This content is not included in
your SAE MOBILUS subscription, or you are not logged in.
Durability Study of a Light-Duty High Pressure Common Rail Fuel Injection System Using E10 Gasoline
Technical Paper
2020-01-0616
ISSN: 0148-7191, e-ISSN: 2688-3627
This content contains downloadable datasets
Annotation ability available
Sector:
Language:
English
Abstract
A 500-hour test cycle has been used to evaluate the durability of a prototype high pressure common rail injection system operating up to 1800 bar with E10 gasoline. Some aspects of the original diesel based hardware design were optimized in order to accommodate an opposed-piston, two-stroke engine application and also to mitigate the impacts of exposure to gasoline. Overall system performance was maintained throughout testing as fueling rate and rail pressure targets were continuously achieved and no physical damage was observed in the low-pressure components. Injectors showed no deviation in their flow characteristics after exposure to gasoline and high resolution imaging of the nozzle spray holes and pilot valve assemblies did not indicate the presence of cavitation damage. The high pressure pump did not exhibit any performance degradation during gasoline testing and teardown analysis after 500 hours showed no evidence of cavitation erosion. Despite the lack of lubricity-improving additives in the gasoline, all other fuel-wetted components survived the test cycle without any signs of abnormal contact wear. Fuel and lubricating oil analysis conducted on samples taken at 50-hour intervals confirmed that there was minimal oil-in-fuel or fuel-in-oil dilution throughout most of the cycle. In summary, these results represent an important and positive step forward in assessing the suitability of high pressure fuel system hardware for light-duty gasoline applications.
Authors
- Tom Tzanetakis - Aramco Research Center
- Mark Sellnau - Aramco Research Center
- Vincent Costanzo - Aramco Research Center
- Michael Traver - Aramco Research Center
- Tony Williams - Delphi Technologies
- Erol Kahraman - Delphi Technologies
- Jean Herve Petot - Delphi Technologies
- Guillaume Meissonnier - Delphi Technologies
- Aniket Tekawade - Argonne National Laboratory
- Brandon Sforzo - Argonne National Laboratory
- Christopher F. Powell - Argonne National Laboratory
Citation
Tzanetakis, T., Sellnau, M., Costanzo, V., Traver, M. et al., "Durability Study of a Light-Duty High Pressure Common Rail Fuel Injection System Using E10 Gasoline," SAE Technical Paper 2020-01-0616, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4271/2020-01-0616.Data Sets - Support Documents
Title | Description | Download |
---|---|---|
Unnamed Dataset 1 | ||
Unnamed Dataset 2 | ||
Unnamed Dataset 3 | ||
Unnamed Dataset 4 |
Also In
References
- U.S. Energy Information Administration https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/
- International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/weo/
- Cho , K. , Zhao , L. , Ameen , M. , Zhang , Y. et al. Understanding Fuel Stratification Effects on Partially Premixed Compression Ignition (PPCI) Combustion and Emissions Behaviors SAE Technical Paper 2019-01-1145 2019 https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-1145
- Cho , K. , Zhang , Y. , and Cleary , D. Investigation of Fuel Effects on Combustion Characteristics of Partially Premixed Compression Ignition (PPCI) Combustion Mode at Part-Load Operations SAE Int. J. Engines 11 6 1371 1383 2018 https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0897
- Zhang , Y. , Pei , Y. , Engineer , N. , Cho , K. et al. CFD-Guided Combustion Strategy Development for a Higher Reactivity Gasoline in a Light-Duty Gasoline Compression Ignition Engine SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0740 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-0740
- Cho , K. , Latimer , E. , Lorey , M. , Cleary , D. et al. Gasoline Fuels Assessment for Delphi’s Second Generation Gasoline Direct-Injection Compression Ignition (GDCI) Multi-Cylinder Engine SAE Int. J. Engines 10 4 1430 1442 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-0743
