to analytical model. The developed test stand represents an automotive pinion shaft/gear as might be found in a rear axle and can be mounted either vertically or horizontally to simulate assembly and operational positions of the axle and to consider the effects of gravity. To measure bearing preload, the test stand is instrumented with a load cell, and each shaft has strain gages installed. Multiple accelerators are used to measure the system frequency response to an impulse provided by a modal hammer. For this work, three different bearing pairs in back-to-back configuration are tested at seven different preload values. The analytical model is evaluated using the same bearing designs and the preloads measured from the test stand. Results from the analytical model are compared to experimental results to validate the analytical model.
Gruzwalski, David, Mynderse, James
Reliability of Rubber Grommets by Stochastic Analysis of Geometric Tolerances2026-26-05011/16/2026
Manufacturing tolerances play a critical role in the quality and functionality of components, particularly those made from rubber. Even slight deviations in dimensions can cause significant issues such as improper fit and reduced performance, leading to increased costs and project delays. This is especially true for rubber grommets, which are nonlinear elastic components commonly used as sealants, gaskets, and insulation covers in automotive and industrial applications. Typically manufactured from EPDM rubber with varying Shore hardness, grommets must maintain precise geometry to ensure sealing integrity and protect adjacent parts. Dimensional inaccuracies can result in failures such as buckling or misalignment, compromising both functionality and durability. This study proposes a digital simulation methodology for early-stage evaluation of grommet robustness, reducing reliance on physical prototypes. Using a stochastic design of experiments (DOE) approach, the influence of critical geometric parameters on grommet performance is assessed under variable manufacturing conditions. Buckling, identified as the primary failure mode, along with other functional metrics, is analyzed across a spectrum of dimensional tolerances. These insights support more efficient design workflows and enhance the robustness of rubber grommets in real-world applications.
Beesetti, Siva, Hattarke, Mallikarjun, James Aricatt, John, Pathan, Eram
Study of Style Wheel Rim Failure Due to Rim and Disc Assembly Interference2026-26-05411/16/2026
This study focuses on the investigation of wheel rim failures near weld zone during repeated cornering induced by interference between the rim and disc during the wheel manufacturing assembly process. Strain gauges were employed to capture real-time stress and strain distributions at critical zones during interference fitting. The experimental results revealed that improper interference levels lead to significant stress concentrations, often surpassing the material's elastic limit, initiating micro-crack formation and promoting fatigue failure. Detailed strain analysis indicated that both radial and axial stresses contribute to long-term structural degradation. The study highlights the critical role of dimensional tolerances, surface finishes, and assembly forces in minimizing stress-induced failures. Recommendations are provided for optimizing design and assembly practices to enhance the durability and reliability of automotive wheels.
P, Praveen, DEsigan, Lakshmipathy, K, Chandramohan, C, Santhosh
An Integrated Digital Platform for Wiring Harness Testing2026-26-05031/16/2026
This article describes an enhanced, more efficient way to build and test wire harnesses. The wire harness is a complex, organized bundle of wire found in virtually every motorized vehicle, machinery and equipment. Manual work is usually performed in assembling such harnesses, which is time-consuming and error-prone. Workers usually rely on printed diagrams and basic tools, which can be tiring and tricky to follow, especially when the designs change often. The new system solves many of these issues by combining a smart testing machine called Quad 64 with a large digital display workbench. Instead of looking at paper drawings, workers can now see the full wire layout directly on a screen, life-sized and clear. This makes it easier to understand where each wire goes and what to do next. What’s really helpful is that the system can spot mistakes right away. If a connector is omitted or a wire is placed wrongly, the system will report the error immediately and show it and the remedy. It keeps a shared log of common errors to help inform future guidance and accelerate the learning curve for new team members. This method accelerates labor, minimizes costly errors and breaks down confusion by engaging in a more participatory and visual process. And it makes for a safer, more supportive work environment for employees. And it is better, simpler and smarter than doing it right the first time.
Sancheti, Rahul Madanlal
Optimizing Rattle Behaviour in Metal-Plastic Interfaces for EV Tail Lamp Assemblies2026-26-03321/16/2026
Connected tail lamps have emerged as one of the key features of modern automotive design. It aligns with current vehicle trends, giving a premium, hi-tech appearance and enhancing visibility for the drivers. (Original Equipment Manufacturers) OEM manufacturer utilizes connected tail lamps as a signature design element to establish and reinforce their brand identity. Assembly and integration of these components poses unique challenges due to Metal-to-plastic interfaces that generate audible noise such as squeak & rattle [1] and affect it affects the perceived quality of an occupant in electric vehicles (EVs). The misalignment of parts concerning geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) specifications is addressed, as it contributes to increased micro-sliding between the interface and creates audible creaking sounds. This paper explores the influence of mounting fitment on noise generation and proposes a method to optimize the assembly process to reduce the stick-slip [2] interactions. Combining experimental testing with finite element analysis, the research focuses on identifying practical solutions by exploring mounting strategies with feasible assembly techniques [3] to prevent stick-slip interaction and improve overall perceived quality of the vehicle, for a comfortable driving experience.
