High-Energy Lithium Flow Cells with Sulfur Anodes

Li-ion batteries offer considerable advantages such as high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities, and good calendar life and shelf life compared to aqueous systems such as Pb-acid, Ni-Cd, and Ni-MH. Various Li-ion chemistries with different Li-intercalating cathodes have attained significant maturation for commercial applications, including portable electronics and hybrid electric vehicles. Energy densities of ≈3 to 4 times compared to those of aqueous systems are now possible, yet these systems are inadequate to meet the needs of electric vehicles.