- Storey , J. , Lewis , S. , Moses-DeBusk , M. , Connatser , R. et al. Characterization of Hydrocarbon Emissions from Gasoline Direct-Injection Compression Ignition Engine Operating on a Higher Reactivity Gasoline Fuel SAE Int. J. Engines 10 4 1454 1464 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-0747
- Kolodziej , C. , Sellnau , M. , Cho , K. , and Cleary , D. Operation of a Gasoline Direct Injection Compression Ignition Engine on Naphtha and E10 Gasoline Fuels SAE Int. J. Engines 9 2 979 1001 2016 https://doi.org/10.4271/2016-01-0759
- Sellnau , M. , Hoyer , K. , Moore , W. , Foster , M. et al. Advancement of GDCI Engine Technology for US 2025 CAFE and Tier 3 Emissions SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-0901 2018 https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0901
- Sinnamon , J.F. , Aggoune , K. , Sellnau , M. , and Hoyer , K. Transient Control of Thermal and EGR Systems for Third Generation GDCI Multi-Cylinder Engine SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-0902 2018 https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0902
- Sellnau , M. , Foster , M. , Moore , W. , Sinnamon , J. et al. Second Generation GDCI Multi-Cylinder Engine for High Fuel Efficiency and US Tier 3 Emissions SAE Int. J. Engines 9 2 1002 1020 2016 https://doi.org/10.4271/2016-01-0760
- Sellnau , M. , Moore , W. , Sinnamon , J. , Hoyer , K. et al. GDCI ulti-Cylinder Engine for High Fuel Efficiency and Low Emissions SAE Int. J. Engines 8 2 775 790 2015 https://doi.org/10.4271/2015-01-0834
- Sellnau , M. , Foster , M. , Hoyer , K. , Moore , W. et al. Development of a Gasoline Direct Injection Compression Ignition (GDCI) Engine SAE Int. J. Engines 7 2 835 851 2014 https://doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-1300
- Sellnau , M. , Sinnamon , J. , Hoyer , K. , Kim , J. et al. Part-Load Operation of Gasoline Direct-Injection Compression Ignition (GDCI) Engine SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-0272 2013 https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-0272
- Sellnau , M. , Sinnamon , J. , Hoyer , K. , and Husted , H. Full-Time Gasoline Direct-Injection Compression Ignition (GDCI) for High Efficiency and Low NOx and PM SAE Int. J. Engines 5 2 300 314 2012 https://doi.org/10.4271/2012-01-0384
- Sellnau , M. , Sinnamon , J. , Hoyer , K. , and Husted , H. Gasoline Direct Injection Compression Ignition (GDCI) - Diesel-like Efficiency with Low CO2 Emissions SAE Int. J. Engines 4 1 2010 2022 2011 https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-1386
- Sellnau , M. , Foster , M. , Moore , W. , Sinnamon , J. et al. Pathway to 50% Brake Thermal Efficiency Using Gasoline Direct Injection Compression Ignition SAE Technical Paper 2019-01-1154 2019 https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-1154
- Kargul , J. , Stuhldreher , M. , Barba , D. , Schenk , C. et al. Benchmarking a 2018 Toyota Camry 2.5-Liter Atkinson Cycle Engine with Cooled-EGR SAE Int. J. Adv. & Curr. Prac. in Mobility 1 2 601 638 2019 https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-0249
- Sellnau , M. , Cho , K. , Zhang , Y. , and Cleary , D. Pathway to 50% Brake Thermal Efficiency Using Gasoline Direct Injection Compression Ignition (GDCI) 28th Aachen Colloquium on Automobile and Engine Technology Aachen, Germany October 7-9, 2019
- Kalghatgi , G. , Risberg , P. , and Angstrom , H.-E. Partially Pre-Mixed Auto-Ignition of Gasoline to Attain Low Smoke and Low NOx at High Load in a Compression Ignition Engine and Comparison with a Diesel Fuel SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-0006 2007 https://doi.org/10.4271/2007-01-0006
- Manente , V. , Johansson , B. , and Cannella , W. Gasoline Partially Premixed Combustion, the Future of Internal Combustion Engines? Int. J. Engine Res. 12 194 208 2011 10.1177/1468087411402441
