Browse Topic: Greenhouse gas emissions

Items (1,289)

Study on Diesel-Methanol Non-Premixed Combustion Characteristics of a Marine Dual-Fuel Engine at Different Methanol Substitution Rate

2026-99-0517

7/10/2026

Methanol use in marine engines has the potential to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions, particulates, and greenhouse gas emissions. A turbocharged four-stroke marine diesel powerplant was converted to run as a double-DI (direct injection) diesel-methanol hybrid engine. Experimental studies using a non-premixed combustion scheme showed that higher methanol substitution ratios (MSR) led to increased peak heat release rates. The combustion process displayed distinctive two-phase behaviors. Increasing MSR caused retarded ignition timing, shortened combustion duration, and improved thermal efficiency. Combustion stability was significantly improved at higher MSR. Emissions results showed NOX and HC were increased in proportion to MSR, whilst particulate emissions and CO concentrations were inversely reduced. Methanol enrichment was found to enhance NOX and HC formation processes but also accelerate soot particulate decomposition and CO oxidation mechanisms.

Li, Xiao, Jiang, Yuqi, Yan, Ping, Zheng, Liang, Li, Hongmei, Zhang, Wenzheng, Chen, Chao, Man, Zhongguo

Experimental Study of Warm-Up And Startability Operations in a Spark Ignition Engine Fueled with Ethanol Gasoline Blends

2026-01-0738

7/1/2026

The mitigation of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions poses a major challenge for the transportation sector, driving the need for renewable fuels. Bioethanol represents a promising fuel for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines, combining a reduced life-cycle CO₂ impact with advantageous combustion properties. However, despite its proven performance under steady-state conditions, the widespread of fuels with high ethanol content is still constrained by significant difficulties during engine cold-start operation. This study aims to experimentally assess the effect of ethanol concentration on cold-start performance and warm-up transient behavior of a Naturally Aspirated (NA), Port Fuel Injected (PFI) SI engine. Warm-up tests were conducted at an operating condition of 2000 rpm engine speed and 20 Nm torque using three fuels with increasing ethanol content: commercial gasoline (E5), E30 and E60. In addition, dedicated startability tests were carried out for E60 and neat ethanol (E100) at different initial engine wall temperatures to evaluate fuel sensitivity to thermal conditions during engine start. The experimental results indicate that increasing ethanol concentration has a negligible effect on the overall duration of the warm-up process, while leading to a modest reduction in both engine wall and exhaust gas temperatures. At the same time, E100 displays severe startability limitations at low initial wall temperatures, requiring repeated cranking attempts before stable operation can be achieved. The same startability issues have been observed for E60 but with limited intensity. Two minimum engine wall temperature ranges were identified for reliable cold-start operation at 20-25 °C for E60 and 25-30°C for E100. Overall, these findings experimentally confirm the dominant influence of engine thermal conditions on the reliable startability of ethanol-fueled spark-ignition engines.

Falbo, Luigi, Falbo, Biagio, Perrone, Diego, Castiglione, Teresa

Numerical Analysis of Directly Injected Hydrogen into a High-Pressure Chamber

2026-01-0745

7/1/2026

Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines have emerged as an option for decarbonizing heavy-duty transportation. However, injecting high-pressure hydrogen gas into pressurized combustion chambers induces complex compressible flow phenomena, including choked flow and under-expanded supersonic jet structures, which challenge conventional modeling approaches for optimizing engine performance and emissions. This study conducts a numerical investigation of transient hydrogen injection into a high-pressure argon environment, benchmarking a 2D axisymmetric Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model against high-fidelity experimental optical measurements. Utilizing Ansys Fluent with a density-based solver, coupled with the k-ω SST turbulence model and species transport equations, simulations were performed at injection pressures of 6 MPa and 10 MPa into a 1 MPa ambient chamber. The simulation successfully captured fundamental compressible physics, including Mach disk formation and significant expansion cooling near the nozzle exit. Validation results revealed a strong dependency on the nozzle pressure ratio (nPR). At 6 MPa (nPR=6), the model achieved good agreement with experimental data, predicting tip penetration depth within 10% . However, at 10 MPa (nPR=10), while axial penetration depth predictions remained within the 10% error margin, they were consistently underestimated, and radial dispersion was significantly under-predicted. These discrepancies at high energy levels highlight the challenges of predicting turbulent entrainment within the current modeling framework. The results suggests that the observed deviations are likely to be caused by combined limitations related to the RANS turbulence model, the potential shortcomings of the 2D axisymmetric assumption in resolving highly transient mixing phenomena, the meshing strategy used, the constant assumption made about the coefficient of discharge, and the crucial role of the Turbulent Schmidt number (SCt).

Castilla Batun, Uriel Isaac, Alzahrani, Fahad

Spray–Wall Interaction at Thermal Swing Coatings in SI Engines

03-19-03-0014

6/25/2026

As a contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector, the indicated efficiency of SI engines can be increased via thermal swing coatings. Thereby, a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved, although not at all operating conditions. Here, the often-observed increased hydrocarbon emission partially overcompensates the reduced wall heat losses. The main root cause is always attributed to the increased surface roughness and porosity, leading to an increased crevice volume. Further investigations were performed at a single-cylinder engine equipped with a FTIR for species analysis of hydrocarbon emissions. A comparison of direct injection and port fuel injection were performed for RON95 E10 and methanol to assess the influence of mixture preparation. 3D CFD was used to additionally investigate the in-cylinder processes. The comparison of port fuel injection and direct injection showed a significant influence on the fuel hydrocarbon emissions for the direct injection when the thermal swing coating was applied. The effect is more pronounced for methanol. For port fuel injection nearly the same or reduced fuel hydrocarbon emissions can be observed. This is mainly attributed to an increased wall film agglomeration at the piston for the thermal swing coating in case of direct injection, which can be observed in 3D CFD. Due to the low thermal effusivity of the coating, the droplet impingement leads to a notable decrease in the surface temperature. This results in lower evaporation of the fuel and a longer droplet lifetime. Consequently, a fuel wall film is still present at top dead center after ignition leading to additional hydrocarbon emissions.

Fischer, Marcus, Pischinger, Stefan

Holistic Sound Package Design for Optimal NVH and Carbon Footprint of a BEV

2026-01-0708

6/20/2026

Vehicle sound packages are usually designed to provide a given level of vehicle Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) comfort, within weight and cost constraints. Optimal comfort results can be obtained by considering the interaction of all the parts as a full physical system. So far, extensive research has already been performed and published on optimizing vehicle sound packages to achieve effective noise reduction at lowest cost and weight. Nowadays, due to the urgency of the transition to carbon neutrality, sound packages must also address the reduction of the full vehicle life cycle carbon emissions. Sound package components should use materials that have a low emission impact during production and that are suitable for recycling at the end of the vehicle’s life. This entails reconsidering the material solutions chosen for the sound package as a whole, rather than for each individual component. This article describes possible differentiations in the design of a sound package involving NVH, sustainability, and weight/cost requirements. The study examines how interior and exterior trim components were combined to achieve both optimal NVH and polymer rationalization, through the introduction of mono-material parts and focusing in particular on the use of a new polyester fiber-based floor decoupler, which achieves comparable NVH performance to polyurethane foam without affecting static compression. The article summarizes the vehicle-level performance related to NVH, sustainability, and weight for three sound packages prioritizing either NVH, sustainability or material cost, including a breakdown to analyze the contributions of various components to the overall outcome. A simple metric is introduced to evaluate sustainability, including material, production, use-phase and end-of-life related Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions [7–10]. The NVH evaluation involves measuring airborne transfer functions (ATF), complemented by indoor road noise tests. NVH improvements were achieved without an increase in weight, and weight reduction was also possible without negatively impacting NVH performance, both results enhancing the carbon footprint.

Courtois, Theophane, Cardillo, Marco, Criscione, Mattia, Gerges, Youssef, Massocco, Andrea

Hybridized Diesel Powertrains - An Important Enabler for Commercial Applications on the Long Journey towards Full Electrification

2026-37-0022

6/9/2026

The ongoing efforts for reduction of the traffic-related greenhouse gas emissions and, at the same time, the mitigation of harmful pollutant emissions from vehicle exhaust emissions are important development tasks for the entire automotive industry worldwide according to demand to provide clean and efficient products. Further tightened fleet average FE standards and ultra-low limits for exhaust emissions require the continuous development of new propulsion system types. Due to the given reluctance of the end customer and corresponding low acceptance of fully electrified vehicles, especially in the commercial vehicle segment, new and innovative topologies are needed to meet regulatory requirements and maintain the high versatility of today’s dominating solutions. For further optimization of operating conditions with enhanced fuel efficiency, the technical strategy is also determined by uplifting the attractiveness of electric driving incl. the avoidance of areas with poor ICE efficiency and as well as the coverage of emission-critical operations by electric propulsion. In this context, the support provided by an electric drive on board the vehicle in a combined drive system is becoming increasingly important. This article discusses accordingly various platform strategies for hybridized Diesel powertrains in different sectors of commercial vehicle applications and delivers a comprehensive comparative analysis of different hybrid drive concepts. Specifically, several hybrid powertrain configurations that extend an electric drive platform (hybridized BEVs), such as series and parallel-series topologies, are compared with traditional parallel hybrid powertrain topologies based on internal combustion engines (ICE). The study focuses mainly on two different cornerstone applications: a large light commercial vehicle, ranging from 3,5 to 6,5 to. and a heavy-duty long-haul truck with 40…44 to. gross vehicle weight. It evaluates the advantages in terms of CO2 emissions and Diesel fuel savings and investigates the effects on emission controls aspects. In addition to technical comparisons, the paper addresses also regulatory demands and end customer merits, assessing the integrational effort and commonalities in components with pure ICE and battery electric topologies. Furthermore, it explores the additional impact of advanced operational strategies for Hybrid Diesel powertrains, incorporating insights from innovative observations from executed hybrid technology demonstrator vehicles.

