Browse Topic: Transmission gears

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Development and Validation of a 1D Model for Evaluating Transmission Efficiency in Vehicles2026-26-0066To be published on 01/16/2026
This study develops a one-dimensional (1D) model to enhance transmission efficiency by evaluating power losses within a transmission system. The model simulates power flow and identifies losses at various stages such as gear mesh, bearing, churning, and windage losses. Using ISO/TR 14179, which provides a method for calculating the thermal transmittable power of gear drives with an analytical heat balance model, the 1D model ensures accurate thermal capacity evaluation under standard conditions. A key advantage of this 1D model is its efficiency in saving time compared to more complex 3D modelling, making it particularly useful during the conceptual stage of transmission system development. This allows engineers to quickly assess and optimize transmission efficiency before committing to more detailed and time-consuming 3D simulations. To validate the model, experimental tests were conducted at various motor speeds (RPM) and torque values, using high-precision sensors and dynamometers
Bandi, Nagendra Reddy, Kolla, Kalyan, P, Selvandran, PULUGUNDLA, KRISHNA CHAITANYA
Gear Shift Validation of Multi Speed EV transmission on Test Bench using Vehicle Control Unit2026-26-0532To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric vehicle (EV) transmissions play a vital role in powering EVs by channelling energy from the electric motor to the wheels. Recently, the focus has shifted to multi-speed transmissions in the EV sector due to their potential to improve efficiency and performance. By utilizing various gear ratios, these transmissions enable the motor to function within its most efficient range across different speeds. Most of these transmissions need electronic control unit (ECU) with software for optimal functionality and smoother gear shifting. These controllers incorporate controller area network (CAN) communication protocol to operate along with other ECUs. Thus validation of these transmissions is a challenge as they are clutch less, motor has to be controlled for speed matching and have electro mechanical systems replacing conventional systems for operation. This paper proposes a methodology to validate multispeed EV transmissions on a test bench. The validation setup consists of electric
Thambala, Prashanth, Patel, Hiral, Soor, Debasis
Model Based Design of Gear Shift Control for Twin Clutch AMT2026-26-0054To be published on 01/16/2026
Model Based Design (MBD) uses mathematical modelling to create, test and refine systems in simulated environment, primarily applied in control system development. This paper discusses an approach to control gear shifting using shift logic on vehicle level for twin clutch transmission using prototype controller. Twin clutch transmission is a concept with two clutches, one at input end of the transmission called primary clutch and the other at output end of the transmission called secondary clutch. This concept is proposed to counter the challenges with conventional transmission which include increased gear shift time and effort in lower gears, potential rollback of vehicle in uphill condition and chance of missed shifts. The advantages of this concept include reduced gear shift effort and improved synchronizer life with potential for reducing the size of the synchro pack. This paper proposes a methodology to develop shift logic, integrate hardware with software, flashing and calibration
Patel, Hiral, Thambala, Prashanth, Tongaonkar, Yogesh, Mosthaf, Joerg, Malpure, Khushal
Multibody Dynamic Analysis of Belt-Type CVT Systems in Two-Wheelers: A Study on Slip, Misalignment, and Transmission Efficiency2026-26-0079To be published on 01/16/2026
More efficient drivetrain technologies are in greater demand in the two-wheeler market as a result of the introduction of BS6.2 emission standards. In order to satisfy these performance and regulatory requirements, Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) systems—which are renowned for their stepless gear shifting and increased fuel efficiency—are being given more and more consideration. However, because CVT is nonlinear and multibody dynamic, accurately predicting its behavior is still a difficult task. With an emphasis on variables like belt slip, pulley misalignment, and transmission efficiency, this study provides a thorough multibody dynamic analysis of a belt-type CVT system used in two-wheelers. High-fidelity analysis of the belt-pulley interaction under various load and speed conditions is now possible thanks to the development of a novel modeling methodology using advanced multibody dynamics simulation software – Virtual Dynamics. The method makes early design validation
Mane, Prashant, Shah, Swapnil, Voncken PhD, Antonius, Pinjari, Abrar, Emran, Ashraf, Mane PhD, Shrikala
Comprehensive Durability Assessment of Planet Carrier in Heavy-Duty Tipper Gearboxes Using RLDA Torque Data2026-26-0443To be published on 01/16/2026
In heavy-duty tippers, where challenging conditions demand high torque, planet carriers play a crucial role by enabling efficient load distribution and torque transmission while supporting gear ratio and speed variation in space-constrained systems such as automatic transmissions, hybrid drivetrains, and electric vehicles. This paper focuses on the comprehensive durability performance assessment of planet carriers using duty cycles derived from RLDA measurements for a heavy-duty tipper gearbox development program. The existing Design Validation Plan (DVP) for the planet carrier considers first gear utilization of 10-15% at 40% vehicle overload, in line with historical data. However, recent trends in mining applications revealed vehicle overloads of 55-65%, leading to an increase in first gear utilization (25-35%). This shift presents challenges for OEMs to enhance design durability while incorporating additional safety margins to meet the demands of a competitive, cost-driven market
Bagane, Shivraj, Pendse, Ameya
Virtual Validation of ADAS Algorithms Using Driver-in-the-Loop Simulation2026-26-0050To be published on 01/16/2026
Driver-in-the-Loop (DIL) simulators have become crucial tools across automotive, aerospace, and maritime industries in enabling the evaluation of design concepts, testing of critical scenarios and provision of effective training in virtual environments. With the diverse applications of DIL simulators highlighting their significance in vehicle dynamics assessment, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and autonomous vehicle development, testing of complex control systems is crucial for vehicle safety. A comprehensive review of current research trends reveals key areas of focus such as realism of simulated experiences through improved vehicle dynamics models and advanced sensory feedback. The integration of virtual and augmented reality technologies help to create more immersive and informative simulations to improve the cost-effectiveness and accessibility of DIL simulation platforms. By examining the current landscape of DIL simulator use cases, this paper critically focuses on