Michael Stephan, Navin Estac Raja, C M, MITHUN, Mohammed, Riyazuddin, R, Prasath
Virtual Reality in Assembly Simulations: Outpacing Tecnomatix Process Simulate for Faster Time-To-Market2026-26-03981/16/2026
Virtual Reality technology is emerging as a transformative solution in the manufacturing industry. It offers significant advantages over traditional tools like Tecnomatix Process Simulate in assembly & ergonomic simulations. Analysis using PS is time-consuming and lacks real-time human interaction as it relies on detailed modelling and sequential workflows, which will delay the identification of assembly no-build conditions and ergonomic issues. This paper evaluates the time and the cost-saving potential of VR in assembly processes and explores its role in minimizing the need for physical prototypes across various stages of vehicle development. VR provides interactive environments, enabling interaction with 3D models and real-time collaboration with various teams across the globe. This leads to faster identification of assembly process flaws, quicker iteration cycles, and a reduced need for physical prototypes in the station development process for the lines. VR allows individuals to experience realistic simulations of assembly processes with multiple scenarios, without the risk of real-world safety consequences. This simulation approach through VR technology facilitates real-time ergonomic predictions, quick and accurate simulation of various assembly scenarios during the station development process before the production with minimal iterations which will ensure the assembly processes are getting optimized in the early stages of product development. It proves to be a superior alternative for validating assembly feasibility, reducing time in process sequence building, and achieving faster time to market in manufacturing. By minimizing iterations in physical prototyping and extensive validation and testing of assembly processes, VR significantly impacts time & cost.
Nagendran, Rakesh Kumar
Simulation Driven Design of Crank-train Systems for Elevated In-Cylinder Combustion Pressures for Existing Architecture2026-26-04001/16/2026
The work demonstrating a novel approach to the optimization of crankshaft design for heavy-duty commercial vehicle engines, specifically targeting non-automotive applications with elevated power ratings. The research focuses on a 6-cylinder, 5.6-litre diesel engine, originally rated at 160 kVA and upgraded to 200 kVA, where the challenge was to enhance the crank-train system’s robustness within existing packaging constraints. By fundamentally altering the crankshaft’s geometry and structural parameters, the new design achieves higher load-bearing capacity while inherently mitigating torsional vibrations, thereby eliminating the need for viscous dampers traditionally used in place of rubber dampers. Advanced simulation tools, notably AVL Excite, employed to iterate and evaluate the balance between crankshaft balance ratio, weight, and torsional behavior. The optimized design then validated through both simulation and physical vibration trials, with sixth-order angular displacement maintained within prescribed limits. Further refinement of the simulation model achieved by optimizing the torsional stiffness of the ring gear to ensure strong correlation with physical measurements. This work demonstrates an effective alternative to viscous dampers and provides a pathway for future crankshaft design in high-power commercial engines.
Khandelwal, Meha, Kaundabalaraman, Kaarthic, Rathi, Hemantkumar
Development of CAE Technology for the Design Support of Piston Pin Circlip2025-32-001511/3/2025
This study focuses on the technology for establishing design criteria for the piston pin circlip (hereinafter referred to as "circlip"), which is a component that holds the engine piston pin. During the development of high-revving engines, failure of the piston sometimes becomes a problem, and the main factors are fatigue failure of the piston and falling of the piston pin. The falling of the piston pin is caused by the circlip disengaging from the groove by the inertial force due to the vertical motion of the piston. The circlip is compressed to the size of the piston circlip groove and assembled to the piston. Therefore, in order to prevent the circlip from falling out, it is necessary to compress it more and increase the reaction force acting on the groove. However, this measure raises concerns about the deterioration of the ease of assembly of the circlip. Therefore, it is necessary to establish evaluation criteria that prevent the circlip from disengaging and deterioration of its ease of assembly. To enable appropriate design of the circlip during the engine specifications review phase, we developed the following two technologies. The first is the development of a surrogate model that predicts the amount of plastic deformation of the circlip due to compression during the circlip assembly process and thermal loads during engine warm-up. This surrogate model was created using data obtained from actual measurement tests and CAE analysis, using a regression model. The second is the development of CAE technology that predicts the likelihood of the circlip disengaging, considering the amount of plastic deformation. These technologies were developed to support the optimization of circlip design and to contribute to improving the reliability of the engine.
