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Electronic Control Units for Enhanced Safety and Monitoring

2025-01-5040

07/03/2025

The rapid evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates advanced electronic control units (ECUs) for enhanced safety, monitoring, and performance. This study introduces an innovative ECU system designed with a modular architecture, incorporating real-time monitoring, cloud connectivity, and crash sensing. The methodology includes cost-effective design strategies, integrating STM32 controllers, CAN bus systems, and widely available sensors for motor RPM and temperature monitoring. Key findings demonstrate that the proposed ECU system improves data reliability, enhances vehicle safety through crash response systems, and enables predictive maintenance via cloud connectivity. This scalable and affordable ECU is adaptable to a broad range of EV models.

Padma Priya, S.R., Santhipkumar, S., Sasipriya, S., Srivisweswara, M.S.

SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Smarter Automotive Testing with AI and Simulation

1352207/03/2025

The new test track isn't asphalt--it's AI and simulation. From hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) to real-time performance analytics, new innovations are reshaping how vehicles are designed, validated, and brought to market. At the forefront of this transformation is A&D Technology, a leader in integrated test automation and lab management solutions for the transportation and energy markets. By integrating AI-driven analytics with high-fidelity simulation environments, the company is empowering automotive engineers to streamline testing workflows, reduce physical prototypes, and accelerate innovation in everything from EV powertrains to autonomous systems. To learn more, we sat down with Mike Uhl, President & CEO, to discuss how A&D Technology's work in simulation and test automation is helping engineers bring the next generation of mobility technologies to life. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget

Hineman, Marcie

Partial Experimental Validation of Generalized n-Trailer Articulated Vehicle Kinematics

2025-01-0272

07/02/2025

Control-oriented models for vehicle systems are necessary to develop motion planning and path tracking controllers for active safety system development. While being mathematically elegant and simple enough for control design, such models must represent real-world phenomena associated with the vehicle’s kinematic and dynamic behavior. Specifically, articulated vehicles suffer from peculiarities like rearward amplification and offtracking in their kinematic behavior that are not found in single-unit passenger vehicles. In this paper, an iterative kinematic modeling algorithm for articulated truck-trailer vehicles with an arbitrary number of vehicle units having an arbitrary number of axles on each vehicle unit is evaluated using driver input data collected from an experimental passenger vehicle on eight real-world scenarios. The experimental vehicle is considered as the tractor vehicle unit for a simulation study in which multiple trailers of various geometries are considered. The yaw

Singh, Yuvraj, Giuliani, Pio Michele, Jayakumar, Adithya, Javed, Nur Uddin, Tan, Shengzhe, Rizzoni, Giorgio

Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development

2025-01-0262

07/02/2025

The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines to hybrid and battery electric vehicles, which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric machines, power

Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman

Study on Driver-Dependent Stabilization Capabilities for Safe Chassis Control with Steer By Wire

2025-01-0276

07/02/2025

Steer-by-wire actuators represent a transformative advancement in chassis control, opening up new potential for optimizing driving behavior across the entire range of driving dynamics - including driver-dependent automatic counter steering in critical driving situations. However, from a functional safety perspective, the increased potential also introduces new risks with respect to possible system failures. To mitigate these risks, sophisticated monitoring functions are essential to ensure vehicle controllability at all times. Current research approaches for monitoring functions use safe driving envelopes. This set of safe driving states is often found by open-loop simulations, which provide a phase portrait of the nonlinear system under control and from which stability limits can be derived. However, it remains open how these open-loop stability limits correspond to the stabilization capability of a real human driver in the loop. And secondly, how these closed-loop stability limits

Birkemeyer, Janick, Naidu P.M, Tarun, Borkowski, Lukas, Müller, Steffen

Enhancing Flexibility of Automotive Embedded Software: A Modular Reference Architecture

2025-01-0282

07/02/2025

Vehicular software is a key driver of innovation and revenue in the automotive industry. However, the increasing complexity of vehicular software, driven by shorter development cycles, more frequent updates, and tight coupling of software with hardware, presents significant challenges. Microcontroller-based vehicular software is particularly affected due to resource constraints, which limit flexibility and complicate software updates. To address these challenges, we propose a modular reference architecture that enhances flexibility for microcontroller-based vehicular software, facilitating software modifications in the context of regular updates. The reference architecture is systematically derived from general requirements for microcontroller-based vehicular software and proposes a domain-based structure. It divides embedded vehicular software into five domains: the application domain, responsible for control, regulation, and monitoring functions; the base domain, managing hardware