- Zhang , Y. , Voice , A. , Tzanetakis , T. , Traver , M. et al. An Evaluation of Combustion and Emissions Performance with Low Cetane Naphtha Fuels in a Multi-Cylinder Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine J. Eng. Gas Turb. Power 138 10 102805-1-10 2016 10.1115/1.4032879
- Zhang , Y. , Sommers , S. , Yuanjiang , P. , Kumar , P. et al. Mixing-Controlled Combustion of Conventional and Higher Reactivity Gasolines in a Multi-Cylinder Heavy-Duty Compression Ignition Engine SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0696 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-0696
- Won , H.-W. , Peters , N. , Tait , N. , and Kalghatgi , G. Sufficiently Premixed Compression Ignition of a Gasoline-Like Fuel Using Three Different Nozzles in a Diesel Engine P. I. Mech. Eng. D-J. Aut. 226 5 698 708 2012 10.1177/0954407011423453
- Won , H.-W. , Pitsch , H. , Tait , N. , and Kalghatgi , G. Some Effects of Gasoline and Diesel Mixtures on Partially Premixed Combustion and Comparison with the Practical Fuels Gasoline and Diesel in a Compression Ignition Engine P. I. Mech. Eng. D-J. Aut. 226 9 1259 1270 2012 10.1177/0954407012440075
- Ciatti , S. and Subramanian , S.N. An Experimental Investigation of Low-Octane Gasoline in Diesel Engines J. Eng. Gas Turb. Power 133 9 092802-1-11 2011 10.1115/1.4002915
- Kolodziej , C.P. , Ciatti , S. , Vuilleumier , D. , Adhidary , B.D. et al. Extension of the Lower Load Limit of Gasoline Compression Ignition with 87 AKI Gasoline by Injection Timing and Pressure SAE Technical Paper 2014-01-1302 2014 https://doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-1302
- Lee , J. , Zhang , Y. , Tzanetakis , T. , Traver , M. et al. Emission Performance of Low Cetane Naphtha as Drop-In Fuel on a Multi-Cylinder Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine and Aftertreatment System SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-1000 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-1000
- Zhang , Y. , Kumar , P. , Traver , M. , and Cleary , D. Conventional and Low Temperature Combustion Using Naphtha Fuels in a Multi-Cylinder Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine SAE Int. J. Engines 9 2 1021 1035 2016 https://doi.org/10.4271/2016-01-0764
- Zhang , Y. , Kumar , P. , Pei , Y. , Traver , M. et al. An Experimental and Computational Investigation of Gasoline Compression Ignition Using Conventional and Higher Reactivity Gasolines in a Multi-Cylinder Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-0226 2018 https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0226
- Mohan , B. , Du , J. , Sim , J. , and Roberts , W.L. Hydraulic Characterization of High-Pressure Gasoline Multi-Hole Injector Flow Meas. Instrum. 64 133 141 2018 10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2018.10.017
- Du , J. , Mohan , B. , Sim , J. , Fang , T. et al. Macroscopic Non-Reacting Spray Characterization of Gasoline Compression Ignition Fuels in a Constant Volume Chamber Fuel 255 115818 2019 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.115818
- Du , J. , Mohan , B. , Sim , J. , Fang , T. et al. Experimental and Analytical Study on Liquid and Vapor Penetration of High-Reactivity Gasoline Using a High-Pressure Gasoline Multi-Hole Injector Appl. Therm. Eng. 163 114187 2019 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.114187
- Du , J. , Mohan , B. , Sim , J. , and Roberts , W.L. Experimental Study on the Non-Reacting Spray Characterization of Gasoline Compression Ignition Fuel Energy Proced. 158 1968 1973 2019 10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.453
- Nikanjam , M. , Crosby , T. , Henderson , P. , Gray , C. et al. ISO Diesel Fuel Lubricity Round Robin Program SAE Technical Paper 952372 1995 https://doi.org/10.4271/952372
- American Society for Testing and Materials 2018
- Arkoudeas , P. , Karonis , D. , Zannikos , F. , and Lois , E. Lubricity Assessment of Gasoline Fuels Fuel Process. Technol. 122 107 119 2014 10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.01.008
- European Committee for Standardization 2017
- American Society for Testing and Materials 2018