Ishizuka, Atsushi, Watanabe, Naoto
FLANGE, SHEET METAL, WIDEAS4751/2A (Current)10/21/2025
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Coupling Assembly, V-Band Sheet Metal Wide Flange, Pneumatic TubeAS4751A (Current)10/21/2025
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) establishes the requirements for a grooved clamp coupling and flanges suitable for joining intermediate pressure and temperature ducting in aircraft pneumatic systems. The rigid coupling joint assembly, hereafter referred to as “the joint”, shall operate within the temperature range of -65 °F external ambient to +800 °F internal fluid.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
CLAMP, LOOP, CUSHIONED, HINGED, QUICK RELEASE - CABLE OR WIREAS4882B (Current)10/21/2025
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Plugs, Port Connection, Ring Locked, AS1300 Port, Installation and Removal ofAS5104B (Current)10/21/2025
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) provides the essential minimum design, installation, and removal standard for AS5103 plugs and is applicable when specified on engineering drawing, or in procurement documents.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Analysis on the Effect of Assembling Prefabricated Components of Assembled Subway Stations under Different Block Types2025-99-007610/17/2025
With the rise of prefabricated metro stations in metro construction, the selection of its block type has become a key issue under specific stratigraphic conditions. In this paper, three types of prefabricated metro stations (Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3) are studied in the stratum of a metro station in Shenzhen as an example. Through MIDAS GTS NX, a single-ring stratum-structure model is established and the same calculation step is set to analyse the mechanical response of precast component assembly to the concrete at the bottom of the pit and the bottom slab. In terms of the concrete at the base of the footing, the stress of Type 3 has an advantage but the overall fluctuation is complicated, the stress of Type 2 fluctuates greatly and the stress of some nodes is high, and the change of Type 1 is relatively smooth; in terms of deformation, Type 2 and Type 3 settle symmetrically, and the influence of Type 2 is small. For precast structural base plate, stress on type 3 part of the stage of stress mutation, type 1 and type 2 have less impact; deformation on type 1 uniform contraction, type 2 small and complex change in the early stage of the late node difference, type 3 discrete and localized concentration. Comprehensive assessment shows that the type 2 integrated performance is the best, in the basal concrete deformation impact is small and structural stability, force and type 1 similar to the bottom plate force impact is small, compared to type 3 can better ensure the overall structural stability and force performance, can be assembled subway station selection and construction to provide reference.
Xie, Jun, Jiang, Wei, Fan, Xiaomin, Zheng, Pengpeng, Huang, Zhuming, Yang, Zhao
Friction Stir Welding Robot Joins the Assembly LineTBMG-5405210/15/2025
SAE Architecture Analysis and Design Language (AADL) Annex Volume 2:Annex B: Data Modeling AnnexAnnex D: Behavior Model AnnexAnnex F: ARINC653 AnnexAS5506/2 (Current)10/10/2025
AS-2C Architecture Analysis and Design Language
A MODEL OF DESIGN EFFICIENCY25TOFHP08_018/1/2025
How Cummins used modeling and other advanced design software to create its most efficient engines yet. As AI and other deep-learning tools begin to help shape the transportation industry, they also bring improvements to existing technology. Modeling and simulation software has rapidly become a crucial tool for improving the design process of new diesel engines. More than two decades after the first X15 engines rolled off the assembly line, Cummins has applied today's modeling tools to help create the HELM version of the X15. The HELM architecture (which stands for Higher Efficiency, Lower emissions and Multiple fuels) is the company's basis for a global platform capable of meeting all manners of emissions regulations while still serving customers across a wide variety of use cases.
Wolfe, Matt
Brazing, Gold-Nickel Alloy Filler MetalAMS2662A (Current)7/16/2025
This specification covers the engineering requirements for producing brazed joints in parts made of steels, iron alloys, nickel alloys, and cobalt alloys using gold-nickel alloy filler metal.
AMS B Finishes Processes and Fluids Committee
Refrigeration Tube Fittings - General SpecificationsJ513_202507 (Current)7/1/2025
This SAE Standard covers complete general and dimensional specifications for refrigeration tube fittings of the flare type specified in Figures 1 to 42 and Tables 1 to 15. These fittings are intended for general use with flared annealed copper tubing in refrigeration applications. Dimensions of single and double 45 degree flares on tubing to be used in conjunction with these fittings are given in Figure 2 and Table 1 of SAE J533. The following general specifications supplement the dimensional data contained in Tables 1 to 15 with respect to all unspecified details.
Air Brake Tubing and Tube Ftg Committee
Titles, SAE Subcommittee G-3E Aerospace Tubing Installation Documents, Selection OfARP1987/3A (Current)6/17/2025
The scope of this SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) is to establish the procedure for creating titles of aerospace tubing and clamp installation documents generated by SAE Subcommittee G-3E.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Brazing, Silver For Use Up to 800 °F (427 °C)AMS2664G (Current)6/17/2025
This specification covers the engineering requirements for producing brazed joints in parts made of steels, iron alloys, nickel alloys, and cobalt alloys by use of silver alloy filler metals and the properties of such joints.