Koerfer, Thomas

Potential of ORC-Based Waste Heat Recovery in Conventional and Hybrid Heavy-Duty Powertrains

2026-37-0018

6/9/2026

Heavy-duty vehicles significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and urban air pollution, especially during cold-starts and transients when engine and aftertreatment efficiencies drop. Waste heat recovery (WHR) via Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems offers a practical solution to improve fuel efficiency and cut CO₂ in real-world heavy-duty operations. This study examines ORC-based WHR integration into conventional and hybrid powertrains of an Isuzu FTR850 truck, analyzing four configurations: Shell-and-Tube or Plate heat exchangers with simple or regenerative ORC layouts. For hybrids, it compares two engine sizes and energy management strategies: an optimized fuzzy logic approach versus constant-power operation to enhance exhaust heat recovery. A validated quasi-static simulation framework is used to predict fuel consumption and exhaust properties over representative duty cycles. 2D performance maps using exhaust temperature and mass flow as inputs are used to model the WHR under off-design conditions. Results show that the recovery of waste heat WHR depends on the hybridization level and strategy. Conventional powertrains benefit most from Shell-and-Tube exchangers, recovering ~2 kWh of electrical energy per 8-hour cycle and reducing fuel consumption by 0.5%. Hybrid setups recover up to 3.9 kWh from exhaust gases with a simple layout coupled with a Shell-and-Tube heat exchanger under constant-power control. Electricity is used to support onboard auxiliaries and battery charging, further lowering fuel demand (-44%) and emissions. Finally, a multi-objective optimization was performed to exploit the synergy between hybridization and WHR while maintaining acceptable payload and battery operating conditions.

Donateo, Teresa, Morrone, Pietropaolo

CFD Modelling of an Asymmetric Hydrogen Injector Cap for Direct Injection Applications: Design Impact on Jets Structure and Momentum Flux

2026-37-0011

6/9/2026

The adoption of hydrogen as a carbon-neutral sustainable fuel for internal combustion is regarded as a promising solution to reduce greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions. In this framework, the injection system plays a crucial role, being responsible for delivering a large amount of fuel to the combustion chamber. Currently, low-pressure direct injection is considered one of the best solutions to ensure the appropriate fuel delivery. The use of caps has proven particularly effective, as they enable a potentially unlimited range of geometries while minimizing modifications to the injector hardware. Experimental campaigns and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations can be used together as complementary tools to speed up the development process and explore multiple combinations of parameters, thereby optimizing the overall design of both the engine and the caps. In the present paper, a single-hole GDI-derived hydrogen prototype injector equipped with a two-hole asymmetric cap and fed with hydrogen is analyzed through both experiments and CFD simulations under two different operating conditions in terms of rail pressure. Cap pressure, overall fuel instantaneous mass flow rate and hole-specific jet momentum have been measured during the experimental campaign. The resulting data were used as boundary conditions and as targets for the validation of steady-state CFD computations, where the same equipment has been simulated. In particular, the momentum flux produced by the two jets emerging from the forming cap was used to validate the numerical methodology against experimental outcomes. Moreover, the exact dimensions of cap holes have been taken by means of optical microscope and applied to the simulation to compare the real geometry against the nominal one. Therefore, the impact of the effective cap geometry is explored, evidencing a noticeable dependence specifically of the cap backpressure and therefore of the injection system performance on the details of the cap design.

Pavan, Nicolo, Breda, Sebastiano, Duni, Andrea, Martino, Manuel, Fontanesi, Stefano, Postrioti, Lucio

A Parametric Cradle-to-Grave Life Cycle Assessment Tool for Comparative Evaluation of Passenger Car CO₂ Emissions

2026-37-0040

6/9/2026

This work presents the development of a user-oriented software tool for the cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of passenger cars, enabling robust comparisons of greenhouse gas emissions across heterogeneous vehicle configurations. The tool supports informed decision-making by quantifying and visualizing environmental impacts associated with alternative mobility choices over the full vehicle life cycle, including production, use, maintenance, and end-of-life stages. The proposed framework allows key parameters describing both the vehicle and its usage to be explicitly defined, including powertrain type, dimensions and weight, ownership profile (new or second-hand vehicles, partial ownership periods, leasing scenarios), annual mileage, vehicle lifetime assumptions, and the carbon intensity of fuels or electricity sources. Country-specific energy mixes are incorporated, enabling the same vehicle to be assessed under different geographic contexts and highlighting the strong dependence of use-phase emissions on local energy systems. Results are reported both as total life-cycle emissions and as a phase-resolved breakdown, improving transparency and supporting a clear interpretation of trade-offs between production, operation, maintenance, and end-of-life stages. Representative scenarios demonstrate that, under a standard European context, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) achieve a reduction of approximately 32% in yearly greenhouse gas emissions compared to a baseline Euro 5 gasoline vehicle. However, this trend reverses for low-mileage users relying on second-hand vehicles, for which emissions can increase by about 15%, emphasizing the critical role of usage patterns and ownership strategies in determining environmental benefits. The tool is designed to accommodate updated datasets, emission factors, and evolving energy scenarios, ensuring long-term applicability and enabling forward-looking analyses. Its capabilities are demonstrated across scenarios covering short- and long-term usage, multiple national contexts, and different powertrain technologies. The result is a robust and transparent assessment platform that enables users and policymakers to evaluate vehicle replacement strategies, providing quantitative insights into the interplay between technology, usage, and sustainability in mobility transitions.

Gastaldi, Chiara, Cibrario, Luca

Performance and Combustion Characteristics of Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 Carbon-Neutral Fuel versus EN 228 in a 1980s Fiat 500 Engine

2026-37-0033

6/9/2026

The energy transition requires a rapid reduction in the use of fossil fuels, whose combustion generates substantial greenhouse-gas emissions. In Europe, transport alone accounts for roughly a quarter of total greenhouse-gas emissions, with road transport being the predominant component. In this context, the use of biofuels has emerged as a potential solution for limiting further increases in CO₂ emissions. However, most studies available in the literature evaluate the performance of these fuels on modern engines, while their effects on historic carburetted engines remain largely unexplored. This is particularly significant given the large fleet of historic vehicles across Europe, supported by a long-standing tradition of vehicle preservation, associations, and classic car collectors. The main historic-vehicle federations advise caution and the use of low-ethanol formulations so as not to damage elastomers, fuel tanks, and carburettor float bowls. For this reason, a few suppliers have developed fuels specifically for classic vehicles. Among this minority, in 2023 Coryton Advanced Fuels introduced the SUSTAIN Classic line, including the Super 80 variant. In the present study, the performance, fuel consumption, and emissions of an air-cooled, four-stroke Fiat 500 engine fueled with commercial RON 95 gasoline and Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 were analyzed. A first test comprised a complete sweep from 1000 to 5000 RPM and a second test evaluated four different main jets at maximum torque speed and maximum power speed. To evaluate the performance, the engine was installed on a test bench equipped with a torque meter. Static pressure and temperature sensors were employed to characterize the engine operating conditions, while a dynamic pressure sensor installed in the combustion chamber was used to analyze the combustion characteristics. Exhaust emissions were also measured using a gas analyzer, allowing for a detailed and accurate comparison of the effects associated with the use of the two fuels.

Tarchiani, Marco, Fossati, Federico, Raspanti, Sandro, Baroni, Alberto, Ferrara, Giovanni, Romani, Luca

Combined EGR-Air Dilution Effects on Performance, Combustion and Emissions of a Single-Cylinder Spark-Ignition Direct-Injection Hydrogen Engine

2026-37-0009

6/9/2026

Hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2ICE) have emerged as a promising solution for decarbonisation of the transport sector, due to low cost and potential for rapid deployment. However, abnormal combustion and high nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions limit stoichiometric operation, making dilution strategies essential. While lean combustion has been widely studied, combined dilution strategies of air and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) require further investigation. This work presents experimental results from a boosted 0.5-litre spark-ignition direct-injection single-cylinder research engine equipped with high-tumble ports and cooled high-pressure EGR. Relative air–fuel ratios (lambda) of 1 to 3 and EGR rates of 0 to 40% are evaluated at 5, 10, and 15 bar of indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) at 2000 rpm to assess effects on net indicated thermal efficiency (nITE), combustion, and emissions. A peak nITE of 43.5% is achieved at 10 bar IMEP, λ = 2.5, and 30% EGR, which can be primarily attributed to low heat losses while maintaining lower combustion losses than at higher dilution levels. NOx emissions are effectively mitigated with increasing EGR and are largely independent of lambda at 5 bar IMEP under EGR dilution. At high load, EGR is shown to be beneficial to achieve high efficiency and lower NOx at lower dilution rates, thereby reducing boosting requirements. Equivalent dilution parameters are used to investigate combined effects of EGR and air dilution, from a mass dilution perspective with the mass dilution rate (MDR) and equivalent thermal reduction with the thermal dilution parameter (TDP). Indicated efficiency and unburned hydrogen emissions correlated strongly with MDR, while temperature-dependent parameters showed a high correlation with TDP. At constant engine speed, burn durations are shown to depend mainly on degree of thermal dilution, with no effect of load observed. At high dilution rates, combustion became increasingly insensitive to further dilution, indicating the presence of thermodiffusive instabilities under high levels of both EGR and air dilution.

King, Aidan, Islam, Reza, Pickering, Simon, Yuan, Hao, Mudge, Henry, Giles, Karl, Goyal, Harsh, Jones, Peter, Akehurst, Sam, Esposito, Stefania

Forecasting Electric Vehicle Fleet Growth and Energy Requirements in the UK

2026-37-0043

6/9/2026

With the United Kingdom’s goal to achieve a fully decarbonised energy sector by 2035 and achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, the transition of the UK’s passenger car fleet to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) plays a crucial role in reaching this goal. This study evaluates the environmental and energy impact of large-scale BEV adoption by modelling future uptake scenarios using historical fleet data combined with assumed impact of future policy such as the 2030 ban on the sale of new petrol and diesel vehicles. Three predictive models have been developed: fast uptake, in which approximately 100% of the passenger car fleet is replaced by BEVs; moderate uptake, where a large majority of passenger cars are BEVs; and slow uptake, in which BEV adoption does not reach a majority. The results have shown that, if a medium- or large-scale adoption is possible by 2040 predicting nearly 37 million BEVs on the road, the associated electricity demand is predicted to rise close to 110 TWh annually, signifying the need for rapid development in renewable energy generation. Although BEVs significantly reduce transport sector emissions, the overall climate impact is dependent on a continued effort of grid decarbonisation.