Griebler, Dennis, Zhai, Yi, Caggiano, Mario, Fuchss, Thomas

Investigation on Thermal Management of Heavy-Duty Commercial FCEV with Focus on Vehicle System Efficiency

2025-01-0265

07/02/2025

The primary approach to meet the objectives of the EU Heavy Duty CO2 Regulation involves decarbonizing the road transport sector by battery electric vehicles (BEV) or hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Even though the well-to-wheel efficiency of hydrogen-fueled powertrains like fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and H2-internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) is much lower in comparison to BEV, they are better suited for on-road heavy-duty trucks, long haul transport missions and regions with scarce charging infrastructure. Hence, this paper focuses on heavy-duty FCEVs and their overall energetic efficiency enhancement by intelligently managing energy transfer across coolant circuit boundaries through waste heat recovery, while ensuring that all relevant components remain within required temperature boundaries under both cold and hot ambient conditions. Results were obtained using a 1D-model that comprises all thermal fluid circuits (refrigerant, coolant, air) created through GT-Suite software

Uhde, Sophia, Langhorst, Thorsten, Wuest, Marcel, Naber, Dirk

Variable Valve Actuation and Multiple Injections to Enhance the Gas Exchange of a Passive Pre-Chamber Igniter

2025-01-0315

07/02/2025

Pre-chambers, in general, represent an established technology for combustion acceleration by increasing the available ignition energy. Realizing rapid fuel conversion facilitates mixture dilution extension with satisfying combustion stability. More importantly, knock-induced spark retarding can be circumvented, thus reducing emissions and increasing efficiency at high engine loads. Adapted valve actuation and split injections were investigated for this study to enhance the gas exchange of a passive pre-chamber igniter in a single-cylinder engine. The findings support the development of passive pre-chamber ignition systems operable over the whole engine map for passenger vehicles. There are two configurations of pre-chamber igniters: passive pre-chambers and scavenged pre-chambers. This study focuses on the passive design, incorporating an additional small volume around the spark plug into the cylinder head. Hot jets exit this volume after the ignition onset through several orifices

Fellner, Felix, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte

Experimental Investigation of Factors Influencing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells

2025-01-0306

07/02/2025

Experimental testing in automotive development sometimes relies on ad hoc approaches like ‘One Factor at a Time’, particularly in time- and resource-limited situations. While widely used, these approaches are limited in their ability to systematically capture parameter interactions and system complexities, which poses significant challenges in safety-critical applications like high-voltage battery systems. This study systematically investigates the factors influencing thermal runaway in lithium-ion battery cells using a statistical full-factorial experimental design. Key parameters, including state of charge, cell capacity and heating trigger power, have been analyzed under controlled conditions with an autoclave setup, enabling precise measurement of thermal and mechanical responses. The use of automotive-grade lithium-ion cells ensures relevance for next-generation applications. By employing factorial regression and statistical analysis, the study identifies critical temperatures

Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Weinmann, Johannes, Schiek, Werner

Requirements, Methods and Models for Early Electrified Drive Concept Development

2025-01-0304

07/02/2025

Computer-aided synthesis and development tools are essential for discovering and optimizing innovative concepts. Evaluating different concepts and making informed decisions relies heavily on accurate assessments of drive system properties. Estimating these properties in the early stages of development is challenging due to the depth of modelling required. In addition, defined requirements play a critical role in drive system sizing. This paper presents a tool chain for the synthesis of new electrified drive concepts, with emphasis on requirements definition and modelling. The requirements definition method combines market analysis with a generalized calculation and estimation approach, providing a novel perspective. In addition, we introduce mass and cost modelling capabilities integrated into the tool chain. The mass model achieves high accuracy, with deviations of only 1.6 % at the vehicle level and 6.1 % at the component level. Finally, the paper examines the mass and cost

Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman

A Modular Framework for Lateral Movement Modeling

2025-01-0269

07/02/2025

The lateral movement of vehicles within their lane determines occurring occlusions, and thus decides on the range of vision of vehicle sensors used by automated driving functions, and the objects detected by down-stream algorithms. As simulations play an integral role in the validation of automated driving functions, their ability to realistically model the lateral movement is crucial. However, currently applied methods such as microscopic traffic simulations, and scenario-based testing making use of maneuver-based scenario descriptions simplify or neglect the lateral movement of vehicles. For that reason, a two-level stochastic model has been introduced in earlier work. It consists of a Markov model for the systematic coarse movement, and a noise model for the residual fine movement. In follow-up publications, several advancements for both model components have been presented. These follow a modular structure, thus, can be flexibly combined. This paper for the first time gives an

Neis, Nicole, Beyerer, Jürgen

Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Direct Injection Process for Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engines

2025-01-0307

07/02/2025

In the context of the clean transport sector, there has been growing interest in the use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines due to its potential to nearly eliminate all engine-out criteria pollutants, while maintaining high thermal efficiency through the use of a lean combustion process. In direct injection configurations, mixing process is significantly influenced by hydrogen jet dynamics. First, a comprehensive experimental campaign was conducted in a constant volume vessel to assess the performance of a hydrogen injector using the Schlieren technique. The jet behavior was analyzed by varying injector recess, injection pressure, and back pressure. Subsequently, the case study was replicated in a 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) environment, addressing the complexities associated with modeling under-expanded jets. The model was first validated against experimental data, both in terms of jet morphology and through three geometric indices. Then, a simplified simulation

Pucillo, Francesco, Piano, Andrea, Millo, Federico, Giordana, Sergio, Rapetto, Nicola, Vargiu, Luca

Towards Change-Aware Testing of Multi-Domain Cyber-Physical Systems: Challenges and Future Directions

2025-01-0296

07/02/2025

Vehicles are prime examples of cyber-physical systems that rely on multiple domains, including mechanics, electronics, and software. Due to high customizability and software changes introduced by bug fixes or functional upgrades, vehicle instances vary in space (variants) and time (versions). This results in a huge number of possible variants and versions; thus, testing all combinations to ensure functional safety is practically infeasible. Moreover, components of all domains interact with each other; thus, solely focusing on single domains while testing multi-domain cyber-physical systems is insufficient. In this paper, we propose a process for change-aware testing of cyber-physical systems, including test activities we identified during a literature analysis. The process consists of multiple structured steps, including the selection of affected variants, test case selection, and adaptive configuration of test environments. Based on the process and identified activities, we discuss

Beck, Maximilian, Birkemeyer, Lukas, Pett, Tobias, Urbano, Francesco, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert, Sax, Eric, Schaefer, Ina

Data-Driven Analysis of Vehicle Lateral Control in the Country Road Domain

2025-01-0268

07/02/2025

The optimization and further development of automated driving functions offer significant potential for reducing the driver's workload and increasing road safety. Among these functions, vehicle lateral control plays a critical role, especially with regard to its acceptance by end customers. Significant development efforts are required to ensure the effectiveness and reliability of this aspect in real-world conditions. This work focuses on analyzing lateral vehicle control using extensive measurement data collected from a dedicated vehicle fleet at the Institute of Automotive Engineering at the Technical University of Braunschweig. Equipped with state-of-the-art measurement technology, the fleet has driven several hundred thousand kilometers, allowing for the collection of detailed information on vehicle trajectories under various driving conditions. A total of 93 participants, aged between 20 and 43 years, contributed to the dataset. These measurements have been classified into

Iatropoulos, Jannes, Panzer, Anna, Arntz, Martin, Prueggler, Adrian, Henze, Roman

Optimisation of Rotor Skewing of a Yokeless and Segmented Armature Axial Flux Machine

2025-01-0311

07/02/2025

This paper presents an optimisation approach for rotor skewing in a Yokeless and Segmented Armature (YASA) design Axial Flux Machine (AFM) for electric vehicle applications. Torque ripple amplitudes are a critical factor influencing the noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) behaviour of electric motors. The focus of this paper is to reduce the torque ripple amplitudes of the dominant harmonics over the entire torque-speed characteristic of the AFM. The principle of the proposed approach is a segmented permanent magnet configuration of the AFM, where individual magnet segments can be circumferentially shifted to achieve optimal skewing configurations. Initial optimisations are performed using 2D finite element (FE) simulations, modelled as linear motors with multiple slices and different numbers of magnet segmentation. However, the accuracy of the 2D FE results is limited due to the lack of interaction between the individual segments and the insufficient representation of three