AMS B Finishes Processes and Fluids Committee
Leveraging Vision Language Models and Prompt Engineering for Bearing Defect Classification from Vibration Signals2025-01-01275/5/2025
Bearings are fundamental components in automotive systems, ensuring smooth operation, efficiency, and longevity. They are widely used in various automotive systems such as wheel hubs, transmissions, engines, steering systems etc. Early detection of bearing defects during End-of-Line (EOL) testing and operational phases is crucial for preventive maintenance, thereby preventing system malfunctions. In the era of Industry 4.0, vibrational, accelerometer, and other IoT sensors are actively engaged in capturing performance data and identifying defects. These sensors generate vast amounts of data, enabling the development of advanced data-driven applications and leveraging deep learning models. While deep learning approaches have shown promising results in bearing fault diagnosis, they often require extensive data, complex model architectures, and specialized hardware. This study proposes a novel method leveraging the capabilities of Vision Language Models (VLMs) and Large Language Models (LLMs) for accurate and efficient bearing defect classification. The dataset used in this study is sourced from the Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) bearing failure laboratory, comprising data on approximately 12 different bearing health conditions. The CWRU dataset is widely recognized as a benchmark for validating fault detection models. Vibration sensor data from the bearing is transformed into time-frequency spectrograms using Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT). Advanced prompt engineering techniques guide the VLMs to extract discriminative features from these spectrograms. The extracted features are then processed by LLMs for defect classification. This approach achieved 90% overall F1 score in test set, comparable to state-of-the-art deep learning methods, while offering advantages in terms of simplicity, generalizability, and reduced computational requirements. Also, this methodology has broad applicability in various domains involving spectrogram analysis, particularly in similar noise and vibration signal applications.
Chandrasekaran, Balaji, Cury, Rudoniel
Segment Manipulator Retrofit2025-01-01595/2/2025
The segment manipulator machine, a large custom-built apparatus, is used for assembling and disassembling heavy tooling, specifically carbon fiber forms. This complex yet slow-moving machine had been in service for nineteen years, with many control components becoming obsolete and difficult to replace. The customer engaged Electroimpact to upgrade the machine using the latest state-of-the-art controls, aiming to extend the system's operational life by at least another two decades. The program from the previous control system could not be reused, necessitating a complete overhaul.
Luker, Zachary, Donahue, Michael
Swarm Robotics: A Requiem for the Assembly LineTBMG-529965/1/2025
Hose Assembly, Convoluted Polytetrafluoroethylene, Metallic Reinforced, Low Pressure, Up to 400 °F, AircraftAS1227C (Current)4/14/2025
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) defines the requirements for a convoluted polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) lined, metallic reinforced, hose assembly suitable for use in aerospace fluid systems at temperatures between -65 °F and 400 °F for Class 1 assembly, -65 °F and 275 °F for Class 2 assembly, and at operating pressures per Table 1. The use of these hose assemblies in pneumatic storage systems is not recommended. In addition, installations in which the limits specified herein are exceeded, or in which the application is not covered specifically by this standard, shall be subject to the approval of the procuring activity.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
A Sensitivity Study of Frequency Response Method for Setting Bearing Preload to Manufacturing and Design Variation2025-01-85184/1/2025
Roller bearings are used in many rotating power transmission systems in the automotive industry. During the assembly process of the power transmission system, some types of roller bearings (e.g., tapered roller bearings) require a compressive preload force. Those bearings' rolling resistance and lifespan strongly depend on the preload set during the installation process. Therefore, accurate preload setting can improve bearing efficiency, increase bearing lifespan, and reduce maintenance costs over the life of the vehicle. A new method for bearing preload measurement has shown potential for high accuracy and fast cycle time using the frequency response characteristics of the power transmission system. One open problem is the design of the production controller, which relies on a detailed sensitivity study of the system frequency response to changes in the bearing and system design parameters. Recently, an analytical model was developed for multi-row tapered roller bearings that includes all appropriate bearing and design parameters of a power transmission system. This work presents a sensitivity analysis of the analytical model for tapered roller bearings. This sensitivity study includes parameters that vary with changes in manufacturing tolerancing and parameters that vary with bearings and system design parameters. The sensitivity study determines the percentage change in the output of the analytical model due to a percentage change in each bearing and power transmission system parameter. A case study is provided to demonstrate applications of the sensitivity study in design.
Gruzwalski, David, Mynderse, James
A Sensitivity Study of Frequency Response Method for Setting Bearing Preload Due to Uncontrollable Parameters2025-01-85204/1/2025
A new method for bearing preload measurement has shown potential for both high accuracy and fast cycle time using the frequency response characteristics of the power transmission system. One open problem is the design of the production controller, which relies on a detailed sensitivity study of the system frequency response to changes in the bearing and system design parameters. Recently, an analytical model was developed for multi-row tapered roller bearings that includes all appropriate bearing and power transmission system design parameters. During the assembly process, some of the parameters related to the roller positions cannot be controlled. These parameters include the actual position of the first roller compared to the vertical axis, the relative position of the rollers between the bearing rows, and others. This work presents a sensitivity analysis of the effects of those uncontrollable parameters on the analytical model. The sensitivity study determines the percentage change in the output of the analytical model due to a percentage change in each of the uncontrollable parameters. The changes due to each of the uncontrollable parameters will be compared when subjected to axial preload to understand the possible error in the natural frequency.