Sharma, Chinmaya, Bhagat, Ajinkya, Kale, Jyoti Ganesh, Karle, Ujjwala
The selection of a two-speed gearbox for small commercial electric vehicles aims to optimize powertrain efficiency2026-26-0417To be published on 01/16/2026
In response to the significant environmental challenges posed by climate change driven by global warming, the automotive industry is accelerating the transition toward electrification. While electric vehicles offer considerable potential for mitigating CO₂ emissions, their elevated upfront costs pose a notable challenge to large-scale market penetration. Energy efficiency improvement of electric vehicles is emerging field of research to reduce total cost of ownership. Electric vehicle powertrain component selection in small commercial vehicles including three and four wheelers is a complex process which has to fulfil multiple requirements Range, performance, drivability, packaging, total cost of ownership of vehicle and comfort. In addition, powertrain configuration including battery, motor and transmission ratio selection plays a fundamental role in cost of electric vehicle. Hence, The task of selecting the right powertrain configuration, encompassing architecture, motor selection
Wani, Kalpesh, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Shendge, Raman, Warule, Prasad
FATIGUE FAILURE ANALYSIS FOR AUTOMOTIVE TRASNMISSION2026-26-0577To be published on 01/16/2026
A fatigue failure in the transmission input shaft was identified during a bench-level endurance test under 2nd gear loading conditions. The test transmission’s input shaft comprises fixed 1st, reverse, and 2nd gears, with the remaining gears mounted as floating. The shaft was subjected to cyclic torsional loads, and failure occurred after a defined number of cycles. Metallurgical analysis revealed a brittle fracture surface with crack initiation at the outer surface, propagating to core in a helical pattern, ultimately resulting in complete shaft fracture. To monitor and replicate the failure, the test setup was instrumented with a Reilhofer Delta Analyzer for early fault detection. TTL signals from accelerometers mounted on the transmission and a bench speed sensor were fed into the system, which generated FFT spectra and trend indices. A warning alarm triggered upon deviation in the trend index, indicating premature damage initiation. The test was subsequently halted for component
Navale, Pradeep, Kushwaha, Rakesh, Patel, Hiral
Clutch Thermal Adequacy Assessment in Repeat Restart Launch Condition on Gradient2026-26-0434To be published on 01/16/2026
The clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages power transmission from the engine to the wheels. It consists of the clutch disc assembly and cover assembly. The clutch disc, with friction material linings, is mounted on the transmission shaft and gets clamped between the flywheel and cover assembly to transmit power as required. However, wear and tear occur due to the differential speeds and slippage between the engine and transmission during operation. Clutch performance is assessed for its thermal behavior under repeat restart conditions on steep gradients, which is essential for the reliability and durability of commercial vehicle clutches. Repeat restart test is a key test to assess clutch performance on a 12% gradient. This test replicates real world scenarios, such as truck launches on hilly terrains under full load, where the clutch experiences significant slippage due to speed differences. This generates heat, and repeated engagements can cause the temperature to
Munisamy, Sathishkumar, Chollangi, Damodar, Mane, Sudhir
Multispeed EV Transmission – Gear Shift Simulation and Validation2026-26-0157To be published on 01/16/2026
The advancement of electric vehicle (EV) transmission systems is currently a prominent trend aimed at decreasing carbon emissions and providing eco-friendly transportation alternatives. Most of the EV transmissions are single speed, but research conducted on multi speed EV transmissions show higher efficiency, good performance, high speed and torque demand when compared with single speed counterparts. Most of the multi speed EV transmissions that are developed are of non-synchromesh type, which have direct effect on NVH, driving dynamics and durability of drivetrain components. Due to aforementioned factors, gearshift analysis becomes critical for development. Simulation model is developed at early development phase for initial feedback. Using the feedback, drivetrain can be optimized furthermore and test on physical parts can be conducted for final verification. This paper provides a simulation based approach for modelling non-synchromesh two speed EV transmission using Simulation X
Patel, Hiral, Thambala, Prashanth, Sutar, Suresh, Todtermuschke, Karsten
Drive Cycle Type Identification Using Data Driven Methodologies2026-26-0649To be published on 01/16/2026
Identifying the type of drive cycle is crucial for analyzing customer usage and optimizing vehicle performance and emission control. Methods that rely on geographical location are limited by varying driving conditions at the same location (e.g., heavy traffic during peak hours vs. free-flowing traffic at night). This paper proposes a methodology to identify the type of drive cycle (city, interurban, highway or others) using drive characteristics derived from vehicle data rather than geographical location. Real-world vehicle data from testing trucks is taken, whose drive profiles are already known. Initially, multiple characteristic features of the drive cycle are identified from literature surveys and domain experiences. These features, which can be extracted from basic signal data, include gear shifts, time spent in different driving modes (acceleration, cruise, standstill), velocity distributions, and an 'aggressiveness factor' representing overall driving style. Using ML based
REDDY, MALLANGI PRASHANTH, Gorain, Raju, Ganguly, Gourav
Experimental Evaluation of Metro Rail Bogie Frame through Bench Testing2026-26-0561To be published on 01/16/2026
Bogie frame is a main skeleton and structural member in railway system which is carrying all the loads such as Suspensions,Axles,wheels, car body, Motor, Gear box etc. The frame is subjected the exceptional and service stresses in Vertical, Longitudinal, Lateral and twist directions throughout the service life which should be withstand for a life span of 30 years without failure. The purpose of this project is to determine the Structural integrity of the Metro rail bogie frame in consideration with EN13749 standard .This paper is the outcome of bench testing of metro rail bogie frame with the application of multiaxial loading in static and dynamic campaign through which stress data is collected with strain gauge sensors and correlated with the FEA results at design stage. This helps to verify and evaluate the design and validate the quality of metro rail frame as per the requirement specified in EN13749 European standard in early design stages.