Müller, Karsten, Maisch, Hannes, De Gersem, Herbert, Burkhardt, Yves

Method for Externally Controlled Availability of Lubricating Oil in Internal Combustion Engines

2025-01-0302

07/02/2025

Reduced raw emissions from internal combustion engines (ICE) are a key requirement to reach future green-house-gas and pollutive emissions regulations. In parallel, to satisfy the need for increased engine efficiencies, the friction losses of ICEs gains attention. Measures to reduce parasitic drag inside the piston assembly such as reduced piston-ring pretension or thinner grade engine oils may increase oil ingress into the combustion chamber. The oil ingress is known to imply increased particle emissions directly counteracting the raw emission reduction target of engine development. To resolve this target conflict, the transport mechanisms of oil into the combustion chamber are the topic of current research. Specially developed research engines featuring a vertical optical window come with big potential to visualize the phenomena of the oil behavior inside the piston assembly group. Such ‘glass-liner’ engines play a pivotal role in identification and quantification of local and global

Stark, Michael, Fellner, Felix, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte

Impact of the Distribution of Charging and Hydrogen Refueling Stations on their Reachability for Craft Vehicles with a Defined Usage Profile

2025-01-0310

07/02/2025

This paper examines the impact of the distribution of charging and hydrogen refueling stations on their reachability for craft vehicles with a defined usage profile. A simulation-based methodology is presented for this purpose. The simulation models daily trips for craft vehicles, considering amongst others the company location, the client stops, the operating radius and the mean daily driving distance. Based on these inputs, the number of charging or refueling opportunities for typical daily trips of the craft vehicle is calculated. To investigate the impact of locations on the frequency of encountering energy provisions, simulations are conducted in three regions: Ulm (urban), Stuttgart (metropolitan), and Munderkingen (rural). Furthermore, the impact of different locations within the same infrastructural area is examined by assessing multiple company locations in Ulm. The findings indicate that the urban zone of Ulm is characterized by a highly dense electric fast charging

Heilmann, Oliver, Müller, Julian, Heinrich, Marco, Cortès, Sven, Schlick, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal

Automation and Optimization of the Design and Development Process for a Formula Student Racing Car Suspension

2025-01-0270

07/02/2025

The design, development, and optimization of modern suspension systems is a complex process that encompasses several different engineering domains and disciplines such as vehicle dynamics simulation, tire data analysis, 1D lap-time simulation, 3D CAD design and structural analysis including full 3D collision detection. Typically, overall vehicle design and suspension development are carried out in multiple iterative design loops by several human specialists from diverse engineering departments. Fully automating this iterative design process can minimize manual effort, eliminate routine tasks and human errors, and significantly reduce design time. This desired level of automation can be achieved through digital modeling, automated model generation, and simulation using graph-based design languages and an associated language compiler for translation and execution. Graph-based design languages ensure the digital consistency of data, the digital continuity of processes, and the digital

Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan

Leveraging AI for Automated Code Generation from Systems Engineering Specifications

2025-01-0295

07/02/2025

The increasing complexity of modern vehicles and the automotive industry's shift towards Software Defined Vehicles (SDVs) require innovative solutions to streamline development processes. Traditional methods of software development often struggle to meet the demands for agility, scalability, and precision in this context. In response, this paper presents a novel approach utilizing Artificial Intelligence (AI), specifically Large Language Models (LLMs), to automate the generation of executable code directly from Systems Engineering (SE) specifications. This novel approach aims to transform how SE requirements are converted into implementation-ready code, reducing the inefficiencies and potential errors associated with manual translation. LLMs trained on domain-specific data are capable of interpreting complex requirements, managing dependencies, and generating consistent and accurate code. By integrating LLMs into the automotive software pipeline, companies can improve productivity

Padubrin, Marcel, Reuss, Hans-Christian, Brosi, Frank, Menz, Leonhard, Guerocak, Erol

An LLM-Based Multi-Turn Task-Oriented Dialogue System for Machine Learning Algorithm Selection in Data Mining

2025-01-0289

07/02/2025

For the systematic application of machine learning during data mining in product development processes, selecting a suitable algorithm is crucial for success. During an empirical study in the automotive industry, a team applying data mining to develop battery systems for battery electric vehicles was accompanied. Here, it could be observed that data mining tasks are often unique during product development processes and can differ in boundary conditions. Depending on these tasks, suitable machine learning algorithms must be selected. Because of the variety of machine learning paradigms, problems, and algorithms, it is often hard to select a suitable algorithm, especially for inexperienced data miners. This paper presents a large language model (LLM)-based, multi-turn, task-oriented dialogue system to support data miners in selecting machine learning algorithms that are suitable for their specific data mining tasks. This approach, called “Algorithm Selection Assistant” (ASA), enables