Gruzwalski, David, Mynderse, James
Robust Design of Automotive Inverter Components using Tests and Simulations2025-01-86394/1/2025
Vibration qualification tests are indispensable for vehicle manufacturers and suppliers. Carmakers’ specifications are therefore conceived to challenge the mechanical endurance of car components in the face of numerous in-service detrimental phenomena: In automotive industries, components are commonly qualified by means of a test without failure, the goal being to determine whether it will or not "pass" customer requirements. Validation of newly designed components is obtained via bench test and structural simulation. Simulation has gained traction in recent years because it represents the first step of the design validation process. In particular, FEA simulations are powerful to predict the dynamic behavior of physical testing on prototypes, enable engineers to optimize the design and predict the durability. This paper illustrates how FEA simulations were applied to product validation in the pre-serial phase to optimize manufacturing process. In particular, we will focus on the PCB of an electrical driven compressor (EDC), undergoing final vibration validation tests up to failure to reinforce the product. Two failure modes were identified and fixed thanks to simulation's iterations. The first failure mode regarded one of the PCB components: the simulation results lead to a more reliable manufacturing process, particularly to the additional damping element (glue) and its optimal position on the critical PCB elements. The second failure mode concerned the optimization of the screwing torque that holds the PCB rigidly with the housing. Understanding various screws angles and torque values sensibly ameliorated the mechanical endurance of the PCB during the shaker test. The novelty of this approach lies in using simulations to control the PCB's dynamic response (e.g., optimizing applied glues to avoid stress concentration) and optimizing the PCB assembly components. In addition to simulation, controlling screw angle in testing is essential for achieving a uniform assembly process, thereby reducing the risk of variability-induced stress concentrations.
Duraipandi, Arumuga Pandian, Leon, Renan, Bonato, Marco, Raja, Antony Vinoth, Kumar, Lalith, Niwa, Takehiro
Multi-Source Error Analysis for Loading Disk of Suspension Kinematics & Compliance Test Bench2025-01-82914/1/2025
The suspension Kinematics & compliance (K&C) characteristic test bench can simulate the excitation of the road to the wheels under various typical working conditions in a quasi-static manner on the bench, enabling the measurement of the K&C characteristics of the suspension system without knowing the specific suspension structure form, parameters, etc., assisting in the entire design process of the vehicle. In this paper, aiming at various geometric source errors existing in the processing and assembly process of the K&C characteristic test bench, an evaluation method based on the homogeneous transformation matrix is proposed to establish the position error of the center of the end loading disk in the series motion chain. Firstly, the mapping relationship between the position error of the end loading disk in the series mechanism kinematic chain and the assembly error is established by using the homogeneous transformation matrix. Then, the change matrix of the coordinate system from the i-th to the (i − 1)-th when deformed under load is calculated through the finite element analysis results. Finally, the theoretical error range of the contact point between the loading bench and the tire is obtained by combining the assembly error and the error caused by deformation. Simulation results suggest that under the comprehensive consideration of assembly error and loading deformation the positioning error can reach 1.5 mm, which provides data reference for the subsequent bench design optimization.
Sun, Haihua, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
How Automakers Boost Quality via Servo-Electric Test SystemsTBMG-528014/1/2025
Since the early 1980s, the automotive industry has used hydraulically actuated (servo-hydraulic) test systems to simulate operating speeds and road conditions for testing OEM components and fully assembled vehicles. They have helped unlock vast improvements in the quality, safety, and reliability of the cars and trucks coming off the world’s assembly lines.
Computational Method of Static and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of a Rolling Lobe Air Spring2025-01-82614/1/2025
To investigate the static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs and their influencing factors, two models were established in this paper to calculate the static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs, including a simulation model based on the finite element method and a mathematical calculation model based on thermodynamic theory. First, a performance calculation model for rolling lobe air springs with aluminum tubes was established, which considered the thickness of the bellow and the impact of the inflation and assembly process on the state of the bellow. The static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs were calculated using this model, including static load-bearing capacity and static/dynamic stiffness. The calculation results showed that both the static characteristics of the air spring under isothermal conditions and the dynamic characteristics under adiabatic conditions were able to be calculated accurately. However, the changes in dynamic stiffness and the hysteresis phenomena caused by heat exchange during the polytropic process of the air spring are unable to be simulated by the finite element model. A mathematical calculation model was then established to analyze the mechanical properties of air spring during polytropic process. Some factors, such as heat transfer, external work and mass exchange, which cause changes in energy and temperature, were considered in the model. The dynamic characteristics of the air spring under different excited amplitudes and excited frequency were calculated using this model. The comparison of the calculation and experimental results showed that the dynamic stiffness and hysteresis characteristics of air springs across various frequencies were able to be calculated effectively by the proposed model, and the maximum relative error of dynamic stiffness and hysteresis force were less than 5%.The influence of volume, pressure, and heat exchange performance on the dynamic characteristics of the air spring were analyzed using the model. The modeling and analysis methods in this article can predict the static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs and analyze the influence of relevant structural parameters, providing guidance and reference for designing the rolling lobe air springs.