Tormal, Uday Bapurao
Performance Evaluation and Optimization of Engine Brake System using Chassis Dynamometer2026-26-0511To be published on 01/16/2026
Engine braking is a deceleration technique that leverages the internal friction and pumping losses within the engine. By closing the throttle and potentially selecting a lower gear, the engine creates a retarding force that slows the vehicle. This practice contributes to better fuel economy, decreased brake system load, and improved vehicle handling in specific driving scenarios, such as steep declines or slippery road surfaces. To alleviate stress on their primary braking systems and prevent overheating, heavy vehicles frequently incorporate engine-based braking. While older trucks relied on simple exhaust brakes with a butterfly valve to restrict exhaust flow, these had limited impact. Hence contemporary heavy vehicles almost exclusively use more advanced engine braking technologies. Traditionally, our heavy-duty vehicles use Exhaust brake system to elevate the braking performance on hilly terrains. Hence an improved sample of Engine brake was developed for enhanced braking
M, Vipin Prakash, Rajappan, Dinesh Kumar, R, Suresh, N, Gopi Kannan
A practical approach to reduce Gear Whine noise through gear Tooth contact analysis in an Agricultural Tractor2026-26-0345To be published on 01/16/2026
Customer demand for comfortable tractors has gone multi-fold in last decade. Transmission gear whine noise as one of the major sources of noise, is an important factor influencing the perceived quality of a vehicle and customer comfort. Investigations were carried out on 57HP tractor reported with high whine noise during deceleration from high speeds to low speeds. The source of whine noise is identified through order analysis as spiral bevel gear. Mitigating spiral bevel gear whine noise is always a challenge because of geometry, tooling and assembly requirements. Tooth contact analysis was performed on the spiral bevel gear for simulating the meshing of gear teeth to determine factors like contact patterns, transmission errors, and load distribution. From tooth contact analysis the root cause for high deceleration noise was identified as the motion transmission was not smooth in entry and exit for both forward and reverse. A practical approach of microgeometry optimization was
P, Bharath, p, Priyadarshan, Janarthanan, Devakumara Raja, Chavan, Amit
Analysis and optimization of noise and vibrational performance of an e-axle2026-26-0340To be published on 01/16/2026
As the electric mobility landscape evolves, there is a growing emphasis on addressing the Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) challenges associated with electric drivetrains. The absence of an IC engine in EVs shifts the focus to other noise contributors such as gear meshing, electric machine operation, and structural vibrations. Despite the known influence of micro-geometry on gear dynamics, current optimization practices often rely on empirical adjustments or standard guidelines without fully utilizing advanced computational methods to predict and optimize NVH performance. There exists a pressing need for a systematic approach to analyse and optimize gear micro-geometry to reduce noise and vibration in high-speed e-axle applications. This research aims to bridge that gap by investigating the relationship between micro-geometry optimization and NVH characteristics of an e-axle. Through detailed modelling and optimization techniques, this research aims to identify optimal gear micro
Ankit, Priyadarshi, KULKARNI, KRISHNA, Momin, Vaseem
Optimization of Propeller shaft design to eliminate Launch Undulation (Lateral shake) and Vibration level2026-26-0334To be published on 01/16/2026
During vehicle launches in 1st gear, a lateral shake (undulation) and a pronounced metallic hitting noise were observed in the underbody. The noise was identified as the propeller shaft's second universal joint (UJ) yoke striking the fuel tank mounting bracket. Sensitivity to these issues varied with acceleration inputs: light pedal input during a normal 1st gear launch on a flat road resulted in minimal undulation, whereas wide open throttle (WOT) conditions in 1st gear produced significant lateral shake and intensified hitting noise. Further investigation revealed that the problem persists across all gears and occurs consistently during normal driving conditions, with continuous impact between the propeller shaft yoke and the fuel tank mounting bracket. Extensive experimental measurements at the vehicle level indicated that these issues were primarily caused by the center-mounted propeller shaft joint deviating from its central position and rotating eccentrically under torque. This
Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kumar, Sarvesh, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Senthil Raja, T, B, Prem Prabhakar, M, Kiran
Research on Off-Road Performance Optimization Strategy for Agricultural Smart Vehicles Based on Traction Control System2025-99-011811/11/2025
(TC)The paper presents a designed and evaluated optimal traction control (TC) strategy for unmanned agriculture vehicle, where onboard sensors acquire various real-time information about wheel speed, load sharing, and terrain characteristics to achieve the precise control of the powertrain by establishing an optimal control command; moreover, the developed AMT-adaptive SMC combines the AMT adaptive control algorithm and the SMC to implement the dynamic gear shifting, torque output, and driving mode switching to obtain an optimal power distribution according to different speed demand and harvest load. Based on the establishment of models of the autonomous agriculture vehicle and corresponding tire model, a MATLAB/Simulink method based on dynamic simulation is adopted to simulate the unmanned agricultural vehicle traversing different terrains conditions. The results from comparison show that the energy saving reaches 19.0%, rising from 2. 1 kWh/km to 1. 7 kWh/km, an increase in
Feng, Zhenghao, Lu, Yunfan, Gao, Duan, An, Yi, Zhou, Chuanbo
“Reduction in Product Development Time by Field-To-Lab Simulation”2025-28-028211/06/2025
Puddling is a crucial process in rice cultivation, involving the preparation of the soil in a flooded field to create a soft, muddy seedbed. There are two classifications for puddling: full cage and half cage. Full cage puddling involves replacing the rear wheels of the tractor with steel paddle wheels, which are used to till the rice paddies directly without any additional implement. In the half cage puddling, the rear wheels remain on the tractor, and a smaller cage or paddle wheel is attached to the outside. Considering the field size, the operator often releases the clutch very quickly after a speed or direction change. This generates torque spikes, which are harmful to Transmission Gears and Clutches. This can lead to gear teeth bending fatigue failure due to repeated higher bending stresses. In this paper, a study related to how to reduce overall product development time by simulating bending fatigue failure of gear in lab environment is presented. A systematic approach is used
Pathan, Irfan Hamidulla, Bardia, Prashant
Revolutionizing Two-Wheeler Gear Shifting: A Cost-Effective Approach for Clutch-Less Gear Shift2025-32-008811/03/2025