Hörtling, Stefan, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert

Applying Real World Traffic Data on Machine Learning Methods for Graph Based Cooperation Strategies of Automated Vehicles

2025-01-0286

07/02/2025

With the increasing distribution of smart mobility systems, automated & connected vehicles are more and more interacting with each other and with smart infrastructure using V2X-communication. Hereby, the vehicles’ position, driving dynamics data, or driving intention are exchanged. Previous research has explored graph-based cooperation strategies for automated vehicles in mixed traffic environments based on current V2X-communication standards. Thereby, the focus is set on cooperation optimization and maneuver negotiation. These strategies can be implemented through both centralized and decentralized computational approaches and are conflict-free by design. To enhance these previously established cooperation models, real-world traffic data is used to derive vehicle trajectories, providing a more accurate representation of actual traffic scenarios in order to enhance the practical application of the described methodology. Additionally, machine learning algorithms are employed to train

Flormann, Maximilian, Meyer, Felix, Henze, Roman

U-Shift IV: Innovations and Challenges in Autonomous Urban Mobility

2025-01-0284

07/02/2025

The U-Shift IV represents the latest evolution in modular urban mobility solutions, offering significant advancements over its predecessors. This innovative vehicle concept introduces a distinct separation between the drive module, known as the driveboard, and the transport capsules. The driveboard contains all the necessary components for autonomous driving, allowing it to operate independently. This separation not only enables versatile applications - such as easily swapping capsules for passenger or goods transportation - but also significantly improves the utilization of the driveboard. By allowing a single driveboard to be paired with different capsules, operational efficiency is maximized, enabling continuous deployment of driveboards while the individual capsules are in use. The primary focus of U-Shift IV was to obtain a permit for operating at the Federal Garden Show 2023. To achieve this goal, we built the vehicle around the specific requirements for semi-public road

Pohl, Eric, Scheibe, Sebastian, Münster, Marco, Osebek, Manuel, Kopp, Gerhard, Siefkes, Tjark

The Automation Concept of the U-Shift II Vehicle

2025-01-0281

07/02/2025

Autonomous driving technology enables new and innovative driverless vehicle concepts to emerge, like U-Shift. Designed from the ground up, the U-Shift II platform, called driveboard, exemplifies the advantages of separating a vehicle’s driving capability from the intended transportation task. It allows different so-called capsules, such as public transport or cargo, to be transported using the same U-shaped driving platform. The driveboard can change the capsules autonomously, thus providing high flexibility for fleet operators. This novel approach introduces new challenges to the task of autonomous driving. On one hand, changing sensor and vehicle configurations, e.g., when transporting a capsule with its own sensors to compensate for occlusions of the driveboard sensors by the capsule itself, requires an adaptive approach to environmental perception. On the other hand, different environments and driving tasks, as well as the augmented motion capabilities of the driveboard, require

Buchholz, Michael, Wodtko, Thomas, Schumann, Oliver, Authaler, Dominik

Optimized Cabin Heating Strategy for Battery Electric CEP Vehicles

2025-01-0263

07/02/2025

Electromobility is gaining importance in the courier, express and parcel (CEP) sector, as parcel service providers increasingly rely on zero-emission vehicles to improve their CO₂ footprint. A common drawback of battery electric vehicles is their reduced range under cold operating conditions, due to the increased energy demand for cabin heating. Another CEP-specific factor influencing both energy consumption and cabin comfort is the frequent opening of doors during parcel delivery. Additionally, during delivery phases, the cabin cools down in the driver’s repeated absence from the cabin, as the heating is inactive. Nonetheless, a sufficient level of thermal comfort must be maintained during the driving phases between delivery stops. This paper presents an optimization-based strategy for the cabin heating of battery electric CEP vehicles. The objective is to maximize cabin comfort during driving phases while maintaining efficient energy consumption. For this purpose, a nonlinear model

Rehm, Dominik, Krost, Jonathan, Meywerk, Martin, Czarnetzki, Walter

Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus

2025-01-0266

07/02/2025

Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of

Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias

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