Wang, Sirui, Kang, Yingzi, Xia, Zhao, Yu, Chao, Li, Jianxiang, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
On the Characterization and Optimization of Machining Chip Washing System Using Multi-Variable Response Surface and Gradient Descent Method Abstract2025-01-86374/1/2025
The final step in manufacturing high-precision parts for internal combustion engines, such as cylinder heads and blocks, is the removal of machining chips from the finished parts. This step is crucial because the machining chips and cutting oil left on the surface after machining can cause quality issues in the downstream engine assembly and affect the cooling system’s performance during engine operation. This chip removal step is especially critical for parts with internal cavities, such as the water jackets in cylinder heads, due to the difficulty of removing chips lodged in the narrow passages of these internal channels. To effectively remove chips from the water jacket, machining chip washing systems typically utilize multiple high-velocity water jets directed into the water jacket, creating flows with substantial kinetic energy to dislodge and evacuate the machining chips. For machining chip washing systems equipped with dozens of water nozzles, optimizing washing efficiency presents a significant challenge due to the large number of variables involved. Additionally, the optimization objectives and procedures can vary depending on the specific constraints of the process and the chosen criteria of the performance. For a complex system with many input factors and strong interactions among the factors, a trial-based experimental approach is no longer a viable option for designing effective machining chip washing systems. The goal of this paper is to develop a model-based engineering methodology utilizing computer simulations, with two objectives. The first objective is to create simulation models that employ a systematic procedure for determining the characteristics of the machining chip washing systems. These characteristics are defined by two performance criteria: local performance, which focuses on individual nozzle effectiveness, and global performance, which assesses overall chip washing efficiency. The second objective is to apply optimization algorithms to enhance system performance based on these characteristics. While local nozzle effectiveness will be optimized using the response surface method, the global washing efficiency will be optimized using the gradient descent method. By utilizing this approach, the complex high-dimensional optimization problem can be broken down into smaller, more manageable sub-problems, which can then be solved using conventional optimization algorithms.
Jan, James, Torcellini, Sabrina, Khorran, Aaron, Hall, Mark
A Comparative Study on Fault Diagnosis of Electrical Vehicle Motor Testing Machine Gear Components Using Machine Learning Algorithms2025-28-01772/7/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are paving the way for future mobility, with drive motors playing a central role in their efficiency and performance. Motor testing machines are crucial for validating EV motors, yet flaws in testing equipment, such as gear issues, often lead to operational disruptions. This study aims to enhance motor testing by implementing machine learning and vibration signal analysis to detect gear faults early. Using statistical feature extraction and classifiers like Quadratic SVM and Bagged Trees, the collected vibration signals are categorized as normal or faulty under loaded (0.275 kW) and no-load conditions. Performance comparison reveals the Bagged Trees algorithm's superior accuracy of 95.3%. This approach offers an intelligent, preventive maintenance solution, improving the motor test bench’s reliability.
S, Ravikumar, Syed, Shaul, V, Muralidharan, D, Pradeep Kumar
A Machine Learning Approach for the Prediction of Surface Roughness Using the Tool Vibration Data in Turning Operation2025-28-01522/7/2025
Surface roughness is a key factor in different machining processes and plays an important role in ergonomics, assembly process, wear and fatigue life of components. Other factors like functionality, performance and durability of parts are also affected by surface roughness. Although maintaining an optimum surface roughness is a major challenge in many manufacturing industries. Surface roughness during machining depends upon machining parameters such as tool geometry, feed rate, depth of cut, rotational speed, lubrication, tool wear, etc. Tool vibrations during machining also have significant influence in surface roughness. In this work an attempt is made to predict the surface roughness of machined components made by the turning process by using machine learning of tool vibration signals. By varying different machining parameters and keeping other tooling and material properties same, a range of surface roughness values can be obtained. For each condition, corresponding tool vibration signals were recorded. Our experimental setup involves a vibration data collector which is used for recording vibration signals generated during the turning operation. The collected data preprocessed and categorized into training and test sets. Various machine learning regression techniques including Linear Regression, Ridge Regression, Support Vector Regression (SVR), Decision Tree Regression, Random Forest Regression, Gradient Boosting Regression, K-Nearest Neighbors Regression (KNN), and Neural Network Regression were used to predict the surface roughness. The study highlights the importance of feature extraction and model selection in achieving accurate and reliable surface roughness predictions, ultimately contributing to enhanced machining process control and product quality.