- Lacey , P.I. and Mason , R.L. Fuel Lubricity: Statistical Analysis of Literature Data SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-1917 2000 https://doi.org/10.4271/2000-01-1917
- Ping , W.D. , Korcek , S. , and Spikes , H. Comparison of the Lubricity of Gasoline and Diesel Fuels SAE Technical Paper 962010 1996 https://doi.org/10.4271/962010
- Lopreato , L.G.R. , Oliveira , E.J. , and Duarte , M.V.E. Gasoline Lubricity: An Exploratory Evaluation SAE Technical Paper 2012-36-0502 2012 https://doi.org/10.4271/2012-36-0502
- Voice , A.K. , Tzanetakis , T. , and Traver , M. Lubricity of Light-End Fuels with Commercial Diesel Lubricity Additives SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0871 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-0871
- Defense Technical Information Center http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA326098
- Defense Technical Information Center http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=AD1007440
- Lacey , P.I. and Howell , S.A. Fuel Lubricity Reviewed SAE Technical Paper 982567 1998 https://doi.org/10.4271/982567
- Defense Technical Information Center http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA571036
- Tzanetakis , T. , Voice , A. , and Traver , M. Durability Study of a High-Pressure Common-Rail Fuel Injection System Using Lubricity Additive-Dosed Gasoline-Like Fuel SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 11 4 319 335 2018 https://doi.org/10.4271/2018 01-0270
- Tzanetakis , T. , Traver , M. , Costanzo , V. , Medina , R. et al. Durability Study of a High Pressure Common Rail Fuel Injection System Using Lubricity Additive Dosed Gasoline-Like Fuel - Additional Cycle Runtime and Teardown Analysis SAE Int. J. Adv. & Curr. Prac. in Mobility 1 2 654 674 2019 https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-0263
- Totten , G.E. , Sun , Y.H. , Bishop , R.J. , and Lin , X. Hydraulic System Cavitation: A Review SAE Technical Paper 982036 1998 https://doi.org/10.4271/982036
- Schmidt , D.P. and Corradini , M.L. The Internal Flow of Diesel Fuel Injector Nozzles: A Review Int. J. Engine Res. 2 1 1 22 2001 10.1243/1468087011545316
- Gavaises , M. , Papoulias , D. , Andriotis , A. , Giannadakis , E. et al. Link between Cavitation Development and Erosion Damage in Diesel Injector Nozzles SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-0246 2007 https://doi.org/10.4271/2007-01-0246
- Gavaises , M. Flow in Valve Covered Orifice Nozzles with Cylindrical and Tapered Holes and Link to Cavitation Erosion and Engine Exhaust Emissions Int. J. Engine Res. 9 6 435 447 2008 10.1243/14680874JER01708
- Mitroglou , N. and Gavaises , M. Mapping of Cavitating Flow Regimes in Injectors for Medium-/Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines Int. J. Engine Res. 14 6 590 605 2013 10.1177/1468087413500491
- Torelli , R. , Som , S. , Pei , Y. , Zhang , Y. et al. Comparison of In-Nozzle Flow Characteristics of Naphtha and N-Dodecane Fuels SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0853 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-0853
- Torelli , R. , Som , S. , Pei , Y. , Zhang , Y. et al. Influence of Fuel Properties on Internal Nozzle Flow Development in a Multi-Hole Diesel Injector Fuel 204 171 184 2017 10.1016/j.fuel.2017.04.123
- Torelli , R. , Matusik , K. , Nelli , K. , Kastengren , A. et al. Evaluation of Shot-to-Shot In-Nozzle Flow Variations in a Heavy-Duty Diesel Injector Using Real Nozzle Geometry SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 11 4 379 295 2018 https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0303
- Torelli , R. , Matusik , K.E. , Sforzo , B.A. , Kastengren , A.L. et al. In-Nozzle Cavitation-Induced Orifice-to-Orifice Variations Using Real Injector Geometry and Gasoline-Like Fuels 10th International Symposium on Cavitation (CAV2018) Baltimore MD, USA May 14-16, 2018
- Torelli , R. , Sforzo , B.A. , Matusik , K.E. , Kastengren , A.L. et al. Investigation of Shot-to-Shot Variability During Short Injections 14th Triennial International Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems Chicago, IL, USA July 22-26, 2018