Burke, Bradley, Kateregga, Sunny, Sodre, Jose Ricardo

Alcohol-Based Energy Carriers in Transportation: Status, Standards, and Outlook

2026-37-0042

6/9/2026

The global transport sector accounts for approximately 30 % of total final energy consumption and 15.9 % of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with road transport alone accounting for the largest share at 11.8 %. Decarbonizing this sector requires energy sources that combine scalable generation from renewable sources with compatibility with various modes of transportation and existing infrastructure. Methanol and ethanol emerge as promising alternative energy carriers that can leverage existing logistics infrastructure while reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Global methanol production reached 112 million metric tons, and global ethanol production totaled approximately 93.5 million metric tons in 2024, compared to more than 2 billion metric tons of gasoline and diesel produced annually. The review assesses production pathways and cost trajectories for both alcohols, evaluates fuel requirements across multiple transport modes, including passenger vehicles, light- and heavy-duty vehicles, maritime shipping, aviation, and rail, and provides regulatory frameworks governing fuel standards in six major markets, the European Union, the USA, Brazil, China, Japan, and India. From a technical perspective, the internal combustion engine is examined in greater detail as the energy conversion system, synthesizing current combustion research on engine performance, emissions characteristics, and cold-start behavior. Current standards predominantly accommodate ethanol blending for spark-ignition (SI) engines in passenger vehicle applications, with permitted concentration limits ranging from 3 % in Japan to nearly pure ethanol in Brazil. Methanol applications remain more limited in road applications. In the maritime sector, recent ISO 8217:2024 specifications and International Maritime Organization (IMO) interim guidelines have established frameworks for the use of methanol and ethanol as marine fuels. Aviation remains the most restrictive sector, with alcohol fuels explicitly prohibited in certified aviation fuels due to material compatibility and safety concerns. To unlock the decarbonization potential of methanol and ethanol in the transport sector, coordinated policy support and continued technological innovation will be essential. As production scales and regulatory frameworks mature, both alcohol fuels may play an increasingly central role in the transition toward sustainable mobility.

Fitz, Patrick, Fellner, Felix, Rößlhuemer, Raphael, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte

Potential of an In-Cylinder Pressure–Based Combustion Control for Compression Ignition Aviation Engines Operated with Sustainable Aviation Fuels

2026-01-5028

5/29/2026

The aviation industry represents a significant greenhouse gas emitter and aims to reduce net CO2 emissions to zero by 2050. The deployment of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), alongside measures such as increasing engine efficiency and enhancing ground handling processes, represents a key driver to reach this ambitious goal. SAF exhibits significantly different physical and chemical properties compared to conventional kerosene. The corresponding fuel specification (ASTM D7566 [1]) currently only defines fuel parameters relevant for the use in jet engines. To assess the suitability of SAF for the use in compression ignition (CI) aviation engines, a collaborative project was conducted at TU Wien—Institute of Powertrain and Automotive Technology, together with Austro Engine. ASTM D7566-certified fuels like Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), Fischer–Tropsch–Kerosene (FTK), and Alcohol-to-Jet (AtJ) have been investigated on the engine test bench at TU Wien. The core contribution of this study is the experimental evaluation of a real-time capable in-cylinder pressure–based combustion control strategy that enables fuel-flexible and optimized CI engine operation across a wide range of SAF while accounting for mechanical constraints such as peak cylinder pressure and pressure rise rate. To evaluate the potential of such a control system, optimized engine operation was compared to operation with conventional ECU (Engine Control Unit) mapping. Furthermore, the influence of such a real-time combustion process optimization on critical emissions like NOx or soot has been evaluated. Through the implementation of an in-cylinder pressure–based combustion control, a considerable fuel-saving potential could be demonstrated across the entire fuel range. As combustion phasing is optimized toward early crank angle positions, a slight increase in NOx, with a corresponding decrease in soot is observed. Additionally, the use of automotive, piezoresistive pressure sensors was examined regarding a potential serial application. It has been shown that piezoresistive sensors (standard serial parts—calibrated for automotive application) are well-suited for determination of combustion phasing, while in-cylinder peak pressure and its position can only be determined with insufficient accuracy.

Kleissner, Florian, Hofmann, Peter

Analysis on the Technical Path and Engineering Application of Ship Carbon Capture

2026-99-1730

5/22/2026

This study focuses on the engineering application and performance evaluation of shipboard carbon capture systems. A process combining amine absorption and membrane separation was constructed, and the combined process was applied to a typical 7000 TEU container ship. After sea trials, the average carbon dioxide capture efficiency achieved by the system exceeded 87%, and the power consumption was maintained within an acceptable range. The integrated system greatly improved the EEXI and CII index levels and verified its economic feasibility in the medium and high carbon price scenario. The payback period of the investment costs was reduced to five years. After port coordination tests, the operability of ship-shore carbon dioxide transfer was verified, which promoted future scalability. The engineering layout, energy recovery design, and operation data worked together to provide a practical solution for maritime decarbonization. This study provides a valuable technical reference for the implementation of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) carbon reduction strategy, and also lays a solid foundation for subsequent legislation and system standardization.

Yang, Yongjian

Overcoming the Carbon Neutrality Bottleneck: Multidimensional Innovations and Future Prospects of Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) Technology

2026-99-1736

5/22/2026

As the global pursuit of carbon neutrality accelerates, carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technology is emerging as a critical strategic pillar for achieving significant emission reductions and facilitating the transition to green development. This review systematically summarizes the principal technological pathways and recent advances in carbon capture, resource utilization, and storage within CCUS systems, with particular attention to innovative directions including advanced adsorption and separation materials, synergistic catalytic conversion, biological carbon sequestration, and mineralization-based storage. By examining representative engineering practices and industrialization cases both domestically and internationally, this paper summarizes the major challenges currently facing CCUS, including material costs, energy consumption, environmental risks, and large-scale deployment. The positive impacts of interdisciplinary integration, process system optimization, and policy coordination on the commercialization of CCUS are also discussed. The review indicates that overcoming bottlenecks in core materials and process technologies, improving regulatory frameworks and market mechanisms, and establishing clustered industrial ecosystems are essential for CCUS to spearhead the forthcoming low-carbon energy and green industrial revolutions. This paper envisions future development trends for CCUS technology, highlights its multidimensional strategic value for global carbon governance, energy security, and the circular economy, and offers theoretical references and cutting-edge insights for scientific research, policy formulation, and industrial decision-making in related fields.

Wang, Yingfei

An Integrated Methodology for Sustainable Mobility Infrastructure Planning: The Atlanta Aerotropolis Case Study

2026-01-0097

4/7/2026

By the early 2020s, more than 4.5 billion people have been living in urban areas worldwide, compared to just 1 billion in 1960. Rising growth in urban populations present challenges to infrastructure and transportation systems. Higher traffic levels and reliance on conventional vehicles have contributed to heightened greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, rising global temperatures, and irreversible environmental degradation. In response, emerging transportation solutions—including intelligent ridesharing, autonomous vehicles, zero-tailpipe-emission transport, and urban air mobility—offer opportunities for safer and more sustainable transportation ecosystems. However, their widespread adoption depends not only on technological performance and efficiency, but also on integration with current infrastructure, safety, resilience to unexpected disruptions, and economic viability. A dynamic agent-based System-of-Systems (SoS) transportation model is developed to simulate vehicle traffic and human movement for assessing mobility solutions against different demand scenarios and possible disruptions within a well-defined metropolitan area. The analysis adopts the concept of an airport city—a cluster of residential, commercial, and industrial spaces surrounding major airports—as a representative urban context. Using the Atlanta Aerotropolis as a case study, this work introduces an interactive, parametric decision-support methodology for evaluating the impact and benefits of future mobility options, as part of transportation master planning. Given the multi-objective and multi-stakeholder nature of transportation planning (e.g. local government, urban planners, engineers, and technology providers), the proposed approach leverages simulation-enabled digital twins of mobility solution alternatives to analyze traffic performance across multiple criteria, including energy consumption, emissions, affordability, accessibility, and connectivity within the broader urban infrastructure. The study reveals cost-benefit trade-offs among mobility solutions in the context of disruptive scenarios, such as the 2026 FIFA World Cup hosted by Atlanta, GA. The results highlight the importance of deploying a mix of mobility options over the city’s transportation network to maximize sustainability while maintaining resilient operations.

Rana, Vishva, Balchanos, Michael, Mavris, Dimitri, Valenzuela Del Rio, Jose

Model-Based Development of a Heavy-Duty H ₂ -ICE and Integrated, Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) System

2026-01-0426

4/7/2026

Changing global economic conditions and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are driving the need to develop efficient, near-term, alternative propulsion system technologies for heavy-duty vehicles. This study combines a hydrogen internal combustion engine (H2-ICE) with electrically assisted turbocharging, exhaust energy recovery, and mild hybridization to maximize propulsion system efficiency and reduce NOx emissions. To reduce cost and packaging impact of integration of these technologies on an engine, the study presents a model-based development and optimization of an Integrated Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) system that combines the enabling components into a single compact unit. In the first phase of this study, a H2-ICE and aftertreatment concept for a MY2027 7.7L medium heavy-duty on-road engine was developed and evaluated through 1D simulation. The concept was to convert a diesel engine by changing the cylinder head to implement a port fuel injection (PFI) lean H2 SI combustion system with two-stage turbocharging and no external EGR. The concept was optimized for compression ratio, valve lift profiles, turbocharging, aftertreatment size/specification, and calibration using 1D system simulation in GT-SUITE. In the second phase of this study, the H2-ICE concept performance was further improved by integrating the ITES system and evaluated through 1D simulation. The ITES system replaces the conventional low-pressure stage of the boosting system and adds the capability of electrically assisted turbocharging, turbogeneration from exhaust energy, and P1 mild-hybridization. Applying a model-based approach, the H2-ICE & ITES component sizes were optimized for the best performance and emissions benefit. Using 1D simulation of validated models, the efficiency benefit of the ITES system on engine and vehicle level system was predicted. Finally, a vehicle level simulation was conducted comparing the fuel consumption between a conventional advanced boosting system H2-ICE concept and H2-ICE+ITES concept for Class 6-7 medium heavy duty truck application.

Bustamante, Oscar, Correia Garcia, Bruno, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael

Combustion Characterization of Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) as an Alternative Fuel for Use in IC Engines

2026-01-0317

4/7/2026

In the endeavors to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, synthetic fuels from less carbon intensive feedstocks have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional fuels. These synthetic fuels have gained traction in the aviation industry as sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). One such fuel is a synthetic paraffinic kerosene derived from hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA). Preliminary research has also suggested that this fuel may also be favorable for use in IC engines. This investigation will explore the combustion characteristics of HEFA in an IC engine in more detail. The thermophysical properties of HEFA were investigated and found comparable to or improving upon those of ULSD. Spray atomization analysis revealed more than 25% smaller SMD compared to ULSD, and lower span factor indicating a more uniform spray which can promote faster formation of a homogenous mixture. A tribological analysis using a pin-on-disk tribometer revealed comparable lubricity compared to ULSD, without requiring any additives. A CVCC was used to investigate the autoignition characteristics of the fuels. HEFA was found to have a DCN of 58 compared to ULSD at 48. Resultingly, the ignition delay for HEFA was notably shorter compared to the baseline of ULSD. Fired engine testing was conducted using a single-cylinder CRDI experimental engine. Emissions were measured using a FTIR and Microsoot sensor. Combustion characteristics such as ignition delay, LTHR, pressure rise rate, peak pressure, ringing intensity, CA50, and combustion duration were compared to ULSD at matched operating modes. HEFA was observed to have a shorter ignition delay and smaller premixed combustion event, releasing more of its energy in mixing controlled combustion. This caused CA50 and overall combustion duration to be extended compared to ULSD. The combustion behavior of HEFA contributed to significant reductions in NOx and Soot emissions compared to ULSD. Cycle variability was reduced by half for HEFA, indicating smoother engine operation and combustion stability. These results showcase the versatility of this SAF to be used in IC engines with conventional combustion strategies.