Automotive manufacturers are constantly striving to enhance the performance and comfort of vehicles, particularly in terms of acceleration and driving experience which is a perceived behavior. The gear shift procedure plays a significant role in this aspect. Frequent actuation of clutch and throttle for gear shift in a manual gear shift transmission is one of the causes for human fatigue while driving, especially in 2-wheelers. The speed reduction during gear shift also leads to lower acceleration timing. With advancements in technology and a growing emphasis on comfortable driving experiences, clutch-less gear shift in a geared vehicle is one of the most sought-after features. Automatic transmissions are often expensive and increases system complexity, making them less accessible in particular for 2-wheeler market. Therefore, there is a need for developing a cost-effective and affordable solution to address this problem statement. The current work presents a simplified software-based
Jois, Dinkar
Improvement in Shift Quality in an Automated Multi-Speed Transmission of a Battery Electric Vehicle through Optimization of Required Shift Force2025-28-038610/30/2025
In heavy-duty Battery Electric Commercial Vehicles, developing multi-speed transmissions with smaller traction motors is crucial for achieving necessary gradeability and improving operational efficiency. However, understanding the shifting process in electric vehicles, which lack physical clutches to disengage the transmission from the traction motor during gear shifts, presents a unique challenge. Traditional methods for estimating shift forces are not applicable, creating a new challenge for the industry. The rise of electric vehicles offers opportunities to optimize various aspects of mechanical powertrains, particularly through designing compact shift systems with smaller actuators for automated gear shifting. During gear shifts, the goal is to optimize the required shift force to match the load capacity of a smaller actuator, as failure to do so may result in unsuccessful shifts. This paper evaluates and proposes a methodology for estimating the required shift force in an
Sharma, Saurabh
Reinforcement Learning with Adaptive Discount Factor for Clutch Judder Suppression with Stable Learning in Two-Speed EV Transmission2025-01-037510/07/2025
Designing the gear shift control for an automotive transmission is a complex task because it involves handling nonlinear behaviors like changes in friction between clutch plates and fluctuations in oil temperature. While deep reinforcement learning (DRL) has recently been used to reduce shift shock, most existing methods don’t account for real-world changes such as transmission aging. One major issue that becomes worse with aging is clutch judder—a type of vibration caused by wear. Traditional reinforcement learning assumes that the environment stays the same, which can lead to unstable learning when conditions change, making it hard to consistently reduce shift shock. To address this, we propose a new algorithm that adapts to aging transmissions by adjusting the discount factor—a key parameter in reinforcement learning that balances short-term and long-term rewards. Instead of keeping this factor fixed, our method starts with a lower value to ensure stable learning and gradually
Ogawa, Kazuki, Aihara, Tatsuhito, Goto, Takeru, Minorikawa, Gaku
Electric Machines with Reconfigurable Windings for Automotive Applications2025-24-013109/07/2025
The performance of electric machines for automotive applications is characterised by a high transient torque capability for low speed tractability and a large speed range of high energy conversion efficiency to achieve a desirable vehicle range. Inevitably, these conflicting requirements will introduce a compromise in the design process of electric machines and drives, generally resulting in heavier machines and overrated drive specifications. This paper discusses the principles of reconfigurable windings, explaining how altering winding connections directly influences key machine parameters like flux linkage, inductance, and resistance. It details the necessary switchgear for series-parallel winding reconfiguration, highlighting potential advantages such as enhanced fault tolerance and emergency braking capabilities. A prototype in-wheel motor with series-parallel reconfigurable windings, developed as part of the EM-TECH Horizon Europe project, is presented. Simulation results using
Best, Joshua, Noori Asiabar, Aria, Wang, Bo, Herzog, Matic, Trinchuk, Danylo, Romih, Jaka, Vagg, Christopher
Optimal Weight Design of Spur Gear Using a Modified Jaya Algorithm05-19-02-001508/14/2025
Gears are essential components in industrial machinery, and their design needs to be optimized to ensure the proper functioning of mechanical systems across various industrial applications. In this study, an optimization approach is proposed to determine the optimal design of a spur gear. This approach is based on an improved Jaya algorithm, which features a straightforward formulation without any algorithm-specific control parameters. Utilizing a simple and parameter-free updating mechanism, the strength of this algorithm lies in its iterative ability to enhance candidate solutions by moving them toward the best solution while avoiding the worst one, providing a flexible framework for optimization. However, since the original Jaya algorithm was primarily designed for continuous optimization problems, this research incorporates adjustments to adapt it effectively for mixed-variable optimization problems and to manage multi-objective functions. The effectiveness of the proposed
Rezki, Ines, Ferhat, Djeddou, Hamouda, Abdelatif, Abderazek, Hammoudi
Minimum Sound Testing of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles2025-01-504406/27/2025
The acoustic performance of seven vehicles was evaluated according to Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 141 (CMVSS 141), which governs minimum required sound levels for hybrid and electric vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 4536 kg (10,000 lb) or less. To better understand the sound profiles of medium-duty electric vehicles (MDEVs) and heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs), the sound emissions of two light-duty electric vehicles (LDEVs), one MDEV, three HDEVs, including an electric transit bus, and one heavy-duty internal combustion engine (HD ICE) vehicle were compared. The sound emissions of the MDEV and HDEVs were quieter than the HD ICE vehicle and comparable to that of the LDEVs equipped with auxiliary speakers. The MDEV with its auxiliary speaker turned off and all three HDEVs without auxiliary speakers met CMVSS 141 requirements in reverse gear and at speeds of 20 km/h and 30 km/h. The MDEV, though not subject to CMVSS 141, failed to meet the minimum sound
Sharma, Vinay, Larocque-Legros, Marc-André, Weston, Cole, Schulte, Andrew, Christenson, Martha, Rooney, Anne
Start-stop Gradeability Simulation and Methodology Development for Manual Transmission Vehicles2025-01-019906/16/2025
 Grade climbing capacity establishes a vehicle's distinguishing attribute of handling uneven roads and terrains thereby enhancing its overall performance capability. Vehicle availability and the testing procedure to determine gradeability requires a lot of time and effort. Aiming for the prediction of maximum start-stop gradeability of a vehicle and reducing the testing time and resources, a methodology is established representing the test procedure. A vehicle model is developed in GT Suite having dedicated modules of engine, clutch, transmission, vehicle and a driver. The vehicle is having weight of 2999 kg and a 1499 cc of engine with 80 hp power and 210 Nm torque. In simulation, the driver targeted the engine's launching speed profile, which progressively engaged the clutch to prevent engine stalling. The target is to ascend a specified distance in a predetermined amount of time without stalling the engine. Upon reaching the maximum grade the vehicle can climb, the engine will not