- Price , R.J. , Blazina , D. , Smith , C.G. , and Davies , T.J. Understanding the Impact of Cavitation on Hydrocarbons in the Middle Distillate Range Fuel 156 30 39 2015 10.1016/j.fuel.2015.04.026
- Lockett , R. , Zeeshan , F. , Kuti , O. , and Price , R. An Optical Characterization of the Effect of High-Pressure Hydrodynamic Cavitation on Diesel SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-0841 2016 https://doi.org/10.4271/2016-01-0841
- Nikanjam , M. Diesel Fuel Lubricity: On the Path to Specifications SAE Technical Paper 1999-01-1479 1999 https://doi.org/10.4271/1999-01-1479
- Mitchell , K. Continued Evaluation of Diesel Fuel Lubricity by Pump Rig Tests SAE Technical Paper 981363 1998 https://doi.org/10.4271/981363
- Yost , D.M. , Frame , E.A. , and Grinstead , R.E. Operability and Compatibility Characteristics of Advanced Technology Diesel Fuels: Pump Evaluations SAE Technical Paper 2002-01-1675 2002 https://doi.org/10.4271/2002-01-1675
- Coordinating Research Council http://crcsite.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/AVFL-2-Final-Report.pdf
- Coordinating Research Council http://crcsite.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/AVFL-2a-Final-Report.pdf
- Terry , B. , McCormick , R.L. , and Natarajan , M. Impact of Biodiesel Blends on Fuel System Component Durability SAE Technical Paper 2006-01-3279 2006 https://doi.org/10.4271/2006-01-3279
- California Air Resources Board https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/fuels/diesel/altdiesel/biodieseldurabilityreport2010_08_11.pdf
- Lopes , S.M. and Cushing , T. The Influence of Biodiesel Fuel Quality on Modern Diesel Vehicle Performance SAE Technical Paper 2012-01-0858 2012 https://doi.org/10.4271/2012-01-0858
- Saltas , E. , Bouilly , J. , Geivanidis , S. , Samaras , Z. et al. Investigation of the Effects of Biodiesel Aging on the Degradation of Common Rail Fuel Injection Systems Fuel 200 357 370 2017 10.1016/j.fuel.2017.03.064
- Sellnau , M. , Hoyer , K. , Petot , J. , Kahraman , E. et al. Fuel Injection System for Opposed-Piston Gasoline Compression Ignited (OP-GCI) Engines SAE Technical Paper 2019-01-0287 2019 https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-0287
- Lazarev , V.E. , Wloka , J.A. , and Wachtmeister , G. A Method for the Estimation of the Service Life of a Precision Guiding Interface “Needle - Nozzle Body” of a Common-Rail-Injector for High Rail Pressures SAE Technical Paper 2011-01-2020 2011 https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-2020
- Birgel , A. , Ladommatos , N. , Aleiferis , P. , Zülch , S. et al. Deposit Formation in the Holes of Diesel Injector Nozzles: A Critical Review SAE Technical Paper 2008-01-2383 2008 https://doi.org/10.4271/2008-01-2383
- Lacey , P. , Gail , S. , Kientz , J.M. , Milovanovic , N. et al. Internal Fuel Injector Deposits SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 5 1 132 145 2011 https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-1925
- Lacey , P. , Gail , S. , Kientz , J. , Benoist , G. et al. Fuel Quality and Diesel Injector Deposits SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 5 3 1187 1198 2012 https://doi.org/10.4271/2012-01-1693
- Yuen , P.K. , Beckett , J. , and Villaire , W. Automotive Materials Engineering Challenges and Solutions for the Use of Ethanol and Methanol Blended Fuels SAE Technical Paper 2010-01-0729 2010 https://doi.org/10.4271/2010-01-0729
- Naegeli , D. , Lacey , P. , Alger , M. , and Endicott , D. Surface Corrosion in Ethanol Fuel Pumps SAE Technical Paper 971648 1997 https://doi.org/10.4271/971648
- Soma , S. , Nagai , K. , Morita , K. , Sugiyama , G. et al. Investigations of Impact of the Ethanol Content on Exhaust Gases, Fuel Evaporative Emissions, High-temperature Driveability, and Materials for Fuel Supply System Parts of Gasoline Vehicles SAE Technical Paper 2005-01-3710 2005 https://doi.org/10.4271/2005-01-3710