Soloiu, Valentin, Willis, James, Norton, Coleman, Davis, Zachary, Peralta Lopez, Guillermo, Rahman, Mosfequr

Effect of Passive Pre-Chamber Geometry on Performance and Emissions of a Single-Cylinder Natural Gas Large Bore Engine

2026-01-0333

4/7/2026

The maritime industry is one of the most energy-intensive sectors, characterized by high fuel consumption and significant environmental impact. As global trade relies on shipping, the challenge of reducing pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions becomes ever more pressing. Natural gas (NG) is considered as a transitional fuel, capable of lowering CO₂ emissions by 20–30% compared to conventional marine fuels. However, to fully harness this potential, significant advances in combustion technology are necessary, particularly with ultra-lean combustion strategies. One of the most promising pathways is pre-chamber combustion, a solution that can simultaneously improve the efficiency and sustainability of NG marine engines. In this scenario, the passive pre-chamber geometry plays a key role, as it directly influences ignition behavior, combustion stability, and exhaust emissions. This work presents an experimental study conducted on a single-cylinder marine engine prototype, retrofitted from a diesel baseline, and equipped alternatively with four passive pre-chambers featuring different geometrical configurations. The tests were conducted at an engine speed of 1500 rpm and different loads to evaluate the influence of pre-chamber geometry on engine performance and exhaust emissions. Key parameters such as combustion phasing, efficiency, and pollutant formation were analyzed and compared between the four setups. Results showed that pre-chamber design affects the interaction between the turbulent jets and the main chamber mixture, leading to significant variations in both combustion efficiency and emission trends. These findings provide new insights into the role of passive pre-chamber geometry in optimizing large-bore NG marine engines, offering a valuable contribution to the development of cleaner and more efficient propulsion systems for the maritime sector.

Marchitto, Luca, Tornatore, Cinzia, Pennino, Vincenzo, Mariani PhD, Antonio, Beatrice, Carlo, Accurso, Francesco, Gorietti, Valentina, Pesce, Francesco, Giardino, Angelo, Vitti, Luciano

Experimental Study of Hydrogen Combustion in Argon-Oxygen Mixture Using an Optical Engine

2026-01-0328

4/7/2026

The Argon Power Cycle (APC) is an emerging high-efficiency combustion technology for internal combustion engines. In APC, the conventional air-based working fluid is replaced with an inert argon gas. This substitution inherently increases engine efficiency through thermodynamic properties of argon, in particular a high adiabatic factor ?? ~1.67. A hydrogen-fueled APC engine offers the potential for highly efficient zero emission combustion by also eliminating nitrogen oxide (NOx) formation. In the present paper, hydrogen combustion is studied in an optical heavy-duty research engine, with the objective of providing the first visualization of H2 combustion in an argon–oxygen mixture. A comparative analysis of high-speed optical imaging and in-cylinder pressure measurements is conducted for two different modes: 1) conventional air operation and 2) argon-oxygen mixture operation. The high-speed images reveal a distinctly different combustion process between the two operating modes. The main results of the study are as follows: 1) The cylinder peak temperature during compression, estimated from cylinder pressure, increases from approximately 800K (air) to 1200K (argon-oxygen). 2) Abrupt hydrogen pre-ignition was observed for the argon-oxygen mixture, leading to strong pressure oscillations. In contrast, for hydrogen-air combustion, the mixture was ignited by the spark without pre-ignition. 3) The initial heat release was significantly higher in the argon-oxygen mixture yielding a pressure rise in a few crank angle degrees (CAD) in contrast to 5-10 CAD for the air mixtures. 4) Extremely lean hydrogen combustion was observed for the argon-oxygen case.

Kapp, Joakim, Cheng, Qiang, Kaario, Ossi, Vuorinen, Ville

Assessing Energy Use, Cost, and Emissions of Small Regional Rail Vehicles: Methodology and Case Study on a German Track

2026-01-0419

4/7/2026

This work evaluates a standardized 30-ton, 16 m railbus platform optimized for unelectrified regional service, focusing on propulsion system design and trade-offs between range, cost, and emissions. A MATLAB/Simulink drive-cycle model was developed to simulate energy consumption and component performance under realistic operating conditions. The Erfurt–Rennsteig route in Germany (130 km round trip, gradients up to 6 %) was selected as a representative case study. The model incorporates detailed sub-models for traction motors, lithium-ion batteries (LFP and LTO), fuel storage, fuel cells, and ICE gensets across multiple fuel options (diesel, gasoline, methane, ethanol, methanol, HVO, FAME, and hydrogen). Battery lifetime is estimated using a combined cycle- and calendar-aging model using the rainflow algorithm to extract charge cycles, while cost models include capital, fuel, maintenance, track fees, and staffing. Results show that battery-electric configurations achieve 1 kWh/km energy use, while hybrid systems range from 2–4 kWh/km depending on fuel and secondary power unit. Control strategies that enable deeper cycling of the traction battery reduce fuel consumption by 7–18 %, with further savings possible from larger battery or genset capacities. Well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions vary widely: from near-zero for renewable fuels and clean electricity mixes to over 1,000 gCO2/kWh for fossil-based options. Lifecycle cost analysis indicates that while fuel may represent up to 25 % of total costs, track and station fees dominate operational expenses. Autonomous operation could eliminate oboard staffing costs, amounting to 25–35 %.

Ahrling, Christoffer, Tuner, Martin, Gainey, Brian, Torkiharchegani, Amir, Scharmach, Marcel, Hertel, Benedikt, Alaküla, Mats

Predictive Battery Preconditioning Strategy Considering Charging Time, Battery Degradation and Energy Consumption

2026-01-01264/7/2026

Electric vehicles (EVs) play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, yet their widespread adoption remains limited due to long charging times and concerns about battery degradation. To address these challenges, this paper presents a predictive battery preconditioning strategy to optimally prepare the battery before fast charging, with the goal of minimizing either charging time, battery degradation, or energy consumption. The proposed approach employs route-based velocity prediction together with a longitudinal vehicle dynamics model to predict the battery load, ambient temperature, and arrival time at the charging station. Based on this predictive information, the optimal battery temperature trajectory is determined using nonlinear programming with precomputed maps derived from a high-fidelity vehicle model and an electrochemical battery model including physics-based degradation mechanisms. The optimized temperature trajectory is then realized through a nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) for the thermal management system. The control-oriented models used for optimization and control, as well as the high-fidelity vehicle model, are parameterized and validated using measurement data. Simulation results demonstrate that the predictive preconditioning strategy enables a reduction in charging time of up to 8.9% or a reduction in battery degradation of up to 6.2% compared to no preconditioning, while outperforming a rule-based preconditioning strategy. Furthermore, the results show that energy consumption cannot be reduced through active preconditioning. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of predictive battery preconditioning to improve charging performance and battery longevity in electric vehicles.

Acker, Lukas, Hofmann, Peter, Konrad, Johannes

Technical Outlook on the Potential of HVO and Biodiesel Blends for Cleaner Combustion

2026-01-0316

4/7/2026

The increasing need to decarbonize the transport sector is accelerating the adoption of renewable and low-carbon fuels such as Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) and biodiesel as sustainable substitutes for fossil diesel. These fuels are evaluated as drop-in solutions requiring no engine recalibration, enabling immediate GHG emission reduction in existing diesel fleets. This study experimentally investigates the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of a turbocharged common-rail two-cylinder diesel engine (Kohler LWD 442 CRS) operated with conventional fossil Diesel, pure HVO (Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil), and an HVOB20 blend (80% HVO and 20% biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil and animal fats). Tests were carried out under steady-state conditions at the DIIEM Engine Laboratory of Roma Tre University. The analysis focused on in-cylinder pressure evolution, brake power, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and both regulated and unregulated emissions. Regulated species include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and particulate number concentration (PNC > 23 nm, PMP-compliant), while unregulated emissions cover non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), formaldehyde (HCHO), nitrous oxide (N₂O). CO and NMHC are key indicators of incomplete combustion: CO results from partial oxidation of carbon during fuel burning, and NMHC represents the fraction of unburned hydrocarbons excluding methane. Both pollutants decreased markedly with renewable fuels, indicating a more complete oxidation process promoted by HVO’s paraffinic composition and FAME’s oxygenated nature. Experimental results show that HVO and HVOB20 slightly increase brake torque and reduce BSFC compared with fossil diesel, despite their lower density and heating value. Combustion remained stable across all operating conditions, with negligible variations in ignition delay and pressure rise rate. NOₓ emissions were comparable or marginally higher at medium engine speeds, likely due to faster ignition and elevated combustion temperatures. Unregulated species such as HCHO and N₂O decreased or remained negligible with increasing renewable content, while PNC and count mean diameter (CMD) were significantly reduced, confirming cleaner combustion and reduced soot formation. Overall, both HVO and HVOB20 demonstrated improved combustion efficiency and emission performance while ensuring full engine operability without calibration adjustments. These findings confirm the technical viability of renewable diesel fuels as immediate, drop-in solutions for reducing GHG emissions.

Zaccai, Martina, Chiavola, Ornella, Palmieri, Fulvio, Verdoliva, Francesco

Achieving Euro 7 WHSC NOx Emission Targets from a Spark Ignited Engine Using Methanol-Hydrogen Co-Fuelling

2026-01-0321

4/7/2026

E-methanol is increasingly seen as a promising clean fuel because its chemical makeup is close to fossil fuels, making it easier to use in existing engines. It offers a carbon-neutral option to help reduce greenhouse gases in sectors where cutting emissions is especially difficult, such as transportation. However, while e-methanol avoids adding new carbon dioxide, burning it in internal combustion engines still releases harmful gases like oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and other toxic by-products like formaldehyde and formic acid that damage both health and the environment. This report explores a new strategy that combines methanol with hydrogen to run engines under “ultra-lean” conditions and its impact on emissions, performance and efficiency. Experiments were carried out on a single-cylinder spark ignition engine, with directly injected methanol and port fuelled injection of hydrogen. The findings show that adding about 10% hydrogen (energy basis) at low engine loads can extend the lean limit from air-fuel equivalence ratio (λ) of 1.7 to 2. This change cut NOx emissions by 99% and reduced formaldehyde emissions by 18% compared to pure methanol operation at stoichiometric. Furthermore, the NOx emissions were reduced sufficiently that engine could operate within Euro 7 World Harmonic Stationary Cycle (WHSC) limits.