Ramadandi, Padmavathi, Bose, Anshuman, Sirangu, Satish, Yeldo, Jabin, Edgar, Shawn, Salve, Siddhesh, Kaushik, Prince
Research on Shift Sound Quality Control Strategy for Active Sound Generation System in Automobile2025-01-001905/05/2025
The active sound synthesis system of electric vehicles plays an important role in improving the sound perception and transmission of working condition information inside the vehicle. Nowadays, the active sound synthesis system inside the vehicle has become standard equipment in electric vehicles of major electric vehicle manufacturers to meet the user groups' demand for driving and riding experience. In order to enrich the driving experience of electric vehicles and automatic transmission vehicles, the sound performance should be close to the immersiveness and dynamic feedback brought by traditional manual transmission fuel vehicles. Based on the active sound synthesis algorithm in the car, this paper proposes an adaptive shift sound quality control strategy suitable for complex and changeable working conditions, with the aim of simulating the real shift sound of the engine. First, the motor speed offset is accurately calculated based on the transmission ratio of each gear of the
Zhou, Xilong, Liu, Zhien, Xie, Liping, Yu, Shangbo, Lu, Chihua, Gao, Xiang, Yongsheng, Wang
Global Vehicle Vibration Enhancement Using Circular Force Technology2025-01-001505/05/2025
In addition to providing safety advantages, sound and vibration are being utilized to enhance the driver experience in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). There's growing interest and investment in using both interior and exterior sounds for pedestrian safety, driver awareness, and unique brand recognition. Several automakers are also using audio to simulate virtual gear shifting of automatic and manual transmissions in BEVs. According to several automotive industry articles and market research, the audio enhancements alone, without the vibration that drivers are accustomed to when operating combustion engine vehicles, are not sufficient to meet the engagement, excitement, and emotion that driving enthusiasts expect. In this paper, we introduce the use of new automotive, high-force, compact, light-weight circular force generators for providing the vibration element that is lacking in BEVs. The technology was developed originally for vibration reduction/control in aerospace applications
Norris, Mark A., Orzechowski, Jeffrey, Sanderson, Brad, Swanson, Douglas, Vantimmeren, Andrew
Asymmetric Gear Blank Optimization to Reduce Gear Noise for Electric Drive Units2025-01-007905/05/2025
Gear whine has emerged as a significant challenge for electric vehicles (EVs) in the absence of engine masking noise. The demand from customers for premium EVs with high speed and high torque density introduces additional NVH risks. Conventional gear design strategies to reduce the pitch-line velocity and increase contact ratio may impact EV torque capacitor or its efficiency. Furthermore, microgeometry optimization has limited design space to reduce gear noise over a wide range of torque loads. This paper presents a comprehensive investigation into the optimization of transfer gear blanks in a single-speed two-stage FDW electric drive unit (EDU) with the objective of reducing both mass and noise. A detailed multi-body dynamics (MBD) model is constructed for the entire EDU system using a finite-element-based time-domain solver. This investigation focuses on the analysis and optimization of asymmetric gear blank design features with three-slot patterns. A design-of-experiment (DOE
He, Song, Bahk, Cheonjae, Li, Bo, Du, Isaac, Patruni, Pavan Kumar, Baladhandapani, Dhanasekar
Trends in the Automated and AutomaticTransmission Systems for Two Wheeled Vehicles2024-32-006104/18/2025
The two-wheeler industry features a diverse range of transmission systems catering to varied riding preferences and market demands. Manual transmissions offer direct gear control, favored by enthusiasts for its precision and customizable performance. Automatic transmissions simplify riding, especially in urban settings, eliminating manual gear shifts and reducing rider fatigue. Understanding the dynamics of transmission systems in the two-wheeler space is crucial for manufacturers, engineers, policymakers, and riders alike. It informs product development, regulatory compliance efforts, and market positioning initiatives in an increasingly competitive and innovation-driven industry landscape. DCT (Dual Clutch Transmission) and manual transmissions represent extremes in rider engagement, automation, and cost. While DCT offers seamless gear changes and convenience at a higher price point, manual transmissions provide direct control and a tactile experience with lower initial costs. Riders
Kundu, Prantik
Systematic Design Considerations of Motor Selections for EV Powertrain Abstract2025-01-850804/01/2025
As one of the most important design choices in the powertrain design cycle, motor selection is conventionally performed according to given automotive requirements. Motor-related powertrain design parameters like gear ratio, power output ratio between different axles, are excluded from the motor design process. In this paper, three comparative studies are performed to investigate the impact of these motor-related powertrain design parameters on the motor performance and the weight/cost/efficiency of the entire EV powertrain. In the first study, three PM motor designs—characterized by high, medium, and low rated speeds—will be assessed for a two-axle EV using various gear ratio configurations. The same motor design will be used for both axles. In the second study, five motor designs with varying power and ratings (PM, non-PM) but identical rated speeds will be evaluated for a two-axle EV, permitting different power ratings for the front and rear axles. The design trade-offs between motor
Movahed, Ehsan, Godbehere, Jonathan, Jia, Yijiang
A Method for Optimal Clutch Torque Neutralization for Quick Disengagement on Suspended Multispeed Transmissions Using System-Identification and Linear Quadratic Regulation2025-01-851304/01/2025
This paper describes an optimal control method utilizing a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) to control the torque during the gear shift on a multispeed electrified transmission to optimize for clutch actuator durability and shift performance. The dynamic state-space model of the system has been obtained using System-Identification. An LQR controller is formulated to minimize driveline oscillations and transmission-input-torque using the model by manipulating the electrical torque applied by the traction motor at the transmission input. The LQR controller is implemented in a simulation framework wherein the impact of vehicle parameters on the shift quality metrics is also assessed. Subjective and objective requirements are considered in the tuning process for the LQR controller. The LQR controller is utilized to generate profiled torque table calibrations. These calibrations are then deployed onto a production ready Transmission Control Unit and experimentally validated on a Class-8
Koli, Rohit, Smith, Nathan