S S, Safeer, Sadique, Anwar, D, Navaneeth
Leveraging Welding Spot Quality Control Using Camera Vision System2024-28-026412/5/2024
Spot welds are integral to automotive body construction, influencing vehicle performance and durability. Spot welding ensures structural integrity by creating strong bonds between metal sheets, crucial for maintaining vehicle safety and performance. It is highly compatible with automation, allowing for streamlined production processes and increased efficiency in automotive assembly lines. The number and distribution of spot welds directly impact the vehicle's ability to withstand various loads and stresses, including impacts, vibrations, and torsion. Manufacturers adhere to strict quality control standards to ensure the integrity of spot welds in automotive production. Monitoring spot weld count and weld quality during manufacturing processes through advanced inspection techniques such as Image processing by YOLOv8 helps identify the number of spots and quality that could compromise safety. Automating quality control processes is paramount, and machine vision offers a promising solution. Leveraging the YOLOv8 model, this research proposes an efficient technique for automatic detection and counting of spot welds on automotive sheets. Through analysis of a comprehensive dataset of annotated images, our approach demonstrates superior accuracy and efficiency in tracking and quantifying spot welds. Quantitative evaluation validates the effectiveness of this vision-based inspection method, highlighting its potential for enhancing car body welding quality control processes.
Kadam, Shubham Narayan, Dolas, Aniket, Mishra, Jagdish
COUPLING ASSEMBLY, THREADLESS - FLEXIBLE, FIXED CAVITY, SELF-BONDINGAS1652B (Current)8/23/2024
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Combustion Development and Efficiency Improvement for Hybrid Engines2024-01-20934/9/2024
In the pursuit of carbon emission reduction, hybridization has emerged as a significant trend in powertrain electrification. As a crucial aspect of hybrid powertrain system development, achieving high brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and a wide operating range with high efficiency are essential for hybrid engines to effectively integrate with the hybrid system. When developing dedicated hybrid engines (DHE), several design considerations come into play. First, in order to make efficient use of available resources and enable engine production on the same assembly line as conventional engines, it is crucial to maintain consistency in key design parameters of the cylinder head and block, thus extending the platform-based design approach. Among the key measures to achieve high BTE, cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has been extensively explored and proven effective in improving efficiency by mitigating knocking and reducing engine cooling heat loss. Fast combustion, acting as a facilitator, becomes crucial for the system to handle high EGR rates. Therefore, a high-tumble combustion system design is required as an integral part of the hybrid engine to promote rapid combustion. Optimizing the gas exchange system is another crucial aspect in achieving high brake thermal efficiency. Investigation results indicate that through system optimization and trade-offs, optimal matches can be found among EGR rate, cam duration, and compression ratio for a hybrid engine. Furthermore, by optimizing energy management strategy with the hybrid system, the engine operates under high-efficiency regions for the majority of the WLTC test cycle, resulting in reduced fuel consumption. This paper describes the evolution of combustion system design from conventional engines to DHE at SAIC Motor, and presents investigations into the impact of key technical measures on brake thermal efficiency. It also explores the optimization of energy management strategies and their effect on engine operating conditions and fuel consumption of the hybrid vehicle in the WLTC cycle.
Xu, Zheng, Qiu, Jie, Zhang, ZiQing, Cheng, Chuanhui, Zhang, YaJun, Yang, Yang, Wang, Yingzhen, Lu, Yuan, Zhou, Zhou, Li, XiaoYang
Dynamic Simulation of Steering Crimp Ring Assembly Process Using CAE and Its Correlation with Testing2024-01-27334/9/2024
The process of assembling the bearing and crimp ring to the steering pinion shaft is intricate. The bearing is pressed into its position via the crimp ring, which is tipped inward and fully fitted into a groove on the pinion shaft. Only when the bearing is pressed to a low surface on the pinion shaft, the caulking force for the crimp ring is achieved. The final caulking distance for the crimp ring confirms the proper bearing position. Simulating this transient fitting process using CAE is a challenging topic. Key factors include controlling applied force, defining contact between bearing and pinion surface, and defining contact between crimp ring and bearing surface from full close to half open transition. The overall CAE process is validated through correlation with testing.
Song, Gavin, Vlademar, Michael, Venugopal, Narayana
Research on the Oscillation Reduction Control During Mode Transition in Hybrid Electric Vehicles2024-01-27204/9/2024
In order to realize the series-parallel switching control of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with dual-motor hybrid configuration, a method of unpowered interrupt switching based on the coordinated control of three power sources was proposed by analyzing the series-parallel driving mode of the dual-motor hybrid configuration. The series to parallel switching process is divided into three stages: speed regulation stage, clutch combination and power source switching. The distribution control of speed regulating torque is carried out in the speed regulating stage. The speed adjustment torque is preferentially allocated to the power source of the input shaft (engine and P1) to carry out the lifting torque. Due to the high speed adjustment accuracy and fast response of the P1 motor, the input shaft is preferentially allocated to P1 for speed adjustment, that is, the torque intervention of P1. If the speed control torque exceeds the intervention capacity of P1, then it is allocated to the engine for speed regulation. In the clutch combination stage, by identifying the motor speed change in the oil filling stage and the shifting stage, the current mode switching under test and the oil filling effect of the shifting clutch are evaluated, and the current mode switching under test and the KP point state of the shifting clutch are judged. Due to the differences in different transmission processing and assembly processes, as well as the wear of the clutch in the whole life cycle; The friction coefficient of the clutch is not a fixed value, so it is necessary to develop the automatic adjustment function for the friction coefficient of the clutch. The friction coefficient of clutch reflects the relationship between clutch torque and pressure, and plays an important role in controlling clutch torque precision. The switching process from parallel mode to series mode is divided into three stages: power source switching, clutch opening and engine operating point shifting. The control method is verified by simulation analysis and real vehicle test. The results show that no power interruption occurs during the whole switching process. Therefore, the control method can successfully complete the series-parallel switching control.