Ambalakatte, Ajith, Geng, Sikai, Cairns, Alasdair, Varaei, Amirata, Harrington, Anthony, Hall, Jonathan, Bassett, Mike, Cracknell, Roger

In-Use Life Digital Twin (Redundant Storage) and Swappable Use Case for Battery Durability

2026-01-0397

4/7/2026

As regulatory frameworks for zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) continue to evolve, there is growing emphasis on monitoring battery durability and usage throughout the vehicle lifecycle. These regulations increasingly specify the use of data monitors and tracking mechanisms to assess battery health and performance. In addition, regulations require anti tampering mechanisms especially for monitors that have external write access. Historically, regulations focused primarily on vehicle warranty; however, with the introduction of battery durability monitors, clarity is needed for the new battery durability monitors. More specifically if the battery durability monitors track with the lifetime of the vehicle or if they follow the lifetime of the battery. Furthermore, current regulations provide no guidance on high-voltage (HV) traction battery service strategies or methods to protect monitors from tampering by external customers. This paper will classify battery durability tracking parameters (DIDs) according to whether they align to the lifetime of the vehicle or the battery itself. Building on this classification, a service strategy is proposed that considers typical vehicle architectures: when the battery management Electrical Computer Unit (ECU) is fully integrated with or separated from the high voltage traction (HV) battery. The outlined service strategy not only supports regulatory compliance, but also enhances data integrity by mitigating the risk of tampering with monitored parameters through a Digital Twin framework. More specifically, the Digital Twin framework introduces redundant storage of critical information in multiple storage locations such as ECUs and then a mechanism for correlating that critical information to determine a mismatch. This approach anticipates future requirements for tamper-proofing and ensures secure, reliable tracking of battery durability metrics through redundant ECU storage.

Laskowsky, Patricia, Bunnell, Justin, Zettel, Andrew, Albarran, Josue

Cradle-To-Grave Assessment of Austrian Passenger Car Traffic based on Actual Vehicle Movements and Derivation of Future Forecasts for Minimising Greenhouse Gas Emissions

2026-01-0457

4/7/2026

As part of the decarbonisation process for passenger car fleet in Austria, battery electric cars in particular have been subsidised in recent years, as these vehicles are considered to be largely emission free during use and are expected to reduce emissions in future. However, in order to sustainably reduce the global greenhouse gas emissions of Austrian passenger car traffic, taking into account all types of fuel systems, it is necessary to apply a cradle-to-grave approach, as is commonly done in comparable analyses in the literature, which evaluates the emissions of the entire vehicle life cycle. The most important phase in the life cycle assessment remains the well-to-wheel phase, which includes emissions from energy supply and vehicle use. Due to the large number of influencing factors, highly simplified models are usually used for this phase in the literature. As part of this work, a methodology was developed that, allows an in-depth analysis of entire vehicle fleets by linking real vehicle movements with emissions data and energy consumption. By using real vehicle movements, environmental conditions (ambient temperature, etc.) and traffic situations (traffic jams, etc.) can be integrated into the emissions assessment. To capture the influencing factors more realistically, the assessment is performed at hourly rather than annual time intervals, unlike most previous studies. This new approach provides therefore a more detailed and realistic cradle-to-grave analysis of the Austrian passenger car fleet, making it possible to test individual measures in future scenarios and to define a coordinated strategy for minimizing the fleet’s future global greenhouse gas emissions.

Lischka, Gregor, Tober, Werner

Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on Particulate Emissions in Warm-Up Conditions in a GDI Engine

2026-01-0304

4/7/2026

Renewable gasoline offers significant benefits in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, five gasolines with different renewable hydrocarbon classes and varying distillation curves were taken to investigate their effect on particle number (PN) emissions in a spark-ignition GDI engine at 10 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The engine coolant temperature was varied from 90°C to 35°C to investigate the effect of fuel evaporation on soot formation. Injectors with various spray plume targets and start of injection (SOI) timing (300° and 260° bTDC) were used to assess how different gasolines affect engine performance and to determine engine calibration requirements. A simplified transient cycle examines how engine motoring influences PN emissions for test gasolines. A high-speed camera and endoscope were used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. Simulations were done to assess the quality of fuel-air mixing in support of the experimental data. The results revealed that the type of hydrocarbons in gasoline was crucially affecting PN emissions. Particles with >10 nm increased with increasing fuel’s aromatics. Paraffin-rich gasoline showed 71% and 98% lower PN than aromatics-rich gasoline under hot and cold engine conditions. Paraffin-rich gasoline showed lower PN in cold tests than in hot tests with retarded SOI. Replacing ~10% paraffins with olefins and naphthene reduced >10 nm PN by 15-77%. However, replacing 19% of paraffins with olefins and naphthene increases PN emissions. Optimal SOI timing reduces PN by 80% for aromatics-rich gasoline. Fuel consumption and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions increased with increasing aromatics and paraffins in gasoline under cold conditions. Yellow flames on the piston top and near the injector tip were the primary sources of soot. Simulation results showed that the liquid fuel mass increased by 14% when the coolant temperature was reduced by 55 K.

Muniappan, Krishnamoorthi, Dahlander, Petter, Helmantel, Ayolt, Alemahdi, Nika, Lehto, Kalle

Energy-Efficient Predictive Cruise Control in Heavy-Duty Electric Trucks with Optimization of the Penalty Factor as a Function of Payload

2026-01-0042

4/7/2026

Heavy-duty Class 8 battery electric trucks not only offer the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to conventional diesel trucks but can also provide significant savings in fuel costs. To further enhance energy and freight efficiency, Predictive Cruise Control (PCC) algorithms can be developed that generate optimal acceleration profiles for the vehicle by minimizing a cost function which combines both energy consumption and deviation from the desired velocity. A critical component of the cost function is the penalty factor, which governs the tradeoff between energy use and travel time, which are two conflicting objectives in freight logistics. Selecting an appropriate penalty factor is essential, as freight deliveries are time sensitive, but minimizing energy consumption remains a priority. Moreover, variations in payload significantly affect vehicle dynamics and energy usage, making it critical to adapt the penalty factor to different payload conditions and maintain consistent performance. This study presents a method for optimally selecting the penalty factor for various payload scenarios. A validated powertrain simulator which is calibrated using data from an actual electric truck, was used to conduct 100 simulations across a spectrum of payloads, from no load to fully loaded. The resulting discrete search space of energy and time was used to perform a brute-force (exhaustive) search to determine the optimal penalty factor for each scenario. The proposed algorithm incorporates adjustable weightings of the penalty factor for energy and time preferences. This allows flexibility for the driver or fleet operator to prioritize either objective. The results demonstrate that using a fixed penalty factor is suboptimal for heavy-duty electric trucks. In contrast, the optimal selection of the penalty factor significantly improves consistency across different payloads. A reduction of the variation in travel time to within approximately 4% across all loading conditions was observed. This work shows the importance of adaptive penalty tuning in PCC for real-world deployment in freight applications, ensuring both energy efficiency and timely deliveries under varying payload demands.

Safder, Ahmad Hussain, Villani, Manfredi, Wang, Eric, Khuntia, Satvik, Nelson, James, Meijer, Maarten, Ahmed, Qadeer

Standardization of On-Vehicle Measurement of BEV Thermal System Energy Consumption and Range Impacts

2026-01-0132

4/7/2026

This paper presents research and digital twin modeling results to support work on a methodology to properly account for the energy consumed by the thermal system of a BEV, for use within both existing Petroleum-Equivalent Fuel Economy (PEFE) calculations, and the proposed addition of hot and cold weather range values to the consumer-facing Monroney label [1]. Properly accounting for thermal system impacts would incentivize minimizing energy consumption of these systems, since 1) BEV PEFE is a direct input to an OEMs overall CAFE performance, and 2) the values on the Monroney label has some impact on consumer vehicle choice. The impetus for this work was Final Rules issued by the EPA and NHTSA in early 2024 eliminating A/C Efficiency Credits for BEVs from the 2027 MY, thus eliminating regulatory incentives to minimize energy consumption of these systems. Higher energy consumption will produce a number of negative secondary effects, including higher real-world greenhouse gas emissions, reduced vehicle range, greater strain on the nation’s electrical grid, and higher vehicle mass leading to reduced vehicle safety - should OEMs opt to merely install larger batteries to address cold and hot weather range impacts instead of implementing lower energy-consuming technology. The results from the analysis, which ideally would be confirmed with follow-up vehicle tests, show that for a baseline, PTC-heat based system, thermal system energy consumption represents 19.2% of the total energy consumed by a BEV on an annual basis, using an ambient-VMT weighted approach. It seems to be the technical equivalent of “straining at a gnat while swallowing a camel” to focus so much time and energy on identifying incremental improvements in energy consumption from the propulsion-portion of a BEV, while by comparison ignoring the system that according to this analysis can account for nearly 20% of the total on an annual basis.

Taylor, Dwayne

Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on Particulate Emissions under Medium Engine Load and Injector Coking Conditions in a GDI Engine

2026-01-0301

4/7/2026

Renewable gasoline is blended with fossil gasoline as part of the effort to achieve zero net carbon emissions. This study examined how five gasoline fuels with different hydrocarbon compositions affect engine-out gaseous and particle number (PN) emissions. Gasolines F3 and F4 reduce GHG emissions by 54% and 35%, compared with fossil gasoline. The other three gasolines reduce GHG emissions by 4-9%. Tests were conducted on a single-cylinder GDI engine at 10-14 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The injector-tip coking behavior of the test fuels and the resulting PN emissions were also investigated at 10 bar IMEP. Spray plume targets and start-of-injection (SOI) timing were adjusted to examine how the test fuels affected PN emissions. An endoscope was used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. The experimental results show that PN varies with gasoline composition and engine operating conditions. Aromatics and olefins contribute more to injector coking. Coked injector conditions showed 95% higher PN than clean injector conditions. Reducing the injector umbrella angle reduces coking. At 10-14 bar IMEP, PN emissions increased with higher aromatics content in the gasoline. Additionally, olefins and naphthene contributed to PN at higher IMEPs. 10-200 nm size particles accounted for 70-95% of total particles. Gasoline with higher C9+ aromatics and T50 to FBP values showed higher 10-200 nm particles. Replacing 10% of paraffins with olefins and naphthene in gasoline changed >10 nm particles by 25%. Increasing 4% paraffins and decreasing 4.5% aromatics in gasoline reduced PN emissions by 125%. Increasing the aromatics content of gasoline by 8% increased fuel consumption by 2% and hydrocarbon emissions by 30%. Retarding the SOI timing by 20 CAD reduced PN emissions by 60%.