Electrification Strategies and Power Distribution Method for Semi-Trailer Driven Axles2025-01-858104/01/2025
A new hybrid power system was investigated by installing a motor on the axle of a conventional semi-trailer. The purpose is to reduce the fluctuation of longitudinal acceleration and improve driving comfort by filling the transmission output torque hole through the motor during the gear shift process. Models for the longitudinal motion of a commercial vehicle, the permanent magnet synchronous motor, and the motor power distribution method are established, and the system model is built using MATLAB/Simulink. The model-in-the-loop simulation control interface is created in ModelBase, and model-in-the-loop simulation under the full-throttle (WOT) and braking operating conditions is performed based on ModelBase. Due to the high-frequency jitter problem in the actual control of the motor, the torque output obtained from different control algorithms is investigated. Finally, the sliding mode control algorithm with perturbation observation is used to ensure the fast response and smoothness of
Zhang, Hongyu, Wei, Zhengjun, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Comprehensive Gear Shift Schedule of Heavy-Duty Commercial Electric Trucks Based on Dual Axle Driving2025-01-851004/01/2025
A heavy-duty commercial electric truck is equipped with dual axles, with the middle axle driven by an electric motor and a three-speed transmission and the rear axle driven by an electric motor and a two-speed transmission. To consider the dynamic and economy performance of the whole vehicle, as well as the gear distribution characteristics in the vehicle operation, a comprehensive shifting schedule based on the cross-particle swarm algorithm is proposed. By establishing the longitudinal dynamics model of the truck, the optimal power shift schedule and the optimal economics shift schedule of each of the two transmissions are studied. Under the standard test conditions, an optimal gear control strategy based on the dynamic programming algorithm considering the shift interval is proposed, and the shift schedule for the standard conditions is derived through the hierarchical clustering method. Furthermore, with 0-100 km/h acceleration capability and specific energy consumption as the
Guo, Jun, Zhang, Yunqing, Wu, Jinglai
Fully Automated Global Powertrain Optimization for Electric Truck Using Active Learning Algorithm and Backwards Simulation Approach2025-01-853604/01/2025
Electric trucks, due to their weight and payload, need a different layout than passenger electric vehicles (EVs). They require multiple motors or multi-speed transmissions, unlike passenger EVs that often use one motor or a single-speed transmission. This involves determining motor size, number of motors, gears, and gear ratios, complicated by the powertrain system’s nonlinearity. The paper proposes using a stochastic active learning approach (Bayesian optimization) to configure the motors and transmissions for optimal efficiency and performance. Backwards simulation is applied to determine the energy consumption and performance of the vehicle for a rapid simulation of different powertrain configurations. Bayesian optimization, was used to select the electric drive unit (EDU) design candidates for two driving scenarios, combined with a local optimization (dynamic programming) for torque split. By optimizing the electric motor and transmission gears, it is possible to reduce energy
Chen, Bicheng, Wellmann, Christoph, Xia, Feihong, Savelsberg, Rene, Andert, Jakob, Pischinger, Stefan
Series and IMMD+: Performance Comparison and Analysis of Hybrid Vehicles with Additive Clutches2025-01-853804/01/2025
In hybrid vehicle systems, the addition of a clutch at the engine end can significantly enhance the overall energy efficiency of the vehicle. In this paper, a novel multi-mode series-parallel configuration is proposed based on the Honda IMMD system and a comprehensive comparison is made with series and series-parallel configurations. Firstly, this paper analyses the various operational modes induced by the inclusion of a clutch at the engine end based on the IMMD system. Subsequently, the fuel consumption of the novel optimized series-parallel configuration is assessed using a rapid dynamic programming method aimed at minimizing fuel consumption during the powertrain operation; additionally, its dynamic performance is analyzed through dynamic programming algorithms. Finally, the performance of different configurations is quantitatively evaluated in terms of acceleration and fuel consumption. The findings reveal that the IMMD + Clutch configuration significantly enhances dynamic
Zhang, Yuxin, Zou, Yunge, Yang, Yalian
Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis of Gearbox Churning Loss and Oil Splash Characteristics in Electric Vehicle Drive Units2025-01-818204/01/2025
The efficient operation of electric vehicles (EVs) heavily relies on the proper lubrication of the E-drive unit components, particularly the transmission gears and bearings. Improper oil supply can lead to mechanical failures, while excessive oil can increase power loss due to churning. This study focuses on utilizing Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to analyze the impact of drive speed, oil level, and temperature on gear churning loss in E-drive units. The research also investigates the influence of a baffle plate on power loss and oil splash characteristics. The simulations, conducted using the volume of fluid (VOF) method in Simerics-MP+, consistently illustrate a reduction in power loss with rising oil temperature and reveal decreased gear churning loss with a baffle plate, especially under high-speed conditions, highlighting its potential for enhancing energy efficiency in EVs. Additionally, post-processing analysis of oil splash patterns sheds light on the
Kumar, P. Madhan, Motin, Abdul, Pandey, Ashutosh, Ganamet, Alain, Maiti, Dipak, Gao, Haiyang, Ranganathan, Raj
Design and Test Methodology Development of Retainer Plate in Forward and Reverse Mechanism of Tractor Transmission2025-28-007902/07/2025
In the Agricultural tractor- transmission system plays major role to transfer power from Engine to final drive through gear box enabling Forward/Reverse (F/R) movements during field operations and transportation conditions. The F/R retainer plate with idler gear, shaft is located between clutch housing and transmission gear box housing. If the retainer housing plate gets failure, then power will not be able to transfer from engine to transmission gear box main drive. In one of the tractor model retainer plate failures was observed during field testing. To simulate the failure mode from field to lab condition, the resultant forces and angle were calculated based on the drive line assembly. Resultant loads were applied on Idle gear shaft assembly through servo actuator in cyclic mode at lab. The failure was observed in the retainer plate and the location of failure was matching with field failure. CAE virtual simulation was carried out for measured load as per the laboratory boundary
V, Saravanan, Mani, Suresh, Kumar, Sasi, More, Amit, Dumpa, Mahendra Reddy
Improved Mode Switching and Gear Shift Control Strategy of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle Based on Dynamic Programming02-18-02-000802/06/2025