Jing, Junchao, Zhang, Junzhi, Liu, Yiqiang, Huang, Weishan, Dai, Zhengxing
A Study of Compression Pad, Its Selection and Optimization Process for the Lithium-Ion Cell Module2024-01-24304/9/2024
The need for eco-friendly vehicle powertrains has increased drastically in recent years. The most critical component of an electric vehicle is the battery pack/cell. The choice of the appropriate cell directly determines the size, performance, range, life, and cost of the vehicle. Lithium-ion batteries with high energy density and higher cycle life play a crucial role in the progress of the electric vehicle. However, the packaging of lithium-ion cells is expected to meet lots of assembly demands to increase their life and improve their functional safety. Due to their low mechanical stability, the lithium-ion cell modules must have external pressure on the cell surface for improved performance. The cells must be stacked in a compressed condition to exert the desired pressure on the cell surface using compression foam/pads. The compression pads can be either packaged between each cell or once in every set of cells based on the cell assembly requirements. This paper describes the need for a compression pad for lithium-ion cell modules and briefly highlights the different types of compression pads and their function. The study also explains how the compression pad selection must be performed for the improved cell performance and life of the cell. The different types of assembly processes of the compression pad are explained. It further shows the list of tests conducted to validate the function and life of the compression pad. The study concludes with the thickness optimization of the compression pad that meets all the requirements and also provides a cost-effective solution.
Sithick Basha, Abubakker, Chalumuru, Madhu, Sasikumar, K
Parameters Affecting Torsional Stiffness of Vehicle Doors2024-01-22264/9/2024
Side doors are pivotal components of any vehicle, not only for their aesthetic and safety aspects but also due to their direct interaction with customers. Therefore, ensuring good structural performance of side doors is crucial, especially under various loading conditions during vehicle use. Among the vital performance criteria for door design, torsional stiffness plays an important role in ensuring an adequate life cycle of door. This paper focuses on investigating the impact of several door structural parameters on the torsional stiffness of side doors. These parameters include the positioning of the latch, the number of door side hinge mounting points on doors (single or double bolt), and the design of door inner panel with or without Tailor Welded Blank (TWB) construction. The findings of this study reveal that the change in latch position has the most significant influence on torsional stiffness, followed by the removal of TWB from the inner panel, upon implementation of suitable local hinge reinforcements in TWB removed design, torsional stiffness enhances significantly. While decreasing the number of hinge mountings from a double bolt to a single bolt configuration does affect torsional stiffness, it has the least impact among these three parameters. All these parameters are very useful from vehicle architectural, weight optimization and assembly process aspects and consideration of same would lead to optimized door design with less weight and cost.
Goyal, Vinay Kumar, Selvan, Veera, Pandurangan, Venugopal, Unadkat, Siddharth, Almeida, Neil Ricardo
Maximum Pulling Force Calculation of Permanent Magnet Tractor Motors in Electric Vehicle Applications2024-01-22174/9/2024
In electric vehicle applications, the majority of the traction motors can be categorized as Permanent Magnet (PM) motors due to their outstanding performance. As indicated in the name, there are strong permanent magnets used inside the rotor of the motor, which interacts with the stator and causes strong magnetic pulling force during the assembly process. How to estimate this magnetic pulling force can be critical for manufacturing safety and efficiency. In this paper, a full 3D magnetostatic model has been proposed to calculate the baseline force using a dummy non-slotted cylinder stator and a simplified rotor for less meshing elements. Then, the full 360 deg model is simplified to a half-pole model based on motor symmetry to save the simulation time from 2 days to 2 hours. A rotor position sweep was conducted to find the maximum pulling force position. The result shows that the max pulling force happens when the rotor is 1% overlapping with the stator core. The impact of asymmetric air gap as well as temperature is analyzed for comprehensiveness. It shows that the asymmetric air gap can cause about 2.7% higher force. Finally, the dummy non-slotted cylinder stator is swapped with a slotted stator for better model fidelity. FEA shows that the slotted stator can have 21% lower force than a dummy cylinder stator. Although the method and conclusions proposed in this paper are based on a case study of one motor, they are still valid and applicable to other traction motors in a more generalized sense and can serve as a good reference for the EV motor industry for a safer and more efficient manufacturing assembly.
Gong, Cheng, Chang, Le, He, Song, Zhang, Peng, Muir, Michael
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