Muniappan, Krishnamoorthi, Dahlander, Petter, Helmantel, Ayolt, Alemahdi, Nika, Lehto, Kalle

A Dynamic Driver Comfort Index for Stabilizing Mixed Traffic Behavior

2026-01-0099

4/7/2026

Despite remarkable advances in vehicle technology - enhancing comfort, safety, and automation – productivity of transportation over the road continues to decline. Stop-and-go driving remains one of the most persistent inefficiencies in modern mobility systems, leading to greater travel delays, energy waste, emissions, and accident risk. As vehicle volumes rise, these effects compound into systemic challenges, including driver frustration, unstable flow dynamics, and elevated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To address these issues, an extensive data-driven evaluation was performed characterizing the underlying causes of traffic instability and uncovering hidden behavioral parameters influencing traffic flow. This research led to the identification of a previously unrecognized metric - the Driver Comfort Index (DCI) - which quantifies an inter-vehicle spacing behavior that reflects intrinsic human driving behavior. Building on this discovery, mixed traffic is explored to identify its phenomena, where human-driven and machine-controlled vehicles coexist and share the road. It appears that adaptive cruise control (ACC) and connected autonomous vehicles (CAV) are controlled by a non-intrinsic parameter so that traffic mix suffers from a mismatch of vehicle dynamics. This mismatch is explored, and it is proposed to harmonize traffic dynamics by adopting the natural DCI parameter as the single control mechanism. Analytical studies demonstrate that DCI-based traffic flow orchestration, applied integrally to human- and machine-controlled vehicles, enhances traffic flow stability, mitigates stop-and-go oscillations, and significantly improves network efficiency, safety, and environmental performance.

Schlueter, Georg J.

Life Cycle Assessment for Sustainable EV Battery Recycling: A Technical Framework for EBRR

2026-28-0092

2/12/2026

Electric vehicle (EV) battery life cycle assessment (LCA) is emerging as a strategic necessity amid booming demand and tightening environmental regulations. This report consolidates key findings and recommendations for EBRR (Electric Battery Reuse & Recycling) to implement a comprehensive LCA program covering EV lithium-ion batteries from cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-cradle perspectives. The study confirms that global Li-ion battery demand is skyrocketing – projected to increase 14-fold by 2030[1] – amplifying the urgency for sustainable battery management (see Figure 1). It outlines the full life cycle stages of EV batteries (raw material extraction, manufacturing, use, and end-of-life) and compares linear vs. circular approaches. Using the ISO 14040/44 framework[18, 19] and industry-standard LCA tools, the report evaluates environmental impacts and identifies hotspots. Key findings show that mining and manufacturing dominate the battery’s carbon footprint, but end-of-life strategies can reduce lifecycle emissions by 30–40% through hydrometallurgical recycling, renewable energy integration, and second-life battery reuse. The implementation plan details a phased approach: team setup and training, inventory data collection (3–6 months), impact assessment, interpretation, and integration into EBRR’s corporate strategy. Technical challenges – data uncertainty, regional energy variability, scaling new recycling tech, and regulatory compliance – are addressed with mitigation tactics like sensitivity analysis and scenario modeling. Finally, the roadmap recommends actionable steps: transitioning from pyrometallurgy to cleaner hydrometallurgy (cutting recycling greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions nearly in half [3]), powering battery manufacturing with renewables (potentially halving production emissions[4]), designing for disassembly and second-life reuse (extending battery life and reducing need for new materials[5, 6]), and proactive policy engagement. Implementing this LCA-driven strategy will position EBRR as a frontrunner in responsible battery stewardship, achieving verified reductions in environmental impact (~30–40% GHG reduction) while meeting or exceeding emerging global regulations such as the EU Battery Regulation 2023/1542[53]and various Extended Producer Responsibility laws. This not only mitigates environmental and social risks but also enhances long-term profitability and resilience for EBRR in the fast-evolving EV industry.

Asokan, Gayathri, Raju cEng, Rajkumar, Dhananjaya, Chandan, Sattigeri cEng, Sudhir V

Development of Plug-In Hybrid Motorbike and Analysis towards Sustainable Urban Mobility

2026-28-0111

2/12/2026

The transportation system is one major catalyst to urban ecological imbalance. In developing countries, two-wheelers are considered a major mode of urban personal transportation because of their compactness, easy maneuver in heavy traffic and good fuel efficiency. In India, middle and lower middle-class people prefer to choose two wheelers, and these vehicles are dominantly fuelled by gasoline. Although, the energy consumption by a two-wheeler is comparatively less than that of a four-wheeler, they use about 60% of the nation’s petroleum for on-road vehicles and the impact on urban air quality and climatic change is significantly high. This high proportion of gasoline utilization and emission contribution by two wheelers in cities demand greater attention to improve urban air quality and near-term energy sustainability. Electrification of two-wheelers through the application of a plug-in hybrid idea is a promising solution. A plug-in hybrid motorbike was developed by putting forth a novel drive technique, which demonstrated the advantages of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and using less fuel. The experimental investigation reveals noticeable petroleum fuel savings and greenhouse emission reduction. Through the installation of a hub motor in the rear wheel, the dynamic behaviour of the prototype was examined and observed marginal changes in ride parameters. A cost-benefit analysis was also performed to estimate the payback period for the additional cost incurred.

Kannan, Prashanth, Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao

Electric Vehicle Charging through Resonant Coupling Wireless Power Transfer

2026-28-0123

2/12/2026

The growing awareness about sustainability and environmental concerns are accelerating the adoption of electric vehicles. They play a promising role due to their potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve air quality and lessen reliance on fossil fuels. However, one of the primary concerns for potential buyers is the charging process and infrastructure. Traditional wired charging systems for electric vehicles face limitations such as user inconvenience, wear and tear of connectors and challenges in automation. A wireless electric vehicle charging offers more user-friendly, automated and contactless method by eliminating the need for physical connectors. However, wireless inductive charging suffers from relatively low efficiency due to higher energy losses. Whereas resonant coupling significantly improves efficiency by using electromagnetic resonance to transfer power more effectively over short distances. This paper mainly focuses on design and implementation of a resonant coupling system using series capacitance for achieving resonance, instead of a traditional frequency oscillator. This approach simplifies the circuitry and has shown promising results in maintaining high efficiency. Investigations have been carried out by aligning the transmitter and receiver coils at different distances and load conditions. In the proposal model, resonant wireless power transfer precisely tunes the transmitter and receiver coils to resonate at a shared frequency of 60 kHz, minimising inductive losses and achieving efficiencies of up to 89.74%. The findings showed the potential for resonant wireless power transfer systems to support the next generation of electric vehicle infrastructure. This paper also presents a review on various wireless electric vehicle charging approaches.

Shaik, Amjad, Gudipati, Ravi Sai Hemanth, B, Vikranth Reddy, Anudeep, D B S S, Varshith, Dasari

Benchmark of Conventional and By-Wire Brake System Layouts for Electric Vehicle Applications by Numerical Simulations

2026-01-5008

2/3/2026

The recently increasing global concern about sustainability and greenhouse gas emission reduction has boosted the diffusion of electric vehicles. Research on this topic mainly focuses on either re-designing or adapting most conventional vehicle subsystems, especially the propulsion motor and the braking components. In this context, the present work aims to model, analyze, and compare three-braking system layouts design alternatives focusing on their contribution to vehicle performance and efficiency: a commercial vacuum-boosted hydraulic braking system, a commercial integrated electrohydraulic braking system, and a concept distributed electrohydraulic brake system. Braking systems performance are evaluated by simulating key maneuvers adopting a full model of a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which includes all relevant components like tires, and powertrain dynamics, which is validated against real-world data. Implementation and integration of the first two systems are discussed, followed by the design and detailed modeling of the third, which includes a control strategy for pressure modulation, including antilock braking system (ABS) and electronic stability control (ESC) functionalities. Once the simulation environment is set, simulations are performed and KPIs are defined to compare the three braking systems from both the performance and the energy consumption point of view. The results show that the distributed electrohydraulic system reduces the time to lock by 30.8%, the stopping distance by 5.89%, and the energy consumption by more than 50% in specific test cases compared to the analyzed vacuum-boosted system due to its distributed hardware and control architecture and power-on-demand operation.

Savi, Lorenzo, Garosio, Damiano, Floros, Dimosthenis, Vignati, Michele, Travagliati, Alessandro, Braghin, Francesco

Assessment of Cybersecurity Risks in State-Operated Connected Electric Passenger Buses in India

2026-26-0610

1/16/2026

State Transport Units (STUs) are increasingly using electric buses (EVs) as a result of India's quick shift to sustainable mobility. Although there are many operational and environmental benefits to this development, like lower fuel prices, fewer greenhouse gas emissions, and quieter urban transportation, there are also serious cybersecurity dangers. The attack surface for potential cyber threats is expanded by the integration of connected technologies, such as cloud-based fleet management, real-time monitoring, and vehicle telematics. Although these systems make fleet operations smarter and more efficient, they are intrinsically susceptible to remote manipulation, data breaches, and unwanted access. This study looks on cybersecurity flaws unique to connected passenger electric vehicles (EVs) that run on India's public transit system. Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), telematics control units (TCUs), over-the-air (OTA) update systems, and in-car networks (such as the Controller Area Network or CAN bus) are important areas of interest. Potential interruptions to vehicle functionality and passenger safety are examined in relation to common attack techniques such spoofing, data injection, denial-of-service (DoS), and remote code execution. In comparison to international standards like ISO/SAE 21434 and UNECE rules R155/R156, the report also assesses regulatory and compliance deficiencies in India. It lists the operational difficulties that Indian STUs encounter, including as antiquated infrastructure, a deficiency in cybersecurity knowledge, and a lack of established protocols. The paper suggests a plan for installing a Cybersecurity Management System (CSMS) in STU-operated EV fleets in order to reduce these threats. Strong incident response mechanisms, focused training initiatives, and the creation of cybersecurity standards tailored to India are among the recommendations. Implementing these measures will enhance the resilience of electric vehicle infrastructure against emerging cyber risks. Furthermore, collaboration between government agencies, industry stakeholders, and academic institutions is emphasized to ensure a comprehensive cybersecurity framework.