Parallel hybrid commercial vehicles equipped with automated manual transmissions are extensively utilized in the commercial vehicle sector due to their minimal configuration changes, high energy efficiency, and multi-mode driving capabilities. The key to enhancing the fuel economy of these vehicles lies in the mode switching and gear shift control strategy. To meet the driving requirements of these vehicles and optimize their fuel efficiency, this study introduces a mode switching and gear shift control strategy based on dynamic programming for a parallel hybrid commercial vehicle. First, dynamic programming is applied to the energy management strategy of the hybrid electric vehicle to determine the optimal fuel-efficient power output. Subsequently, the results from dynamic programming simulations are utilized to establish the mode switching boundaries and gear shift patterns. An improved mode switching and gear shift control strategy is then proposed and compared with the control
Zhai, Xumao, Li, Yujuan, Jiang, Guangzong, Yan, Zhengfeng, Yao, Mingyao, Sun, Yansen
Optimized Design and Analysis of a Novel Multi-Mode Series-Parallel Hybrid Powertrain2025-01-702501/31/2025
To enhance energy efficiency of series-parallel hybrid system, this paper investigates and compares the effects of adding the gear ratio at different power source position on the performance of the vehicle. Firstly, the effect of adding gears at various positions is analyzed on the basis of intelligent multi-mode drive (IMMD) configuration, and the potential working modes resulting from the added gear ratios at different power source positions are examined. Secondly, multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm is used to optimize the transmission ratio of new gears, laying the groundwork for comparing different configurations. Moreover, the fuel economy performance of the optimized series-parallel configuration was evaluated using a rapid dynamic programming approach with the objective function of minimizing fuel consumption during power transfer. Finally, in accordance with the aforementioned research, the acceleration performance and economic performance of
Zhang, Yuxin, Zou, Yunge, Yang, Yalian
Rolling Optimization Shift Strategy of Heavy Truck Considering Power Interruption in Shift Process2025-01-703601/31/2025
The optimization of gear shifting is a critical process in heavy-duty trucks for adjusting engine operating points, enabling a multi-objective balance between power, fuel efficiency, and comfort. However, this process is challenged by the nonlinear characteristics of engine fuel consumption, power interruptions during AMT (Automated Manual Transmission) shifts, and uncertainties in driving conditions. This study proposes a rolling optimization shift strategy for heavy trucks equipped with AMT, based on a multi-scale prediction of internal combustion engine fuel consumption on the road. Firstly, a predictive model for the energy efficiency and dynamics of heavy-duty trucks with AMT was developed, accounting for the engine’s engine’s operating condition points and power interruptions during shifting. Secondly, a future power demand, vehicle speed, and fuel consumption prediction algorithm was designed, iterating based on accelerator pedal position forecasts and dynamic modeling. Finally
Liu, Xingyi, Zhou, Quanyu, Zhang, Leibo, Lv, Dongxuan, Sun, Xiaopeng, Gao, Jinhao, Song, Kang, Xie, Hui
Research on Weak Fault Diagnosis Method of Dual - Axes Precision Gear Transmission System2025-01-705201/31/2025
This paper focuses on the weak fault diagnosis of a dual - axes precision gear transmission system. Firstly, it elaborates on the structure and working principle of the system. Comprising components like azimuth and pitch channels, motors, and control units, the pitch channel's gear transmission chain is a key research area. Subsequently, fault modes and their harmfulness are analyzed. Different faults such as tooth surface wear and pitting are considered. These faults can lead to serious consequences like system failure and mission deviation. Based on this, a test system is constructed. It includes sensors and a data acquisition system to simulate faults and collect vibration signals. The signals are then analyzed to understand the system's behavior. Finally, a weak fault feature index based on time - domain entropy is developed. A threshold setting method based on severity index is also proposed. These methods together enable the accurate diagnosis of weak faults in the system, which
Han, Wei, Chang, Yingjie
Coordinated Clutch Slip Control for The Engine Start with Power-On Downshift in a P2 Hybrid Automatic Transmission2025-01-702601/31/2025
The impact and vibration problem during gear shifting and mode switching of the P2 hybrid 8AT system of new energy vehicles seriously affects driving comfort. This paper proposed a collaborative clutch slip and friction control strategy for a P2 hybrid power system with power downshifting and engine starting to reduce transient shock vibration during the power system operation. A dynamic model of the P2 hybrid system was established, including a physical model of the engine, motor, clutch, 8AT transmission mechanism, and driving resistance. The transient dynamic behavior of the P2 hybrid system with power downshifting and engine starting was systematically studied. On this basis, with the goal of consistent power response and smooth gear shifting, a multi-stage collaborative control strategy including the motor, engine, and clutch under the power downshifting condition was formulated. Model-in-loop simulation verification was carried out based on MATLAB/Simulink platform. The
Song, Tingbin, Wang, Shuhan, Xu, Xiangyang, Qiu, Longhui
A Multibody Dynamics Approach to Assess Auto Pull Behavior of Gear Shift System2024-36-007312/20/2024
Gear shift system in a gearbox is used to shift the power flow from one gear set to another gear set which enables manual transmission to maintain different torque and speed combination. Shift quality is determined by the response of the gear shift lever while changing the gears. Shift force over the entire travel event of engagement and disengagement for multiple gear sets is the key factor influencing gear shift quality. If the shift forces are higher, the effort required for shifting will also increase resulting in uncomfortable shifting. On the other hand, with lower shifting force, sudden jerk, vibration or change in vehicle condition may also cause shifting which is undesirable and may lead to safety issue. One of the important features of shift system is auto pull behavior observed while shifting. While shifting, driver starts displacing the shift lever and after threshold point the transmission itself pulls the shift lever to the end point, reducing driver effort. In the
Sabri, Salah Ahmad, Bhimrao, Sachin Ahirrao, Pinto, João Paulo, Mussulini, Bruno C, Dias, Sebastião Joel
An Experimental Approach to Understand Various Factors Influencing Low-Temperature Gear Shifting Performance2024-28-018212/05/2024
Gear shifting performance in vehicles is critical for smooth operation, especially under cold environment conditions or sub-zero conditions. In this comprehensive study, we delve into the multifaceted aspects that influence gear shifting behaviour during cold conditions especially after overnight vehicle soaking at low temperature below -8°C to simulate real world scenarios. Notably, our efforts on these bench trials focuses on isolating the synchronization load from the maximum block release force, a phenomenon arising from the interaction between synchronizer rings and gear cones in case of high drag of input and counter shafts. Our experimental trials involved multiple bench level testing for lower gear shifting case especially 2nd to 1st gear and 1st to 2nd gear shifting. Factors under study are focusing on changing the Oil (viscosity and quantity), different combination of synchronizer ring material, change of inertia etc. Shifting load in cold condition mainly includes two loads