- Galante-Fox , J. , Von Bacho , P. , Notaro , C. , and Zizelman , J. E-85 Fuel Corrosivity: Effects on Port Fuel Injector Durability Performance SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-4072 2007 https://doi.org/10.4271/2007-01-4072
- Jafari , H. , Idris , M.H. , Ourdjini , A. , Rahimi , H. et al. Effect of Ethanol as Gasoline Additive on Vehicle Fuel Delivery System Corrosion Mater. Corros. 61 5 432 440 2010 10.1002/maco.2000905459
- Richards , P. Automotive Fuels Reference Book Third SAE International Warrendale 2014 359 10.4271/R-297
- Matějovský , L. , Macák , J. , Pospíšil , M. , Baroš , P. et al. Study of Corrosion of Metallic Materials in Ethanol - Gasoline Blends: Application of Electrochemical Methods Energ. Fuel 31 10880 10889 2017 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.7b01682
- American Society for Testing and Materials 2019
- American Society for Testing and Materials 2019
- Kalghatgi , G. Auto-Ignition Quality of Practical Fuels and Implications for Fuel Requirements of Future SI and HCCI Engines SAE Technical Paper 2005-01-0239 2005 https://doi.org/10.4271/2005-01-0239
- Salvi , A. , Hanson , R. , Zermeno , R. , Regner , G. et al. Initial Results on a New Light-Duty 2.7L Opposed-Piston Gasoline Compression Ignition Multi-Cylinder Engine Proceedings of the ASME 2018 Internal Combustion Engine Division Fall Technical Conference San Diego, CA, USA November 4-7, 2018 10.1115/ICEF2018-9610
- Ouali , E. , Baralon , D. , Li , D. , Meissonnier , G. et al. Delphi Technologies Engine Exhaust and Fuel Injection Systems for Clean and Efficient Diesel Engines Proceedings of the 11th Meeting on Injection and Fuels Berlin, Germany November 28-29, 2018 209 231 10.1007/978-3-658-23181-1
- Meissonnier , G. , Bercher , P. , Bouloc , R. , Cardon , C. et al. Delphi Diesel 2000 Bar Unit Pump Common Rail System 22nd Aachen Colloquium on Automobile and Engine Technology Aachen, Germany October 7-9, 2013
- United States Environmental Protection Agency https://www.epa.gov/vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-testing/dynamometer-drive-schedules
- International Organization for Standardization 2015
- Matusik , K.E. , Duke , D.J. , Kastengren , A.L. , Sovis , N. et al. High-resolution X-Ray Tomography of Engine Combustion Network Diesel Injectors Int. J. Engine Res. 00 1 14 2017 10.1177/1468087417736985
- Bower , G.R. and Foster , D.E. A Comparison of the Bosch and Zuech Rate of Injection Meters SAE Technical Paper 910724 1991 https://doi.org/10.4271/910724
- Caprotti , R. , Bovington , C. , Fowler , W. , and Taylor , M. Additive Technology as a Way to Improve Diesel Fuel Quality SAE Technical Paper 922183 1992 https://doi.org/10.4271/922183
- Wikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Chemical_Engineering_Processes/The_most_important_point
- American Society for Testing and Materials 2018
- Pradelle , F. , Braga , S.L. , Martins , A.F.A. , Turkovics , F. et al. Gum Formation in Gasoline and Its Blends: A Review Energ. Fuel 29 12 7753 7770 2008 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b01894
- Bergeron , I. , Charland , J.C. , and Ternan , M. Color Degradation of Hydrocracked Diesel Fuel Energ. Fuel 13 3 686 693 1999 https://doi.org/10.1021/ef980214q
- American Society for Testing and Materials 2016
- Wattrus , M. Fuel Property Effects on Oil Dilution in Diesel Engines SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 6 3 794 806 2013 https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-2680
- Yasuda , Y. , Kano , M. , Mabuchi , Y. , and Abou , S. Research on Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings for Low-Friction Valve Lifters SAE Technical Paper 2003-01-1101 2003 https://doi.org/10.4271/2003-01-1101
- Araujo , J. and Banfield , R.R. DLC as a Low Friction Coating for Engine Components SAE Technical Paper 2012-36-0255 2012 https://doi.org/10.4271/2012-36-0255
- Bernardes , C.F. , Machado , I.F. , Fukumasu , N.K. , and Machad , G.A.A. Tribological Behavior of DLC and W-DLC Carbon Based Coatings During Reciprocating Wear Tests SAE Technical Paper 2017-36-0254 2017 https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-36-0254