Mokhare, Devendra Ashok

Circularity and LCA: Enhancing Sustainability in the Indian Electric Vehicle Sector

2026-26-0239

1/16/2026

The global shift to electric vehicles (EVs) is vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but their sustainability hinges on effective battery lifecycle management. This review examines the interplay between Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and circular economy (CE) principles in EVs, with a focus on both international trends and India-specific challenges. We analyze CE strategies such as extending battery lifespan, second-life applications, and recycling integrated with LCA to evaluate environmental impacts from raw material extraction to disposal. Key areas include battery chemistry, LCA methodologies, policy frameworks, and industrial practices, informed by a synthesis of over 50 peer-reviewed articles, technical papers, and sustainability reports. Challenges include inconsistent LCA baselines, low material recovery in informal recycling, and regulatory gaps, particularly in India. Despite these, innovations like solid-state batteries and advanced recycling techniques offer promise, potentially reducing emissions by 30–40 percent through closed-loop systems. Research gaps remain in areas like the durability of recycled materials, economic viability of CE strategies, and socio-ethical considerations. This review provides a holistic overview, actionable insights, and a roadmap for integrating CE into EV design and policy, especially tailored to India’s evolving automotive ecosystem. By addressing these issues, it aims to guide policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers toward a more sustainable, circular future for transportation.

Haregaonkar, Rushikesh Sambhaji, Kumar, Om, Sankar M, Gopi, Kumar, Rajiv

Total Cost of Ownership Analysis of Fuel Cell and Hydrogen-Powered Commercial Vehicles for Cost Competitiveness with ICE and BEV

2026-26-0254

1/16/2026

Worldwide, the automotive industry is pivoting towards electrification and zero-emission vehicles (ZEV) to address greenhouse gas emissions and to meet net-zero emission goals. Although pure electric vehicles with rechargeable high-voltage batteries seem to be the most popular choice to achieve climate goals, hydrogen-powered vehicles are also seen by many as a viable technology to clean up the transportation sector. Hydrogen fuel cells and fuel cell-powered vehicles have been in development for a long time, and hydrogen internal combustion engines (ICE) have seen rapid development in the past few years. While the technological feasibility of hydrogen fuel cells and H2 ICE is being proven, the mass adoption of these technologies depends, along with other factors such as hydrogen infrastructure, upon financial feasibility as well. This paper presents a systematic analysis of the total cost of ownership (TCO) of hydrogen-powered vehicles, especially fuel cell electric vehicles. Different commercial vehicle categories are analysed to assess the vehicle classes and use cases where hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles can be a cost-effective alternative to conventional ICE and battery electric vehicles (BEV). The analysis also determines the factors that contribute most to TCO, which will help identify the areas that require improvement/development or policy support to make fuel cells and hydrogen power more widespread. The paper also analyses the sensitivity of TCO to different cost factors, such as hydrogen cost, which helps in establishing cost targets to make hydrogen-powered vehicles a cost-effective solution in the transition to zero-emission transportation. Finally, different market trends are analysed to predict the timelines in which fuel cell-powered vehicles can become cost-competitive with ICE and BEV.

Jacob, Joe, Chougule, Abhijeet

Testing Methodology to Calculate the Fuel Economy in Km/Kg of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) based on Current (Ampere) Method and Flow Method

2026-26-0248

1/16/2026

The globe is looking headlong to set up new benchmarks for the reduction of GHG (Green House Gases) considering short-term and long-term strategies. Efforts in the Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) domain have been accelerating to find an alternative way to reduce harmful emissions. Hydrogen is considered as a promising fuel to leapfrog this transition. Hydrogen fuel can be categorized into vast mobility areas viz. ICE and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). Hydrogen fuel has attracted global attention from engine researchers due to the crude oil crisis and its rise in prices in recent years. This will serve the nation's goal towards carbon neutrality. Hydrogen has a few advantages such as less fueling time, higher heating value and more efficiency making it an eye-touching fuel for the automotive industry. In the contemporary FCEV segment, many fuel cell technologies have evolved, wherein the development of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology has taken a new height for heavy-duty commercial vehicle applications due to its significant interest in the non-existent tailpipe CO2 emissions. Since electric vehicles are also being combined with hydrogen fuel and the opportunity persists to convert it into a hybrid system or FCEV. There is always a keen curiosity of the end user to know the mileage of a vehicle as a distinguishing measure of fuel economy. Thus, it is pertinent to determine the hydrogen fuel economy of the FCEV vehicle. This paper provides an insight into fuel cell fundamentals, the working principle of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, vehicle operation modes and testing methodology to determine the fuel economy of FCEV based on the electric current method and pressure method. The vehicle (e-Bus) has been validated on a chassis dynamometer based on the prescribed DBDC Cycle in the AIS 049 standard to calculate the hydrogen fuel economy of the FCEV Bus. The multiple stacks of PEM fuel cells connected in series has been used along with the electric powertrain vehicle and estimation of its fuel economy are the focus of this paper.

Joshi, Ashish Rajendra, Kandalgaonkar, Siddhesh, Sontakke, Rushikesh

Performance Analysis of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle for Intercity and Intra-city Applications

2026-26-0266

1/16/2026

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are emerging as a sustainable solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector, in line with the Paris Agreement and global net-zero emission goals. This paper presents a comprehensive performance analysis of the FCEV powertrain under intercity and intra-city driving conditions. The study focuses on key parameters such as fuel cell system efficiency, energy consumption, hydrogen usage, and overall drivetrain response. Using simulation models validated with real-world driving data, the performance of the powertrain is evaluated across varying speed profiles, vehicle loads, and driving cycles. The analysis also considers the impact of auxiliary load including HVAC systems and consumption of other electric components on the powertrain efficiency and energy balance. Results highlight that the FCEV powertrain performs efficiently during intercity driving due to stable speed conditions and low stop-start frequency, while intra-city driving presents challenges related to dynamic load demands and energy recovery optimization. Additionally, the study discusses the sustainability benefits of FCEVs, refueling infrastructure needs, and policy frameworks required to support widespread deployment. Overall, the findings demonstrate the capability of hydrogen-powered electric drivetrains to meet the demands of both urban and long-range transport while supporting long-term de-carbonization strategies.

Patil, Nikhil N., Bhardwaj, Rohit, Saurabh, Saurabh, Ahmed, Yasir, Gawhade, Ravikant, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya, Gadve, Dhananjay

Navigating Towards a Sustainable Future: India's Automotive Sector and the Path to Net Zero Emissions

2026-26-0118

1/16/2026

This study examines the evolving landscape of India's automotive sector in the context of the global push for net-zero emissions. As the world's third-largest automotive market, India is poised to play a momentous role in this transition. The country's automotive sector is anticipated to experience rapid growth, with its market size projected to inflate from USD 437 billion in 2022 to USD 1.8 trillion by 2030. The study also highlights the importance of diverse mobility solutions, such as electric vehicles, green hydrogen, and alternative fuels like bio-CNG and ethanol, in addressing transportation challenges and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Indian government's comprehensive approach to promoting green mobility, while balancing the needs of a large and diverse population of 1.4 billion people, is a key focus of this research. Through a detailed analysis of economic, social, energy, regulatory, and technological factors, this study provides insights into the current dynamics affecting India's automotive sector and its commitment to lowering emission intensity by 45% by 2030. The study assesses the government's policies and initiatives, including incentives for manufacturers, tax breaks for consumers, and investments in charging infrastructure, and evaluates their effectiveness in promoting the growth of the electric vehicle market. The findings of this study suggest that India has the potential to serve as a model for other countries in the Global South that are striving for sustainable transportation solutions and energy security. By sharing its experiences and initiatives, India can help to accelerate the transition to a low-carbon economy and promote sustainable development globally. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of the opportunities and challenges facing India's automotive sector as it transitions towards a more sustainable and low-carbon future. The findings and recommendations of this research can inform policy and decision-makers, both in India and globally, and contribute to the development of more effective strategies for promoting sustainable transportation solutions and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Seshan, Vivek, Bandyopadhyay, Debjyoti, Sutar, Prasanna S, Sonawane, Shailesh Balkrishna, Rairikar, Sandeep D, Thipse, Sukrut S, De Castro Gomez, Daniel J.

Optimizing Powertrain Performance a Customer Usage-Centric Approach

2026-26-0067

1/16/2026

The US trucking industry heavily relies on the diesel powertrain, and the transition towards zero-emission vehicles, such as battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), is happening at a slow pace. This makes it difficult for truck manufacturers to meet the Phase 3 Greenhouse Gas standards, which mandate substantial emissions reductions across commercial vehicle classes beginning of 2027. This challenging situation compels manufacturers to further optimize the powertrain to meet stringent emissions requirements, which might not account for customer application specifics may not translate to a better total cost of ownership (TCO) for the customer. This study uses a simulation-based approach to connect customer applications and regulatory categories across various sectors. The goal is to develop a methodology that helps identify the overlap between optimizing for customer applications vs optimizing to meet regulations. To use a data-driven approach, a real-world customer usage pattern analysis was conducted to identify key performance metrics required to optimize driveline components. Additionally, the impact of certification requirements on vehicle performance is examined to ensure compliance while maximizing the benefits of the proposed optimization strategies. The findings of this research will provide valuable insights for manufacturers, enabling the development of trucks that are not only efficient and high-performing but also compliant with environmental standards, ultimately leading to a more sustainable future in the trucking industry.

Mohan, Vignesh, Darzi, Mahdi

Drive Cycle Based Energy Audit & Range Estimation for 4X2 Electric Truck

2026-26-0163

1/16/2026

Transportation sector in India accounts for 12% of total energy consumption. Demand of energy consumption is being met by the imported crude oil, which makes transportation sector more vulnerable to fluctuating international crude oil prices. India is mindful of its commitment in 2016 Paris climate agreement to reduce GHG emissions intensity of its GDP by 40% by 2030 as compared to 2005 levels. To fast track the decarbonization of transportation sector, commercial vehicle manufacturers have been exploring other viable options such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as a part of their fleet. As on today, BEV has its own challenges such as range anxiety & high total cost of ownership. Range anxiety can be certainly addressed by optimum sizing of electric powertrain, reduction in specific energy consumption (SEC) & use of effective regeneration strategies. Higher SEC can be more effectively addressed by doing vehicle energy audit thereby estimating the energy losses occurring at each powertrain component of an electric vehicle. The work illustrated in this paper involves drive cycle-based energy audit & range estimation for 4X2 rigid electric truck using simulation approach. It involves strenuous exercise of simulation specific input data generation by doing rigorous component level tests for battery, motor, tires & auxiliaries. Duty cycle data was acquired for 3000 km & condensed cycle of 32 minutes was formed which represents real world usage pattern. Data recorded in component and vehicle tests was used to build robust simulation model in GT-DRIVE. Simulated SEC was validated within 4% with on road trails. 73.5% of battery discharge energy was used to overcome rolling resistance loss, aerodynamic drag loss, electromechanical conversion loss, auxiliary losses, braking losses & differential losses. Effective power at wheels observed to be 26.5% of total battery discharge energy. Sensitivity analysis for RAR, RRC, coasting & braking regeneration limits was carried out and effect of each parameter on final SEC was studied and optimum set of parameter combination was suggested to the OEM. Outcome of this project has also laid down the sophisticated methodology to carry out energy audit of any electric vehicle, which in turn will help to bring simulation predictions much closer to the real-world scenarios.