Mishra, Subodh, Siddharth, Kumar, Singh, Manoj
Development of an Assessment Methodology for Synchronizer Ring (CuZn Alloy) Wear Durability2024-28-018512/05/2024
Gear shifting effort or force especially in manual transmission has been one of the key factors for subjective assessment in passenger vehicle segment. An optimum effort to shift into the gears creates a big difference in overall assessment of the vehicle. The gear shifting effort travels through the transmission shifting system that helps driver to shift between the different available gears as per the torque and speed demand. The shifting system is further divided into two sub-systems. 1. Peripheral system [Gear Shift Lever with knob and shift Cable Assembly] and Shift system inside the transmission [Shift Tower Assembly, Shift Forks, Hub and sleeve Assembly with keys, Gear Cones and Synchronizer Rings etc.] [1]. Both the systems have their own role in overall gear shifting effort. There has been work already done on evaluation of the transmission shifting system as whole for gear shifting effort with typical test bench layouts. Also, work has been on assessment of life of the
Singh, Paramjeet, Yadav, Sanjay Kumar
An Active Control Method Based on the Study of Dynamic Characteristics of Integrated Electric Drive Systems02-18-01-000211/13/2024
Integrated electric drive systems are characterized by high power density, reliability, and controllability, making them increasingly prevalent in the realm of electric commercial vehicles. However, the direct coupling between the motor shaft and the transmission system has introduced a series of undesirable torsional vibration phenomena. To investigate the dynamic characteristics of electric drive systems in operation for electric commercial vehicles, a comprehensive modeling approach is employed. This modeling framework takes into account key factors such as gear backlash, structural flexibility, and electromagnetic spatiotemporal excitations. Based on this model, the influence of the electrical system on time-varying gear mesh stiffness, gear transmission error, bearing forces, and other factors is investigated. Building upon this foundation, the article proposes an approach for active harmonic voltage injection. This method effectively reduces torque fluctuations, decreases the
Xi, Xin, Chen, Xiaoli, Zhao, Hongyang, Zhao, Xuan, Wei, Jing, Liu, Yonggang
Phase Detection Relevance in Engine Torque Determined by Instantaneous Engine Speed2024-01-427011/05/2024
Accurate flywheel torque estimation in combustion engines can be used for monitoring engine performance, creating the potential for lowering emissions and fuel costs. Recently a method was proposed to determine the mean flywheel torque from instantaneous engine speed using the n-th order Fourier series, where n is the number of cylinders firing per crank revolution. However, instantaneous engine speed is affected by two separate torque contributions. The torque resulting from reciprocating masses in the engine, i.e., reciprocating torque, and the torque produced by combustion pressure, i.e., gas torque. Gas torque and reciprocating torque signals have the same frequency but are in opposite phases. Since the resultant torque at the flywheel is the sum of gas and reciprocating torques, there is a need to remove reciprocating torque from the total torque at the flywheel. This requires knowing whether gas or reciprocating torque has a larger amplitude. Here, a method is proposed to
Ely, Nathan, Iddum, Vivek, Ghantasala, Muralidhar, Meyer, Richard T.
Enhancing Gear Performance: Discrete Response Optimization through OptiSLang2024-28-004010/17/2024
Original equipment manufacturers have already begun to transition their vehicles from traditional internal combustion engines (ICEs) to electric drives (EVs). As the industry continues to move towards electrification, the entire industry, and especially Valeo, is focusing on lean product development (LPD) with the help of numerical simulation. Optimization techniques help industry achieve the most accurate product at the lowest cost without sacrificing performance. Generally gears are mainly used for power transmission in the advanced technologies of electric vehicles. There are many factors that must be taken into account when designing a gear transmission system. Finding the most appropriate design parameters for a gear transmission system can be a challenge, and optimization parameters will help to find the best compromise between them. The main objective of this study is to increase the contact safety factor of the gear system by fulfilling 14 constraints, which are continuous (5
C, Lokesh, Lawrence, Leons, Drouet, Benjamin, G, Rajesh Kumar, Gopalakrishnan, Hemanth Kumar
Towards an Analytical Method for a Combined Energy Management and Shift Strategy in Hybrid Electric Vehicles, and Its Rule-Based Implementation2024-24-000209/18/2024
In conventional vehicles the shift strategy has a well-known impact on the system’s efficiency. An appropriate gear choice allows the internal combustion engine (ICE) to operate in efficient operating points (OPs) and thus contributes significantly to a reduced fuel consumption. Further efficiency improvements can be achieved by the hybridization of the powertrain. Due to the two propulsion systems, an additional degree of freedom arises, that requires an energy management strategy (EMS). The EMS controls the split of the requested power between the electric machine (EM) and the ICE. Accordingly, the system’s overall efficiency in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is highly influenced by the quality of the EMS. This paper proposes to adapt an existing method for deriving fuel-optimal rule-based EMS by including the shift strategy for parallel HEVs. It is shown that fuel-optimal control can be achieved. The analytically derived look-up tables can be used to automatically calibrate in
Ehrenberg, Bastian, Engbroks, Lukas, Schmiedler, Stefan, Hofmann, Peter
Prediction and Improvement of Structure-Borne and Airborne Whines of an Electric Vehicle for Virtual Development2024-01-507207/18/2024
Many sources and paths cause interior cabin noise. Some noise from an electric vehicle is unique and different from a vehicle with an internal combustion engine. Especially, whine noise occurs due to the particular orders of the electromagnetic force of an electric motor and transmission gears, which is tonal and usually reaches high frequencies. This paper covers structure-borne (SB) and airborne (AB) aspects to estimate whine, and the difference between the two characteristics is distinguished. The focus lies mainly on the process of virtual vehicle development and application for performance improvement. First, to predict SB whine, an e-powertrain is modeled as a finite element model (FEM), and electromagnetic (EM) forces are calculated. A vehicle model is also modeled as an FEM, in which interior sound packages are carefully modeled as they play an important role in the medium-frequency region. The e-powertrain and vehicle models (being simulated separately) are combined to obtain
Yoo, Ji Woo, Chae, Ki-Sang, Choi, JaeHyuk, Kim, Myunggyu, Cho, Seunghyeon, Coster, Christophe, Van Gils, Anneleen
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