Gijare, Sumant, Karthick, K., Juttu, Simhachalam, Thipse, Sukrut S., A, Jothikumar, J, Frederick Royston, SR, Subasree, G, Harini, M, Senthil Kumar

3D CFD Combustion Evaluation of Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) as a Potential Alternate Fuel for the Future CI Engines

2026-26-0113

1/16/2026

Transportation industry is facing a growing challenge to reduce its carbon footprint and utilize the carbon neutral, more environmentally sustainable fuels to comply with the goal of carbon neutrality. Implementation of carbon free fuels such as Hydrogen, Ammonia and low carbon fuels such as Methanol, Ethanol can significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, but these fuels are suitable for SI engine architecture due to their high-octane ratings. Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) is one of the few fuel solutions available today with a high Cetane rating (70-80), that can be used as a drop-in fuel in the existing CI engines, with minimal modifications. The main constituent of HVO is pure alkane and it can be produced from feedstocks such as vegetable oils, animal fats, various wastes and by-products. A closed cycle 3-D CFD combustion simulation using a detailed chemistry-based solver has been conducted with the HVO, on a three cylinder, naturally aspirated water-cooled CI engine at its full load, rated rpm. Chemical kinetics file with 92 species and 1240 reactions has been used as a surrogate for the HVO to conduct the combustion simulation. The peak firing pressure has been observed to be lower by 3% and SoC is advanced by 2o CA for HVO as compared to the baseline diesel. HVO combustion manifests the same thermal efficiency with respect to its diesel counterpart. Soot emission has been 36% lower for HVO due to the absence of unsaturated hydrocarbons and the NOx emission is lowered by 32% for HVO, as a consequence of a lowered in-cylinder temperature. Simultaneously, a 13% reduction in CO, 77% reduction in UHC and 74% reduction in VOC have been observed for HVO as compared to diesel. A meticulous monitoring of unregulated emissions proves that the HVO exhaust is devoid of their presence. The 3D CFD combustion exploration unveils that the HVO indeed holds the potential to be a promising drop-in alternate fuel for the next generation CI engines.

Tripathi, Ayush, Mukherjee, Nalini, Nene, Devendra

Comparative Journey Towards Sustainable Energy: CNG and Bio-Diesel Fuels in India

2026-26-0116

1/16/2026

India being highly populated and developing country, the demand for various alternative fuel is increasing drastically. It is driven by the need to reduce dependency on traditional fossil fuels & reduce impact on environmental issues like Greenhouse gas, emissions & pollution. The potential options, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) & Biodiesel, are becoming increasingly popular and important. Biodiesel, a renewable fuel which is produced from waste materials & crops which grown repeatedly & easily available while CNG is more sustainable than diesel as natural gas is a cleaner-burning fossil fuel in comparison to coal or oil. This paper will focus on comparison between basic properties of Diesel, CNG & Biodiesel. In this study will also focus on survey of various Government initiatives, policies & infrastructural development which are evolving to encourage the usage of CNG & Biodiesel. These fuels are emerging as promising alternative contenders to traditional diesel. It has the potential to reduce carbon footprints, making them environment friendly & more sustainable energy options. This survey also summaries the industry motivation from govt initiatives to promote the aim of cleaner transportation & its transition towards future sustainable energy. This study presents a comparative journey of CNG & Biodiesel in India. Key parameters like fuel properties, feedstocks and its availability, storage and handling, product integration, emissions and endurance performance assessments, customer acceptability etc. are considered for understanding these fuels in a better way. Also, it will highlight the key bottlenecks, technical challenges & the obstacles hindering the widespread adoption of Biodiesel as compared to CNG. The paper also elaborates the challenges on sustainability of biodiesel and CNG fuels and the futuristic opportunities in carbon neutral fuels like H2. The paper concludes with the comparative study of CNG & Biodiesel on various aspects from ideation to execution.

Bondada, Nandita, Baruah, Labanya, Mokhadkar, Rahul

Life Cycle Assessment of Automotive Cables and GHG Emission Reduction Scenario in Indian Context

2026-26-0240

1/16/2026

Globally, the share of emissions from transport is 15%, out of which more than 2/3rd emissions are contributed by road transport as per 2014 report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The need of mitigation measures in transport sector has been realised however the study of life cycle emission needs to be done with the tailpipe emissions so that some holistic solution can be worked upon. Strikingly, in the life cycle studies of a passenger car, it was found that the share of raw materials related to copper is around 50% of the total amount of raw material used and the share of copper in the curb weight of vehicle is just 1%. Also, for an Internal Combustion Engine vehicle (ICE), mostly the copper is used in the wiring harness. In this paper, the life cycle assessment of wiring harness is done to understand the environmental impacts throughout the life cycle stages. The comparative study of aluminium alloy and copper has also been done to know the change in environmental impacts during their production and it is found that the aluminium alloy wiring harness has higher GHG emissions than the copper wiring harness in the manufacturing stage. The modelling of the different phases of wire manufacturing is done with the latest version Craft 10.2 of SimaPro software in the Indian context. The vital information generated through this research will provide valuable insights to interested stakeholders (manufacturers, researchers and policy makers) to identify the hotspots of environmental impacts due to automotive cables in its entire life cycle. The study evaluates the environmental impact of wiring harness used in automobiles in India based on secondary data available in the literature, surveys with wiring harness manufacturers and Ecoinvent database. The emission reduction scenario with the infusion of recycled copper and increasing renewable energy share in national electricity grid mix of India has been analysed for 2032, where the GHG emissions were found to be reduced by 17%.

Kumar, Naman, Bawase, Moqtik, Thipse, Sukrut

A Review on ‘Sensor Technologies’, its Application, Regulatory Standards & Emerging Trend Towards Safe Hydrogen Economy

2026-26-0111

1/16/2026

In a developing country like India, the growing energy demand across all sectors underscores the urgent need for clean, sustainable, and efficient energy alternatives. Hydrogen stands out as a promising fuel, offering virtually zero emissions and helping to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which directly contributes to mitigating global warming, ensuring a cleaner environment, and lowering dependency on fossil fuels. In line with Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7), which seeks to guarantee that everyone has access to modern, cheap, and sustainable energy, hydrogen is well-positioned to be a major player in India's energy transformation. However, hydrogen has unique properties such as its wide flammability range, high reactivity, and high energy content present significant challenges in terms of safety, particularly in its storage, transportation, and usage. Improper handling or inadequate safety measures can lead to hazardous incidents, making robust testing, certification, and infrastructure development is vital for its safe deployment. Technology for hydrogen detection is essential for maintaining safety and adhering to legal standards. However, detecting hydrogen leaks poses significant challenges due to its unique physical properties: colourless, odourless, and tasteless, no smoke or visible trail, low density and high buoyancy etc. This paper reviews the current literature on hydrogen safety, with a focus on detection technologies, leakage prevention, and key considerations essential for the safe application of hydrogen in accordance with regulatory requirements. The paper discusses various sensor technologies and their underlying detection principles, including Catalytic, Resistance, Thermal conduction, Electrochemical, Work Function, Mechanical, Optical, Acoustic etc. Each sensor type is assessed for sensitivity, response time, selectivity, detection range, and suitability for different applications. This review aims to support researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers in identifying effective detection solutions and enhancing hydrogen safety frameworks for widespread adoption.

Pawar, Yuvraj, Dekate, Ajay Dinkar, Thipse, S, Belavadi Venkataramaiah, Shamsundara

Development of Flex Fuel Engine for Indian Market

2026-26-0117

1/16/2026

This paper presents the methodology and outcomes of modifying a 1.2L naturally aspirated (NA) engine to enable flex-fuel compatibility, targeting optimal performance with ethanol blends ranging from E20 to E100. Ethanol is being increasingly promoted due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to provide an additional source of income for farmers. As per the road map for Ethanol blending released by Govt. of India, there has been continuous increase in blending of ethanol in gasoline. An initial target of 20% ethanol blending in gasoline by April 2025 has already been achieved. This work is in alignment with the broader push for development of flex-fuel vehicles, which necessitates engine adaptations capable of operating on varying ethanol blends. The primary objective was to upgrade the engine, which can give optimum performance with both lower range of ethanol blends starting from E20 as per IS 17021:2018 standard till higher blends of up to E100 as per IS 17821:2022. The engine upgrade included several key modifications such as material upgradation of components directly coming in contact with fuel for ethanol resistance, optimization of the compression ratio, introduction of heated fuel rail system for cold start and redesign of intake camshaft to ensure compatibility and performance with ethanol-blended fuels. Additionally, the engine management system (EMS) was recalibrated with dedicated maps tailored to various ethanol blend levels, enabling efficient and reliable operation across a wide range of fuel compositions

Tyagarajan, Sethuramalingam, Pise, Chetan, Kavekar, Pratap, Agarwal, Nishant Kumar

Sustainable Tyre-A Journey to Meet Future Requirements of Tyre Industry

2026-26-0291

1/16/2026

Sustainability and environmentally friendly business practices are becoming essential. Tyre industries are embracing the green initiatives to reduce its impact on the environment by exploring the eco-friendly strategies. Starting from the ethical raw material sourcing to a creative recycling technique, strategies are widely distributing in every step of tyre manufacturing to disposition. Each stage of a tyre’s life cycle viz. raw material procurement, manufacturing, transportation both upstream and downstream as well as during the end-of-life phases have an emission-saving potential. It is important to reduce emissions at every stage of tyre’s lifecycle. We have recently developed a Sustainable Tyre with 11% less GHG emission through sustainable raw material approach. Bio sourced or bio attributed raw materials like Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR), Polybutadiene Rubber (PBR), Rubber process oil (RPO) and Silica along with natural rubber (NR) had been used. Beside the raw materials from bio source, raw materials obtained from end-of-life tire and waste plastic bottles are also used, to manufacture the sustainable tyre. Being a safety item, developed tyres had gone through different testing process to evaluate the performance. Indoor evaluation viz. RRC, endurance, noise & vibration as well as field evaluation exhibits that the tyre made from sustainable materials are ready to roll on the road. In this paper, the journey starting from selection of raw materials to the placing the tyre in the market with indoor and outdoor validation have been summarised.

Bhandary, Tirthankar, Singha Roy, Sumit, Paliwal, Mukesh, Dasgupta, Saikat, Chattopadhyay, Dipankar, Das, Mahuya, Mukhopadhyay, Rabindra

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